1.
New Vishwanath Temple
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The temple is situated in Benaras Hindu University and is dedicated to the Lord Shiva. Shri Vishwanath Mandir has the tallest temple tower in the world, Shri Kashi Vishwanath Mandir, was destroyed several times, in 1194 by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, between 1447-1458 by Hussain Shah Sharqi and then in 1669 CE by Aurangzeb. In 1930s, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya planned to replicate Shri Kashi Vishwanath Mandir in the campus of Benaras Hindu University, the Birla family undertook the construction and foundation was laid in March 1931. The temple was completed in 1966. Shri Vishwanath Mandirs construction took years to complete. The temple is one of the tallest in India and its tower is the tallest in the world, total height of the temple is 77 meters. Temples design was inspired by Shri Kashi Vishwanath Mandir and is mostly of marble. Shri Vishwanath Mandir, although a Lord Shiva temple, consists of nine temples within one temple and is open to people from all castes, religions, the Shiva temple is in the ground floor and the Lakshmi Narayan and Durga temples are on the first floor. Other temples within Shri Vishwanath Mandir are Nataraj, Mata Parvati, Lord Ganesha, Panchmukhi Mahadev, Lord Hanuman, Saraswati, entire text of Bhagavad Gita and extracts from sacred Hindu scriptures are inscribed with illustrations on the inner marble walls of the temple. Shri Vishwanath Mandir is situated 1.7 kilometers inside the campus of Benaras Hindu University and it is 3.3 kilometers South-West of Durga Mandir,7 kilometers South-West of Shri Kashi Vishwanath Temple and 9 kilometers South of Varanasi Railway Station. Shri Kashi Vishwanath Mandir Benaras Hindu University Hindu temples in Varanasi
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
4.
Uttar Pradesh
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Uttar Pradesh, abbreviated as UP, is the most populous state in the Republic of India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. The state, located in the region of the Indian subcontinent, has over 200 million inhabitants. It was created on 1 April 1937 as the United Provinces during British rule, Lucknow is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh. Ghaziabad, Kanpur, Bhadohi, Raebareli, Moradabad, Bareilly, Aligarh, Sonbhadra, on 9 November 2000, a new state, Uttarakhand, was carved out from the Himalayan hill region of Uttar Pradesh. It covers 243,290 square kilometres, equal to 7. 33% of the area of India. Hindi is the official and most widely spoken language in its 75 districts, Uttar Pradesh is the third largest Indian state by economy, with a GDP of ₹9,763 billion. Agriculture and service industries are the largest parts of the states economy, the service sector comprises travel and tourism, hotel industry, real estate, insurance and financial consultancies. Uttar Pradesh was home to powerful empires of ancient and medieval India, the two major rivers of the state, the Ganges and Yamuna, join at Allahabad and then flow as the Ganges further east. Modern human hunter-gatherers have been in Uttar Pradesh since between around 85,000 and 72,000 years ago, the kingdom of Kosala, in the Mahajanapada era, was located within the regional boundaries of modern-day Uttar Pradesh. According to Hindu legend, the divine king Rama of the Ramayana epic reigned in Ayodhya, the aftermath of the Mahabharata yuddh is believed to have taken place in the area between the Upper Doab and Delhi, during the reign of the Pandava king Yudhishthira. The kingdom of the Kurus corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture, most of the invaders of south India passed through the Gangetic plains of what is today Uttar Pradesh. Control over this region was of importance to the power and stability of all of Indias major empires, including the Maurya, Kushan, Gupta. Following the Huns invasions that broke the Gupta empire, the Ganges-Yamuna Doab saw the rise of Kannauj, during the reign of Harshavardhana, the Kannauj empire reached its zenith. It spanned from Punjab in the north and Gujarat in the west to Bengal in the east and it included parts of central India, north of the Narmada River and it encompassed the entire Indo-Gangetic plain. Many communities in parts of India claim descent from the migrants of Kannauj. Kannauj was several times invaded by the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty, in the Mughal era, Uttar Pradesh became the heartland of the empire. Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun ruled from Delhi, in 1540 an Afghan, Sher Shah Suri, took over the reins of Uttar Pradesh after defeating the Mughal king Humanyun. Sher Shah and his son Islam Shah ruled Uttar Pradesh from their capital at Gwalior, after the death of Islam Shah Suri, his prime minister Hemu became the de facto ruler of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and the western parts of Bengal
5.
Varanasi
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The spiritual capital of India, it is the holiest of the seven sacred cities in Hinduism and Jainism, and played an important role in the development of Buddhism. Varanasi lies along National Highway 2, which connects it to Kolkata, Kanpur, Agra, and Delhi, Varanasi is also one of 72 districts in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. At the time of the 2011 census, there were a total 8 blocks and 1329 villages in this district, Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre, famous for its muslin and silk fabrics, perfumes, ivory works, and sculpture. Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon, The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma, at nearby Sarnath. The citys religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century, Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Ramas life called Ram Charit Manas in Varanasi. Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi, including Kabir, Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507, a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism. The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737, silk weaving, carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population, as do the Diesel Locomotive Works and Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited. Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964, Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years, and is closely associated with the Ganges. Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation, making it a centre for pilgrimage. The city is known worldwide for its ghats, embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions. Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat, the Panchganga Ghat, the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat, the last two being where Hindus cremate their dead. The Ramnagar Fort, near the bank of the Ganges, was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies, open courtyards. Among the estimated 23,000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva, the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple, the Kashi Naresh is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi, and an essential part of all religious celebrations. One of Asias largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University, the Hindi-language nationalist newspaper, Aj, was first published in 1920. The old city is located on the shores of the Ganges, bounded by Varuna. The name was used by pilgrims dating from Buddhas days. Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi, such as Kāśikā, Avimukta, Ānandavana, according to legend, Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva. It is regarded as one of seven cities which can provide Moksha, Ayodhyā, Mathurā, Gayā, Kāśi, Kañchi, Avantikā
6.
Garbhagriha
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Garbhagriha or Garbha gruha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctum of a Hindu temple where resides the murti of the primary deity of the temple. Literally the word means womb chamber, from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb, only priests are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in Jain. The Garbhagriha is located in a Hindu temple which is worshipped at by Hindus, in temples with a spire or vimana, this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form the main vertical axis of the temple. These together may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount Meru, the garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of the temple which generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis, the garbha gṛha is generally at their intersection, generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to focus the devotees mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the garbha grha may be restricted to priests who perform the services there, the inner garbhagriha or shrine became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time. More often garbhagriha is square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated to be a point of total equilibrium, in the centre is placed the image of the deity. But sometimes, for the temples of feminine deities, the garbagriha is rectangular, for example, in the temple of Varahi Deula in Chaurasi. The present structure of most of these temples is a vimana with a square garbhagriha and a surrounding circumambulatory path, an ardha-mandapa. George Michell, Monuments of India Temple architecture Parts of a North Indian Temple
7.
Shiva
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Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism, Shiva is the transformer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects, in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power of each and he is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives a life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati. In his fierce aspects, he is depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the god of yoga, meditation. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Lingam. Shiva is a deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal. The Sanskrit word Śiva means, states Monier Williams, auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, the roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means in whom all things lie, pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means to injure or to kill, interprets the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness. The Sanskrit word śaiva means relating to the god Shiva, and it is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun, the Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings, The Pure One, and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti. Shiva is known by names such Viswanathan, Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra, Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha. The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, the version appearing in Book 13 of the Mahabharata provides one such list
8.
Maha Shivaratri
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Maha Shivaratri is a Hindu festival celebrated annually in honour of the god Shiva. It is a festival in Hinduism, but one that is solemn and marks a remembrance of overcoming darkness and ignorance in life. The ardent devotees keep awake all night, others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingams. This is an ancient Hindu festival whose origin date is unknown, in Kashmir Shaivism, the festival is called Har-ratri or phonetically simpler Haerath or Herath by Shiva faithfuls of the Kashmir region. Maha Shivaratri is a festival dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Unlike most Hindu festivals which are celebrated during the day, the Maha Shivaratri is celebrated at night, the celebration includes maintaining a jaagaran, an all-night vigil and prayers, because Shaiva Hindus mark this night as overcoming darkness and ignorance in ones life and the world through Shiva. Offerings of fruits, leaves, sweets and milk to Shiva are made, some perform all-day fasting with vedic or tantrik worship of Shiva, in Shiva temples, Om Namah Shivaya, the sacred mantra of Shiva, is chanted through the day. Maha Shivaratri is celebrated over three or ten days based on the Hindu luni-solar calendar, every lunar month, there is a Shivaratri. The main festival is called Maha Shivaratri, or great Shivaratri, according to the Gregorian calendar, the day falls in either February or March. According to Jones and Ryan, the festival may have originated around the 5th century CE, the Maha Shivaratri is mentioned in several Puranas, particularly the Skanda Purana, Linga Purana and Padma Purana. These medieval era Shaiva texts present different mythologies associated with this festival, different legends describe the significance of Maha Shivaratri. According to one legend in the Shaivism tradition, this is the night when Shiva performs the dance of creation, preservation and destruction. The chanting of hymns, the reading of Shiva scriptures and the chorus of devotees joins this cosmic dance, according to another legend, this is the night when Shiva and Parvati got married. The significance of dance tradition to this festival has historical roots, the Maha Shivaratri has served as a historic confluence of artists for annual dance festivals at major Hindu temples such as at Konark, Khajuraho, Pattadakal, Modhera and Chidambaram. The major Jyotirlinga Shiva temples of India, such as in Varanasi and they serve also as sites for fairs and special events. The Mandi fair is famous as a venue for Maha Shivaratri celebrations. It is believed that all gods and goddesses of the area, said to more than 200. Maha Shivaratri is the most important festival in Kashmir Shaivism, found in north Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent and it is celebrated as the anniversary of the marriage of Shiva and Parvati
9.
Hindu temple
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A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a specific term such as church. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, the form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, the degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly, often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest and it has the same root as the word template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Templa also became associated with the places of a god or gods. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history, there is evidence of use of sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Hindu temples have been built in countries around the world, including Cambodia, Nepal, Mauritius, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Great Britain. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions, Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace, a Jain temple is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Some famous Jain temples are Shikharji, Palitana Jain Temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Shravan Belgola, Dilwara Temples, Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, additionally, a Manastambha is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. The temple of Mesopotamia derived from the cult of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion and it spanned several civilizations, from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the deities to reside on earth, indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt-nṯr, means mansion of a god. A gods presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and these rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well. Ancient Egyptian temples were also of significance to Egyptian society
10.
Ahilyabai Holkar
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Maharani Ahilya Bai Holkar was the Holkar Queen of the Maratha ruled Malwa kingdom, India. Rajmata Ahilyabai was born in the village of Chondi in Jamkhed, Ahmednagar and she moved the capital to Maheshwar south of Indore on the Narmada River. Ahilyabais husband Khanderao Holkar was killed in the battle of Kumbher in 1754, twelve years later, her father-in-law, Malhar Rao Holkar, died. A year after that she was crowned as the queen of the Malwa kingdom and she tried to protect her kingdom from plundering Muslim invaders. She personally led armies into battle and she appointed Tukojirao Holkar as the Chief of Army. Rani Ahilyabai was a builder and patron of many Hindu temples which embellished Maheshwar. Seeing the destroyed and desecrated temple in Somnath, Rani Ahilyabai built a temple where Lord Shiva is still worshipped by Hindus, Ahilyabai was born on 31 May 1725 in the village of Chaundi, in the present-day Ahmednagar district in Maharashtra. Her father, Mankoji Rao Shinde, was the Patil of the village, women then did not go to school, but Ahilyabais father taught her to read and write. Recognising her piety and her character, he brought the girl to the Holkar territory as a bride for his son and she was married to Khanderao in 1733. Ahilya Bai’s husband Khanderao was killed during the siege of Kumbher in 1754, twelve years later, her father-in-law, Malharrao died. Malharrao was succeeded by Malerao, the son of Khanderao. From 1767 until her death in 1795, she ruled Malwa and you may halt there for four or five days. You should keep your big artillery and arrange for its ammunition as much as possible…. On the march you should arrange for military posts being located for protection of the road. Already trained to be a ruler, Ahilyabai petitioned the Peshwa after Malhar’s death, some in Malwa objected to her assumption of rule, but the army of Holkar supported her leadership. She led them in person, with four bows and quivers of arrows fitted to the corners of the howdah of her favourite elephant, Ahilyabai daily public audience and was always accessible to anyone who needed her ear. She also built forts and roads in Malwa, sponsored festivals, outside Malwa, she built dozens of temples, ghats, wells, tanks and rest-houses across an area stretching from the Himalayas to pilgrimage centres in South India. The Bharatiya Sanskritikosh lists as sites she embellished, Kashi, Gaya, Somnath, Ayodhya, Mathura, Hardwar, Kanchi, Avanti, Dwarka, Badrinarayan, Rameshwar, there are many stories of her care for her people. To honour the memory of Ahilyadevi Holkar, in 1996 leading citizens of Indore instituted an award in her name to be bestowed annually on a public figure
11.
Ganges
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The Ganges, also Ganga is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through the nations of India and Bangladesh. It is the third largest river in the world by discharge, the Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus. It is also a lifeline to millions of Indians who live along its course and it is worshipped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism. It has also important historically, with many former provincial or imperial capitals located on its banks. The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007, pollution threatens not only humans, but also more than 140 fish species,90 amphibian species and the endangered Ganges river dolphin. The levels of fecal coliform from human waste in the waters of the river near Varanasi are more than 100 times the Indian governments official limit. The main stem of the Ganges begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi, the Bhagirathi is considered to be the source in Hindu culture and mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer, and, therefore, hydrologically the source stream. The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snowmelt from such peaks as Nanda Devi, Trisul, although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest and their five confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams are the Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini, the five confluences, known as the Panch Prayag, are all along the Alaknanda. After flowing 250 km through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganges emerges from the mountains at Rishikesh, the Ganges follows an 800 km arching course passing through the cities of Kannauj, Farukhabad, and Kanpur. Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga, which contributes an annual flow of about 500 m3/s. The Ganges joins the Yamuna at the Triveni Sangam at Allahabad, at their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges, contributing about 2,950 m3/s, or about 58. 5% of the combined flow. Now flowing east, the river meets the Tamsa River, which flows north from the Kaimur Range, after the Tamsa the Gomti River joins, flowing south from the Himalayas. The Gomti contributes an annual flow of about 234 m3/s. Then the Ghaghara River, also flowing south from the Himalayas of Nepal, the Ghaghara, with its average annual flow of about 2,990 m3/s, is the largest tributary of the Ganges. After the Ghaghara confluence the Ganges is joined from the south by the Son River, the Gandaki River, then the Kosi River, join from the north flowing from Nepal, contributing about 1,654 m3/s and 2,166 m3/s, respectively. The Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges, after the Ghaghara and Yamuna. Along the way between Allahabad and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganges passes the towns of Chunar, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Patna, Bhagalpur, Ballia, Buxar, Simaria, Sultanganj, and Saidpur
12.
Jyotirlinga
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A Jyotirlinga or Jyotirling or Jyotirlingam, is a devotional object representing the Supreme God Shiva. Jyoti means radiance and lingam the Image or Sign of Shiva, there are twelve traditional Jyotirlinga shrines in India,5 of them in Maharashtra. According to Śiva Mahāpurāṇa, once Brahma and Vishnu had an argument over supremacy of creation, to settle the debate, Supreme God Shiva pierced the three worlds appearing as a huge Infinite Pillar of Light, the Jyotirlinga which later cooled into the Holy Mountain Annamalai. Vishnu and Brahma split their ways to downwards and upwards respectively to find the end of the light in either directions, Brahma lied that he found out the end, while Vishnu conceded his defeat. The jyotirlinga is the Supreme Siva, partless reality, out of which Shiva appeared in another Form, the jyothirlinga shrines are Temples where Shiva appeared as a fiery column of light. Originally there were believed to be 64 jyothirlingas while 12 of them are considered to be very auspicious, each of the twelve jyothirlinga sites take the name of the presiding deity, each considered a different manifestation of Shiva. At all these sites, the image is lingam representing the beginningless and endless Stambha pillar. The following sloka describes the 12 Jyotirlingas, The names and the locations of 12 other Jyotirlingas are mentioned in the Shiva Purana
13.
Shaivism
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Shaivism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that reveres Shiva as the Supreme Being or its metaphysical concept of Brahman. The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Saivas, like much of Hinduism, the Shaiva have many sub-traditions, ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology, Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra. In the early centuries of the era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE and it arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the aspects of Hinduism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, destroyer to being the same as the Atman within oneself and it is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, Shaivism is one of the largest traditions within Hinduism. Shiva literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious, as a proper name, it means The Auspicious One. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, the Sanskrit word śaiva or Shaiva means relating to the god Shiva, while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the traditions, found widely across India, Sri Lanka. While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion, Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism, with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy, Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools, ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools. The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE. Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals. This Pashupati seal has been interpreted by scholars as a prototype of Shiva
14.
Aurangzeb
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Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad, commonly known as Aurangzeb or by his regnal title Alamgir, was the sixth, and widely considered the last effective Mughal Emperor. He ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent during some parts of his reign, Aurangzeb was a notable expansionist and during his reign, the Mughal Empire temporarily reached its greatest extent. During his reign,4.6 million people were said have died due to war, Aurangzebs policies partly abandoned the legacy of pluralism, which remains a very controversial aspect of his reign and led to the downfall of the Mughal Empire. Rebellions and wars led to the exhaustion of the imperial Mughal treasury and he was a strong-handed authoritarian ruler, and following his death the expansionary period of the Mughal Empire came to an end. Nevertheless, the territory of the Mughal Empire still remained intact more or less until the reign of Muhammad Shah. Aurangzeb was born on 3 November 1618, in Dahod, Gujarat and he was the third son and sixth child of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. In June 1626, after a rebellion by his father, Aurangzeb. His daily allowance was fixed at Rs.500 which he spent on religious education, on 28 May 1633, Aurangzeb escaped death when a powerful war elephant stampeded through the Mughal Imperial encampment. He rode against the elephant and struck its trunk with a lance, Aurangzebs valour was appreciated by his father who conferred him the title of Bahadur and had him weighed in gold and presented gifts worth Rs.200,000. This event was celebrated in Persian and Urdu verses and Aurangzeb said, If the fight had ended fatally for me, death drops the curtain even on Emperors, it is no dishonor. The shame lay in what my brothers did, by arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took the advice of his generals as the Mughal Army gathered and commenced the Siege of Orchha in 1635. The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power, Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan in 1636. In 1637, Aurangzeb married the Safavid princess, Dilras Banu Begum and she was his first wife and chief consort. He also had an infatuation with a girl, Hira Bai. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, the latter had formerly been a companion to Dara Shikoh. In the same year,1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small Rajput kingdom of Baglana, in 1644, Aurangzebs sister, Jahanara, was burned when the chemicals in her perfume were ignited by a nearby lamp while in Agra. This event precipitated a crisis with political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his fathers displeasure by not returning to Agra immediately, Shah Jahan had been nursing Jahanara back to health in that time and thousands of vassals had arrived in Agra to pay their respects
15.
Mughal emperors
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The Mughal emperors were a branch of the Timurid dynasty. From the early 16th century to the early 18th they built and ruled the Mughal Empire on the Indian subcontinent, mainly corresponding to the countries of Bangladesh, India. Their power rapidly dwindled during the 18th century and the last of the emperors was deposed in 1857, with the establishment of the British Raj. The dynasty was of Asian Turco-Mongol origin from a now part of modern-day Uzbekistan. Timur is generally known in the West as Tamerlane the Great and its population at the time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres. Ousted from his domains in Central Asia by Uzbek Khan. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing West Asian cultural influence in the Mughal court, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayun’s triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions, and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari river. He created a new class of nobility loyal to him from the aristocracy of Indias social groups, implemented a modern government. At the same time Akbar intensified trade with European trading companies and he left his successors an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge. Akbars son, Jahangir, ruled the empire at its peak, but he was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques. During the reign of Jahangirs son, Shah Jahan, the culture, the maintenance of the court, at this time, began to cost more than the revenue. Shah Jahans eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh, became regent in 1658, however, a younger son, Aurangzeb, allied with the Islamic orthodoxy against his brother, who championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim religion and culture, and ascended to the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed, although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and had him imprisoned. During Aurangzebs reign, the empire gained political strength once more, Aurangzeb expanded the empire to include almost the whole of South Asia, but at his death in 1707, many parts of the empire were in open revolt. Aurangzebs son, Shah Alam, repealed the religious policies of his father, however, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds
16.
Gyanvapi Mosque
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The Gyanvapi mosque is located in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. It was constructed by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and it is located north of Dashashwamedh Ghat, near Lalita Ghat along the river Ganga. It is a Jama Masjid located in the heart of the Varanasi city and it is administered by Anjuman Inthazamiya Masajid. The mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1664 CE, the remnants of the Hindu temple can be seen on the walls of the Gyanvapi mosque. The demolished temple is believed by Hindus to be a restoration of the original Kashi Vishwanath temple. The original temple had been destroyed and rebuilt a number of times, the temple structure that existed prior to the construction of the mosque was most probably built by Raja Man Singh during Akbars reign. Aurangzebs demolition of the temple was probably attributed to the escape of the Maratha king Shivaji. Jai Singh I, the grandson of Raja Man Singh, is alleged to have facilitated Shivajis escape from Agra, some of the zamindars were alleged to helped Shivaji avoid the Mughal authorities. In addition, there were allegations of Brahmins interfering with the Islamic teaching, the temples demolition was intended as a warning to the anti-Mughal factions and Hindu religious leaders in the city. Maulana Abdus Salam contests the claim that a temple was destroyed to build the mosque and he states that the foundation of the mosque was laid by the third Mughal emperor Akbar. He also adds that Akbars grandson and Aurangzebs father Shah Jahan started a madrasah called Imam-e-Sharifat at the site of the mosque in 1048 hijri. Around 1750, the Maharaja of Jaipur commissioned a survey of the land around the site, the survey map provides detailed information about the buildings in this area and information about their ownership. This survey shows that the edges of the rectangular Gyanvapi mosque precinct were lined up with the residences of Brahmin priests, describing the site in 1824, British traveler Reginald Heber wrote that Aulam Gheer had defiled a sacred Hindu spot and built a mosque on it. He stated that Hindus considered this spot more sacred than the adjoining new Kashi Vishwanath temple and he described the site as a temple court, which was crowded with tame bulls and naked devotees chanting the name of Rama. A temple structure can be seen at the rear wall. In 1822, James Prinsep captioned an illustration of the wall as temple of Vishveshvur in his Benares Illustrated. The Hindus worshiped the plinth of the mosque as the plinth of the old Kashi Vishwanath temple, M. A. Sherring wrote that the extensive remains of the temple destroyed by Aurangzeb were still visible, forming a large portion of the western wall of the mosque. He mentioned that the remnant structure also had Jain and Buddhist elements, christian missionary Edwin Greaves, of the London Missionary Society, described the site as follows, The mosque is named after a well, the Gyan Vapi, which is located within the mosque precincts
17.
Maratha Empire
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The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was an Indian power that existed from 1674 to 1818 and ruled over much of the Indian sub-continent. The Marathas are credited to an extent for ending the Mughal rule in India. The Marathas are Hindu warrior group from the western Deccan Plateau that rose to prominence by establishing a Hindavi Swarajya, known for their mobility, the Marathas were able to consolidate their territory during the Mughal–Maratha Wars and later controlled a large part of India. Chhattrapati Shahu, grandson of Shivaji, was released by Mughals after the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, following a brief struggle with his aunt Tarabai, Shahu became ruler and appointed Balaji Vishwanath and later, his descendants, as the peshwas or prime ministers of the empire. Balaji and his descendants played a key role in expansion of Maratha rule, the empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south to Peshawar in the north, and Bengal and Andaman Islands in the east. In 1761, the Maratha Army lost the Third Battle of Panipat to Ahmad Shah Abdali of the Afghan Durrani Empire which halted their imperial expansion into Afghanistan, ten years after Panipat, the young Peshwa Madhavrao Is Maratha Resurrection reinstated Maratha authority over North India. In a bid to manage the large empire, Madhavrao I gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of the knights. They became known as the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of the Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, the Marathas remained the preeminent power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars which left the East India Company in control of most of India. A large portion of the Maratha empire was coastline, which had secured by the potent Maratha Navy under commanders such as Kanhoji Angre. He was very successful at keeping foreign naval ships, particularly of the Portuguese and British, securing the coastal areas and building land-based fortifications were crucial aspects of the Marathas defensive strategy and regional military history. The Maratha Empire is also referred to as the Maratha Confederacy, the historian Barbara Ramusack says that the former is a designation preferred by Indian nationalists, while the latter was that used by British historians. Maratha power was fragmented among several discrete fragments, although at present, the word Maratha refers to a particular caste of warriors and peasants, in the past the word has been used to describe Marathi people, including Marathas themselves. Shivaji was a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhosle clan who is considered to be the founder of the Maratha empire. Shivaji led a resistance to free the Maratha people from the Sultanate of Bijapur and he created an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital and successfully fought against the Mughals to defend his kingdom. He was crowned as Chhatrapati of the new Maratha kingdom in 1674, the state Shivaji founded was a Maratha kingdom comprising about 4. 1% of the subcontinent, but spread over large tracts. At the time of his death is was dotted with about 300 forts, about 40,000 cavalry,50,000 foot soldiers and naval establishments all over the west coast. Over time, the kingdom would increase in size and heterogeneity, Shivaji had two sons, Sambhaji and Rajaram
18.
Indore
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Indore /ɪnˈdɔər/, is the largest and most populous city of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It serves as the headquarters of both Indore District and Indore Division, Indore was described by the Economic Times as the commercial capital of the state. It is also considered as a hub of the state. With a census-estimated 2011 population of 1,994,397 and 2,170,295, the city is distributed over a land area of just 530 square kilometers making Indore the most densely populated major city in the central province. It comes under Tier 2 cities in India, Indore traces its roots to its 16th century founding as a trading hub between the Deccan and Delhi. The city and its surroundings came under Hindu Maratha Empire on 18 May 1724 after Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I assumed the control of Malwa. During the days of the British Raj, Indore State was a 19 Gun Salute princely state ruled by the Maratha Holkar dynasty, Indore served as the capital of the Madhya Bharat from 1950 until 1956. Indores financial district, anchored by central Indore, functions as the capital of the Madhya Pradesh and is home to the Madhya Pradesh Stock Exchange. It has also qualified the first round of Smart Cities Mission and has selected as one of the first twenty cities to be developed as Smart Cities. By 1720, the headquarters of the local pargana were transferred from Kampel to Indore, on 18 May 1724, the Nizam accepted the rights of the Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I to collect chauth from the area. In 1733, the Peshwa assumed the control of Malwa. Nandlal Chaudhary accepted the suzerainty of the Marathas, on 29 July 1732, Bajirao Peshwa-I granted Holkar State by merging 28 and half parganas to Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder ruler of Holkar dynasty. His daughter-in-law Ahilyabai Holkar moved the capital to Maheshwar in 1767. In 1818, the Holkars were defeated by the British during the Third Anglo-Maratha War, a residency with British resident was established at Indore, but Holkars continued to rule Indore State as a princely state mainly due to efforts of their Dewan Tatya Jog. During that time, Indore was established the headquarters of British Central Agency, Ujjain was originally the commercial centre of Malwa. But the British administrators such as John Malcolm decided to promote Indore as an alternative to Ujjain, because the merchants of Ujjain had supported anti-British elements. In 1906 electric supply was started in the city, fire brigade was established in 1909 and in 1918, first master-plan of city was made by noted architect and town planner, Patrick Geddes. During the period of Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar II efforts were made for the planned development, with the introduction of Railways in 1875, the business in Indore flourished till the reign of Maharaja Shivaji Rao Holkar, Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar III and Maharaja Yeshwant Rao Holkar
19.
Benares State
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Benares or Banaras State was a princely state in what is today India during the British Raj. On 15 October 1948 Benares last ruler signed the accession to the Indian Union, the state was founded by the local zamindar Raja Balwant Singh, who assumed the title of Raja of Benares in 18th century, taking advantage of the Mughal Empires disintegration. His descendants ruled the area around Benares as feudatories of Nawab of Awadh, in 1910, Benares became a full-fledged state of British India. The state was merged in India after Indias independence in 1947 and he is a religious leader and the people of Varanasi consider him an incarnation of Shiva. He is also the chief patron and an essential part of all religious celebrations. The ruling family claims descent from the God Shiva and benefits greatly from pilgrimages to Benares, the earliest rulers of the latter princely state of Benares were zamindaris for the Awadh province of the Mughal Empire. The region eventually ceded by the Nawab of Oudh to the British Raj in 1775, Benares became a state in 1911. It was given the privilege of 13-gun salute, most of the area currently known as Varanasi was acquired by Mansa Ram, a zamindar of Utaria. Balwant Singh, the ruler of Utaria in 1737, took over the territories of Jaunpur, Varanasi, the Kingdom of Benaras started in this way during the Mughal dynasty. Other places under the kingship of Kashi Naresh were Chandauli, Gyanpur, Chakia, Latifshah, Mirzapur, Nandeshwar, Mint House, the strong clan organisation on which they rested, brought success to the lesser Hindu princes. There were as many as 100,000 men backing the power of the Benares rajas in what became the districts of Benares, Gorakhpur. This proved an advantage when the dynasty faced a rival and the nominal suzerain, the Nawab of Oudh, in the 1750s. An exhausting guerrilla war, waged by the Benares ruler against the Oudh camp, using his troops, the rulers of the state carried the title Maharaja Bahadur from 1859 onwards. The Ramnagar Fort was built by Kashi Naresh Raja Balwant Singh with creamy chunar sandstone in the eighteenth century and it is a typically Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies, open courtyards, and picturesque pavilions. When the Dussehra festivities are inaugurated with a pageant, the Kashi Naresh rides an elephant at the head of the procession. Then, resplendent in silk and brocade, he inaugurates the month-long folk theatre of Ramlila at Ramnagar, the Ramlila is a cycle of plays which recounts the epic story of Lord Rama, as told in Ramcharitmanas, the version of the Ramayana written by Tulsidas. The plays, sponsored by the Maharaja, are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days, on the last day the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama vanquishes the demon king Ravana. Maharaja Udit Narayan Singh started this tradition of staging the Ramleela at Ramnagar in the mid-nineteenth century, over a million pilgrims arrive annually for the vast processions and performances organized by the Kashi Naresh
20.
Puranas
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The word Puranas literally means ancient, old, and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva. The Puranas genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism, the content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of authors over the centuries, in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated. There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas, with over 400,000 verses, the first versions of the various Puranas were likely composed between the 3rd- and 10th-century CE. The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism and they have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. The religious practices included in them are considered Vaidika, because they do not preach initiation into Tantra, the Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas and they existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century. An early occurrence of the term purana is found in the Chandogya Upanishad, translated by Patrick Olivelle as the corpus of histories, importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24, the extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas. In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the original Purana may date to the time of the redaction of the Vedas. Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas and she dates Markandeya Purana to c.250 CE, Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c.350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c.450 CE, 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c, 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas and these are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way. The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, a Mahapurana is well known, the Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become a basic text for Devi worshipers
21.
Skanda Purana
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The Skanda Purana is the largest Mahāpurāṇa, a genre of eighteen Hindu religious texts. The text contains over 81,000 verses, and is part of Shaivite literature, titled after Skanda, a son of Shiva and Parvati, who is also known as Kartikeya and Murugan. While the text is named after Skanda, he does not feature either more or less prominently in this text than in other Shiva-related Puranas, the text has been an important historical record and influence on the Hindu traditions related to war-god Skanda. The earliest text titled Skanda Purana likely existed by the 6th-century CE and it is considered by scholars, in a historic sense, as among the shiftiest, living texts which was widely edited, over many centuries, creating numerous variants. This Mahāpurāṇa, like others, is attributed to the sage Vyasa, haraprasad Shastri and Cecil Bendall, in about 1898, discovered an old palm-leaf manuscript of Skanda Purana in a Kathmandu library in Nepal, written in Gupta script. They dated the manuscript to 7th century CE, on paleographic grounds and this suggests that the original text existed before this time. Hans Bakker states that the text specifies holy places and details about the 4th and 5th-century Citraratha of Andhra Pradesh, the oldest versions of the Skandapurana texts have been discovered in the Himalayan region of South Asia such as Nepal, and the northeastern states of India such as Assam. The critical editions of the text, for scholarly studied, rely on the Nepalese manuscripts, additional texts style themselves as khandas of Skandapurana, but these came into existed after the 12th-century. It is unclear if their root texts did belong to the Skandapurana, there are a number of texts and manuscripts that bear the title Skanda Purana. Some of these texts, except for the title, have little in common with the well known Skandapurana traced to the 1st-millennium CE, the original text has accrued several additions, resulting in several different versions. It is, therefore, very difficult to establish a date of composition for the Skanda Purana. Stylistically, the Skanda Purana is related to the Mahabharata, the two texts employ similar stock phrases and compounds that are not found in the Ramayana. Some of the mentioned in the present version of the Skanda Purana is undoubtedly post-Gupta period. This indicates that several additions were made to the text over the centuries. The Kashi Khanda, for example, acquired its present form around the mid-13th century CE, the latest part of the text might have been composed in as late as 15th century CE. The whole corpus of texts which are considered as part of the Skanda Purana is grouped in two ways, according to one tradition, these are grouped in six saṁhitās, each of which consists of several khaṇḍas. According to another tradition, these are grouped in seven khaṇḍas, the chapters are Mahatmyas, or travel guides for pilgrimage tourists. A manuscript of a commentary on the Sūta Saṁhitā by Madhavācārya is also available and these texts discuss cosmogony, theology, philosophical questions on virtues and vice, questions such as what is evil, the origin of evil, how to deal with and cure evil
22.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak
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Quṭb al-Dīn Aibak also spelt Quṭb ud-Dīn Aibak or Qutub ud-Din Aybak, was the founder of the Turkic Mamluk Dynasty in Delhi. Quṭb was born to Turkic parents in Turkistan, in his childhood, Quṭb was sold as a slave and raised at Nishapur, Persia, where he was purchased by the local Qazi. Eventually, Quṭb was appointed to command and became an able general of Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad. In 1193 and after conquering Delhi, Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad returned to Khorāsān, with his headquarters at Delhi, Quṭb subjugated areas between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers. He then turned his attention to the Rajputs who were still resisting Ghūrid domination, in 1195–1203 he mounted campaigns against their strongholds, while his lieutenant Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji conquered Bihar and Bengal. When Muʿizz al-Dīn was assassinated in 1206, Quṭb al-Dīn was his logical successor and he was still technically a slave, but he quickly obtained manumission. He married the daughter of Tāj al-Dīn Yildiz of Ghazna, one of the principal claimants to succeed Muʿizz al-Dīn. He built the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi and the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer and he started the construction of Qutb Minar in memory of sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, which was completed by his successor, Iltutmish. Surviving inscriptions describe Quṭb as Malik, and the Quṭb Mīnār in Delhi still stands to commemorate his victories and he died of injuries received during an accident in a game of Chaugan. He was buried in Lahore near Anarkali Bazaar
23.
Muhammad of Ghor
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Muizz ad-Din was one of the greatest rulers of the Ghurid dynasty, and is credited with laying the foundation of Muslim rule in South Asia, that lasted for several centuries. He reigned over a territory spanning over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan. Muizz ad-Din took the city of Ghazni in 1173 to avenge the death of his ancestor Muhammad ibn Suri at the hands of Mahmud of Ghazni, in the meantime, he assisted his brother Ghiyath in his contest with the Khwarazmian Empire for the lordship of Khorasan in Western Asia. He also annexed the Ghaznavid principality of Lahore in 1186, the last haven of his Persianized rivals, after the death of Ghiyath in 1202, he became the successor of the Ghurid Empire and ruled until his assassination in 1206. A confused struggle then ensued among the remaining Ghuri leaders, though the Ghurids empire was short-lived and petty Ghurid states remained in power until the arrival of Timurids, Muizzs conquests laid the foundations of Muslim rule in India. Qutbu l-Din Aibak, a slave of Muizz, was the first Sultan of Delhi. Muizz ad-Din Muhammad was born in 1149 in the Ghor region of what is now present day Afghanistan, the exact date of his birth is unknown. His father, Baha al-Din Sam I, was the ruler of the Ghor region at the time. Muizz also had a brother named Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad. During their early life, Muizz and Ghiyath were imprisoned by their uncle Ala al-Din Husayn, when Sayf died in 1163, the Ghurid nobles supported Ghiyath, and helped him ascend the throne. Ghiyath shortly gave Muizz control over Istiyan and Kajuran, however, the throne was challenged by several Ghurid chiefs, Muizz aided Ghiyath in defeating and killing a rival Ghurid chief named Abul Abbas. Ghiyath was then challenged by his uncle Fakhr al-Din Masud, who claimed the throne for himself, and had allied with Tadj al-Din Yildiz, the Seljuq governor of Herat, however, the coalition was defeated by Ghiyath and Muizz at Ragh-i Zar. The brothers managed to kill the Seljuq governor during the battle, and then conquered Zamindawar, Badghis, Gharchistan, Ghiyath, however, spared Fakhr al-Din and restored him as the ruler of Bamiyan. Muizz, after returning from an expedition from Sistan, was awarded with Kandahar by his brother. In 1173, the two brothers invaded Ghazni, and defeated the Oghuz Turks who had captured the city from the Ghaznavids, Muizz was then appointed as the ruler of Ghazni. In 1175, the two brothers conquered Herat from its Seljuq governor, Baha al-Din Toghril, and also managed to conquer Pushang, the ruler of Sistan, Taj al-Din Harb ibn Muhammad, shortly acknowledged the sovereignty of the Ghurids, and so did the Oghuz Turks dominating Kirman. During the same period, the Khwarazmian Sultan Shah, who was expelled from Khwarezm by his brother Tekish, took refuge in Ghor, Ghiyath, however, did not help the latter. Sultan Shah managed to get help from the Kara-Khitan Khanate, after having helped his brother in expanding the western frontiers of the Ghurid Empire, he began to focus on India
24.
Iltutmish
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Shams ud-Din Iltutmish was a ruler of the Delhi Sultanate in India. Although his predecessor Qutb al-Din Aibak established the Mamluk Dynasty of Delhi, Iltutmish is considered the founder of the Delhi Sultanate, Shams-ud-din Iltutmish was the second ruler of the Slave dynasty. He founded the Delhi Sultanate in 1211 and received the Caliphs investiture in his rule and he conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting rulers, and Ranathambhore and Siwalik from their rulers. He expanded his domain by defeating the Muslim rulers of Ghazni, Multan and Bengal and he conquered the latter two territories and made further conquests in the Hindu lands, conquering the fort of Ranathambhore and the lands of Gwalior and the fort of Mandur. The name Iltutmish is a Turkic name, meaning he has held/owned land, another theory concerning the meaning of the name suggests a connection with an eclipse that supposedly occurred at his birth. The title Shams ad-Dunya Wad-Din is a royal Laqab of the time, translated as Sun of the world, Shams-ud-din belonged to the tribe of Ilbari in the Eurasian Steppe of Turkestan. While his association with the Turkic nobility of that tribe confidence can be seen as dubious and anachronistic and he was sold into slavery at an early age, reportedly after being sold by his kinsmen to slave merchants. Earning some reputation in his court, he was appointed personal attendant of the Sultan. Muhammads deputy and former slave, Qutub-ud-din-Aybak, then Viceroy of Lahore, Aibak bought Iltutmish and another slave for the high price of 100,000 Tankas, the silver coin used in Muslim India. He rose quickly in Aibaks service, earned the title Amir Tamghach, married Aibaks daughter, in recognition of his services during the campaign of Muhammad of Ghur against the Khokhars in 1205-06, he was, by the Sultans order, manumitted. Iltutmish was appointed Governor of Badaun in 1206 and was serving in this post when Aibak died in a polo accident, subsequently, a group of noblemen invited Iltutmish to stake his claim on the Indian dominions of the Ghurids. By 1211, Qutb al-Din Aibak was dead from a polo accident, Muizzi amirs, who had been appointed by Muhammad of Ghor, supported Aram Shah, possible son of Qutb al-Din Aibak. Qutbi amirs, owing allegiance to Aibak, invited Iltutmish, then Governor of Badaun, Aram Shah ascended to the throne in Lahore. In 1211, Iltutmish claimed the throne in Delhi, Aram Shah marched towards Delhi but was slain in battle at Bagh-i-Jud leaving Iltutmish unopposed in Delhi. On his accession, Iltutmish faced a number of challenges to his rule, in the aftermath of Aibaks death, the Ghurid dominions in India had divided into four. Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha, the Governor of Uch and Multan asserted his independence, ali Mardan Khilji, who had been appointed Governor of Lakhnauti in Bengal by Aibak in 1206, had thrown off his allegiance to Delhi after his death and styled himself Sultan Ala-ud-din. Lahore was contested by Iltutmish, Qabacha and, Muhammad of Ghors adopted son, Yildoz attempted to bring Delhi under his control. Initially, Iltutmish acknowledged Yildozs suzerainty by accepting the symbolic presents of the chatr, to add to Iltutmishs troubles, some of the Amirs of Delhi expressed resentment against his rule
25.
Jaunpur Sultanate
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The Jaunpur sultanate was an independent kingdom of northern India between 1394 and 1479, whose rulers ruled from Jaunpur or Jounpoor in the present day state of Uttar Pradesh. The Jaunpur sultanate was ruled by the Sharqi dynasty, the Khwajah-i-Jahan Malik Sarwar, the first ruler of the dynasty was a wazir under Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah IV Tughluq. In 1394, he established himself as an independent ruler of Jaunpur and extended his authority over Awadh, the dynasty founded by him was named so because of his title Malik-us-Sharq. The most acclaimed ruler of dynasty was Ibrahim Shah. The last ruler Hussain Shah was overthrown by Bahlul Lodi, in 1389, Malik Sarwar received the title of Khajah-i-Jahan. In 1394, he was appointed as the governor of Jaunpur, soon, he established himself as an independent ruler and took the title of Atabak-i-Azam. He suppressed the rebellions in Etawah, Koil and Kanauj and he was also able to bring under his control Kara, Awadh, Sandila, Dalmau, Bahraich, Bihar and Tirhut. The Rai of Jajnagar and the ruler of Lakhnauti acknowledged his authority, after his death, he was succeeded by his adopted son Malik Qaranfal, who took the title of Mubarak Shah. After assuming the power in 1399, Mubarak Shah struk coins in his own name, during his reign, Mallu Iqbal tried to recover Jaunpur, but failed. He was succeeded by his younger brother Ibrahim after his death in 1402, the Jaunpur Sultanate attained its greatest height under the younger brother of Mubarak Shah, who ruled as Shams ud-din Ibrahim Shah. To the east, his kingdom extended to Bihar, and to the west, to Kanauj, under the aegis of a Muslim holy man named Muhammad Jaunpuri Imam Mahdi, he threatened the Sultanate of Bengal under Raja Ganesha. Ibrahim Shah was a patron of Islamic learning and established a number of colleges for this purpose, a large number of scholarly works on Islamic theology and law was produced during his reign, which include the Hashiah-i-Hindi, the Bahar-ul-Mawwaj and the Fatwa-i-Ibrahim Shahi. He constructed a number of monuments in a new style of architecture known as the Sharqi. During his reign, Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah II Tughluq took refuge in Jaunpur in order to get rid of the control of Mallu Iqbal over him, but he did not treat Sultan Mahmud Shah well. As a result, his relations with the Sultan became bitter, in 1407 he tried to recover Kanauj but failed. His attempt to conquer Bengal also failed and he was succeeded by his eldest son Mahmud Shah after his death. Mahmud Shah was successful to conquer Chunar, but failed to capture Kalpi and he also conducted campaigns against Bengal and Orissa. In 1452, he invaded Delhi but was defeated by Bahlul Lodi, later, he made another attempt to conquer Delhi and marched into Etawah
26.
Sikandar Lodi
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Sikander Lodi, born Nizam Khan, was the Sultan of Delhi between 1489 to 1517. He became the ruler of the Lodi dynasty after the death of his father Bahlul Lodi in July 1489. The second and most successful ruler of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi sultanate, he was also a poet of the Persian language and prepared a diwan of 9000 verses. Of the three Lodi Sultans namely Bahlol Lodi, Sikandar Lodi and Ibrahim Lodi, Sikandar Lodi is regarded as the ablest, the greatest, most of the time of Bahlol Lodi was spent in checking revolts and consolidating his position. There was very little left at his disposal for bringing about administrative reforms, ibram Lodi led to the downfall of the Lodi dynasty. As compared with these two Sultans, Sikandar Lodi gave ample evidence of his qualities as a general, as an administrator, a consolidator of the empire, Sikandar was the son of Sultan Bahlul Khan Lodi and Bibi Ambha, the daughter of a Hindu goldsmith of Sirhind. Sikandar was of Pashtun origin through his father and he became Sultan upon the death of his father on July 17,1489 under the full name Abu Al-Muzzafar Ghazi Sultan Sikandar Lodi. His rise to power was troubled, as his brother, Barbak Shah. However, he was able to ascend to the throne without massive bloodshed and he also settled differences with an uncle, Alam Khan, who was also suspected of seeking to seize power. Sikandar was a ruler who encouraged trade across his territory. He expanded Lodi territory into the regions of Gwalior and Bihar and he made a treaty with Alauddin Hussain Shah and his kingdom of Bengal. In 1503, he commissioned the building of the city of Agra. He has a reputation for religious intolerance, and is said to have burned Bodhan and he wrote poetry in Persian using the pen name Gulrukhi. Among the administrative changes made by Sikandar Lodi was the installation of Persian language as the language for the accountancy in India. Publication of the Iran Pakistan Institute of Persian Studies, serial no, Sikandar Lodi was a great conqueror and a very good administrator. He revived the glory of Delhi Sultanates by expanding the boundaries of his empire and he took effective administrative steps for effective management. He also did a lot for the welfare of the poor people First of all Sikandar Lodi defeated his brother and seized Jaunpur. He afterwards led his attack on Bihar, defeated its ruler and he conquered the states of Dholpur, Bidar, Gwalior, Chanderi and other nearby kingdoms
27.
Man Singh I
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Man Singh was the Rajput Raja of Amber, a state later known as Jaipur in Rajputana. He was a general of the Mughal emperor Akbar, who included him among the Navaratnas. His descents was today ruled In Named Rajkuvri Sonal Baisaa and his daughter Manorama Bai was married to Crown Prince Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan and brother of Aurangzeb. He was the son of Raja Bhagwant Das and Rani Sa Bhagawati Ji Sahiba of Amber and he was born on Sunday,21 December 1550. They are remembered with reverence in India, although Rana Pratap fought unrelenting wars with both of them, Raja Bharmal, the first Rajput ruler to marry his daughter to a Mughal, was Man Singh Is grandfather. Initially known as Kunwar, Man Singh received the title of Mirza Raja and he fought many important campaigns for Akbar. Kunwar Man Singh led the Mughal Army in the battle of Haldighati fought in 1576 between the Mughal Empire and Maha Rana Pratap. Man Singh was sent by Akbar to Maharana Pratap to make a treaty with Akbar, but Maharana Pratap, as a grandson of Rana Sanga, considered the Mughals invaders intruders on Indian territory, he declined to accept Akbars sovereignty. On the day of their meeting, Maharana Pratap invited Man Singh for dinner, Maharana Pratap deliberately avoided attending the dinner in person and sent his son Kunwar Amar Singh to dine with Kunwar Man Singh. The attitude of other Rajput nobles was also discouraging and they were secretly making mockery of Man Singh as his aunt Jodhabai was married to Akbar. Man Singh took this as an insult to Akbar and himself and he knew Maharana Pratap was making an excuse to avoid him. He refused to dine with Amar Singh and he remarked, I will come again and then will have a dinner. Understanding the hidden meaning a noble of Pratap remarked well, dont forget to bring your uncle Akbar and this laid the foundation of war between the Mughals and Rana Pratap, who already had many decades of rivalry and enmity. Appointed by Akbar to lead the Mughal Army against Rana Pratap, a fierce battle was fought on 18 June 1576 at Haldi Ghati. Rana Pratap personally attacked Man Singh, who defended himself by ducking, Rana Prataps famous warhorse the blue eyed kathiawari stallion Chetak was mortally wounded. Rana Pratap, himself, amazingly survived this battle, a nobleman, Jhala Man Singh, who pretended to be Rana Pratap, was killed by the Mughal forces. Jhala Man Singh put the helmet of Rana Pratap on his head, ultimately, the Mughal army won the battle. The next day Man Singh advanced and captured Gogunda, the seat of Prataps coronation and he exploited this and began guerrilla warfare
28.
Akbar
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Abul-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad, popularly known as Akbar I and later Akbar the Great, was a Mughal Emperor from 1556 until his death. He was the ruler of the Mughal Dynasty in India. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam Khan, a strong personality and a successful general, Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of the Indian Subcontinent north of the Godavari river. His power and influence, however, extended over the country because of Mughal military, political, cultural. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a system of administration throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture, holy men of many faiths, poets, architects and artisans adorned his court from all over the world for study and discussion. Akbars courts at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became centres of the arts, letters, perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements, and a distinct Indo-Persian culture emerged characterised by Mughal style arts, painting, and architecture. A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in outlook, it centred on Akbar as a prophet, for which he drew the ire of the ulema, many of his courtiers followed Din-i-Ilahi as their religion as well, as many believed that Akbar was a prophet. One famous courtier who followed this religion was Birbal. Akbars reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history, during his rule, the Mughal empire tripled in size and wealth. He created a military system and instituted effective political and social reforms. By abolishing the tax on non-Muslims and appointing them to high civil and military posts, he was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust. He had Sanskrit literature translated, participated in festivals, realising that a stable empire depended on the co-operation. Thus, the foundations for an empire under Mughal rule was laid during his reign. Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Jahangir, defeated in battles at Chausa and Kannauj in 1539–40 by the forces of Sher Shah Suri Mughal emperor Humayun fled westward to Sindh. There he met and married the then 14-year-old Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a teacher of Humauyuns younger brother Hindal Mirza. Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born the year on 15 October 1542 at the Rajput Fortress of Umerkot in Sindh
29.
Todar Mal
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Raja Todar Mal was the Finance Minister of the Mughal empire during Akbars reign. He was one of the Navaratnas in Akbars durbar, Todar Mal was born in Laharpur, Uttar Pradesh in a Hindu family, considered by historians as either Agarwal, Khatri or Kayastha. Todar Mals father died when he was young leaving no means of livelihood for him. After the Sur dynasty was overthrown by the Mughals, Todar Mal continued in the service of the ruling power, under Akbar, he was placed in charge of Agra. Later, he was governor of Gujarat. At various times, he also managed Akbars Mint at Bengal, Todar Mals most significant contribution, which is appreciated even today, is that he overhauled the revenue system of Akbars Mughal empire. Raja Todarmal built a fortress-palace at Laharpur in the Sitapur district of Uttar Pradesh, Todar Mal also translated Bhagavata Purana into Persian. Following Todar Mals death on 8 November 1589 in Lahore, his body was cremated according to the Hindu traditions, Raja Bhagwan Das, his colleague in the charge of Lahore, was present at the ceremony. Of his two sons, Dhari was killed in a battle in Sindh, another son, Kalyan Das, was sent by Todar Mal to subdue the Raja of Kumaon in the Himalayas. He rose to become the Finance Minister in Akbars Darbar, Todar Mal is recognized as an able warrior, who led in various battles. In 971, he was employed under Muzaffar and in 972, in the 19th year, after the conquest of Patna, he got an Salam and naqqara and was ordered to accompany MunSim Khan to Bengal. He was the soul of the expedition, in the battle with Daud Khan-i-Kharani, when Khan Alam had been killed, and Munsim Khans horse had run away, the Raja held his ground bravely, and not only was there no defeat but an actual victory. What harm said Todar Mal, if Khan Alam is dead, what if the Khan Khanans horse has run away. Todar Mal succeeded Khwaja Malik Itimad Khan in 1560, Raja Todar Mal introduced standard weights and measures, a land survey and settlement system, revenue districts and officers. This system of maintenance by Patwari is still used in Indian Subcontinent which was improved by British, Also now GOI had launched Patwari Information system based on GIS for this purpose. Raja Todar Mal, as minister of Akbar, introduced a new system of revenue known as zabt. He took a survey of crop yields and prices cultivated for a 10-year period 1570-1580. On this basis tax was fixed on each crop in cash, each province was divided into revenue circles with their own rates of revenue and a schedule of individual crops
30.
James Prinsep
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James Prinsep was an English scholar, orientalist and antiquary. He was the editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and is best remembered for deciphering the Kharosthi. He studied, documented and illustrated many aspects of numismatics, metallurgy, meteorology apart from pursuing his career in India as a master at the mint in Benares. James Prinsep was the son and the tenth child of John Prinsep and his wife. John Prinsep went to India in 1771 with almost no money and he returned to England in 1787 with a fortune of £40,000 and established himself as an East India merchant. He moved to Clifton in 1809 after incurring losses and his connections helped him find work for all his sons and several members of the Prinsep family rose to high positions in India. John Prinsep later became a Member of Parliament, James initially went to study in a school in Clifton run by a Mr. Bullock but learnt more at home from his older siblings. He showed a talent for detailed drawing and mechanical invention made him study architecture under the gifted and his eyesight however declined due to an infection and he was unable to take up architecture as a profession. Prinsep found a position as a master at the Calcutta mint. Within a year at Calcutta, he was sent by his superior and he stayed at Benares until the closure of that mint in 1830. He then moved back to Calcutta as deputy assay master and when Wilson resigned in 1832 and he married Harriet Sophia Aubert, elder daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel Jeremiah Aubert of the Bengal army and his wife Hannah, at the cathedral in Calcutta on 25 April 1835. They had a daughter Eliza in 1837 who was to be the child to survive. His work as assay master led him to many scientific studies. He worked on means for measuring high temperatures in furnaces accurately, the publication of his technique in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London in 1828 led to his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society. He also described a pyrometer that measured the expansion of an amount of air held within a gold bulb. In 1833 he called for reforms to Indian weights and measures and he also devised a balance so delicate as to measure three-thousandth of a grain. A talented artist and draftsman, Prinsep made meticulous sketches of ancient monuments, astronomy, instruments, fossils and he was also very interested in understanding weather. He designed a modified barometer that automatically compensated for temperature and he maintained meteorological registers, apart from supplying barometers to volunteers and graphically summarising the records of others
31.
Malhar Rao Holkar
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Malhar Rao Holkar was a noble of the Maratha Empire, in present-day India. Malhar Rao is particularly known for being the first Maratha Subhedar of Malwa in Central India and he was the first prince from the Holkar family which ruled the Indore State. He was one of the officers to help spread the Maratha rule to northern states and was given the state of Indore to rule by the Peshwas. Malhar Rao Holkar was from the Dhangar community, a group that is not technically a part of the Maratha caste. He was born on 16 March 1693 in the village of Hol, near Jejuri, Malhar Rao grew up in Taloda at house of his maternal uncle, Bhojirajrao Bargal. He married Gautama Bai, his uncles daughter, in 1717 and he also married Bana Bai Sahib Holkar, Dwarka Bai Sahib Holkar, Harku Bai Sahib Holkar, a Khanda Rani. This Khanda Rani status stems from the fact that she was a Rajput princess, he had sent his sword to represent him at the wedding, Holkar lived at a time when it was possible for ambitious people to improve their standing substantially. And in 1715 he was serving in forces under the control of Kadam Bande in Khandesh, in 1721, having become disllusioned with Bande, Holkar became a soldier in the service of the Peshwa, Bajirao. Became close to him and was able to move up the ranks. Participation in the Peshwas campaign of 1723-24 was followed by a diplomatic role, Holkar was commanding a force of 500 men in 1725 and in 1727 he received a grant so that he could maintain troops in various areas of Malwa. Successful work during the Battle of Palkhed of 1728, during which he disrupted the supplies and communications of the Mughal armies, further increased his status. One of the foremost commanders of the Maratha Empire, he participated in the victory near Delhi in 1737. He also wrested Bassein from the Portuguese in 1739 and he received Rampura, Bhanpura and Tonk in 1743, for the assistance given to Madhosingh I of Jaipur in his contest with Ishwari Singh. Granted an Imperial Sardeshmuckhi for Chandore, for his gallantry in the Rohilla campaign of 1748, from 1748 onwards, Malhar Rao Holkar’s position in Malwa became firm and secure. He became ‘Kingmaker’ in Northern and Central India and master of a territory lying on both the sides of the Narmada as well as Sahyadri. In the Battle of Fatthegad and Farukhabad, they defeated the Rohillas, when Mughal Emperor came to know that Ahmed Shah Abdali had attacked Punjab in December 1751, he asked Safdarjung to make peace with Rohillas and Bangash. On 12 April 1752 Safdarjung agreed to help Marathas but the Emperor didn’t ratify the agreement, at the same time, the Peshwa asked Malharrao Holkar to return to Pune as Salabat Khan had attacked the city. The Marathas besieged Kumher Fort from 20 January to 18 May 1754, the war continued for about four months
32.
Nawab of Awadh
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The Nawab of Awadh or the Nawab of Oudh was the title of the rulers who governed the state of Oudh or Awadh in India during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Nawabs of Awadh belonged to a dynasty of Qaraqoyunlu origin from Nishapur, in 1724, Nawab Saadat Khan established the Oudh State. As the Mughal Empire declined, the emperors lost their power and became puppets and prisoners of their new overlords, Awadh thus grew stronger and more independent. The capital city at the time was Faizabad, all of these rulers used the title of Nawab. LVI Advanced study in the history of modern India, Volume 2, by G. S. Chhabra, Lotus Press,1 January 2005
33.
Jaipur State
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Jaipur State was a princely state of India from 1128 to 1948. It was centred on Jaipur town and it existed from the 12th century until Indian Independence in 1947. According to the different periods of history it was known as Jaipur Kingdom, Amber Kingdom, Dhundhar Kingdom. Jaipur state was founded in the Dhundhar region and its predecessor state was the Dhundhar kingdom, founded in 1093 by Duleh Rai, also known as Dulha Rao. Jaipur state was known as Amber between the fourteenth century and 1727, in that year, a new capital was built and named Jayapura, then the kingdom was renamed Jaipur. The modern-day Kushwaha community, of which the Kachwaha form a part, generally claim descent from Kusha and this enables their claim to be of the Suryavansh dynasty but it is a myth of origin developed in the twentieth century. Kacchi, Koeri and Murao can be asserted as those castes who have been degraded from Kshtriya status, in 1561, the chief at Amber, Bharamail Kachwaha, sought support from Akbar, the Mughal emperor. He was formally recognised as a Raja and was invested into the Mughal nobility in return for him giving his daughter to Akbars harem. A governor was appointed to oversee Bharamails territory and a tribute arrangement saw Bharamail given a salaried rank, the ruling dynasty of Amber provided the Mughal Empire with some distinguished generals. Among them were Bhagwant Das, Man Singh I, who fought and governed from Kabul to Orissa and Assam, Jai Singh was succeeded by Ramsingh I, Bishan Singh and Jai Singh II. Jai Singh II, also known as Sawai Jai Singh, ruled the state from 1699 to 1743 was a mathematician and astronomer. Throughout the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, the armies of Jaipur were in a constant state of warfare, towards the end of the 18th century, the Jats of Bharatpur and the chief of Alwar declared themselves independent from Jaipur and each annexed the eastern portion of Jaipurs territory. This period of Jaipurs history is characterised by internal power-struggles and constant military conflicts with the Marathas, Jats, other Rajput states, as well as the British and the Pindaris. The kingdom suffered a defeat at the hands of the Maratha forces of Mahadji Scindia in the Battle of Patan in 1790. Nevertheless enough wealth remained in Jaipur for the patronage of fine temples/palaces, continuity of its courtly traditions, in 1818 the Jaipur state became a British protectorate. In 1835 there was a disturbance in the city, after which the British government intervened. The state later became well-governed and prosperous, Jaipurs last princely ruler signed the accession to the Indian Union on 7 April 1949. The Maharajas of Jaipur belonged to the Kachwaha dynasty, talchidi Bicchao Renwal Padasoli Pachar Chitora Rausi Kailai Ramgarh Kheri Jadawata - Paid no tribute but rendered service by Cavalry
34.
Daulat Rao Sindhia
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Shrimant Daulat Rao Scindhia was the king of Gwalior state in central India from 1794 until his death in 1827. Daulatrao played a significant role in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha wars, Daulatrao was a member of the Sindhia dynasty, and succeeded to the Gwalior throne on 12 February 1794 at the age of 15, upon the death of Maharaja Mahadji Shinde. Daulatrao was reecognised and formally installed by the Peshwa,3 March 1794, Gwalior state was part of the Maratha Empire, which was founded by Shivaji in the 17th century. As the empire expanded, commanders of the Maratha armies were given authority to collect chauth in the territories on behalf of the Peshwa. His wife Baiza Bai was a powerful and an intelligent lady of her time and she played an important role in the affairs of the Gwalior state. Daulatrao therefore looked upon himself less as a member of the Maratha Confederacy and he also came under the influence of Sarjerao Ghatge, a dubious character from Maratha point of view, whose daughter he had married. Urged possibly by this adviser, Daulatrao aimed at increasing his dominions at all costs, the rising power of Yashwantrao Holkar of Indore, however, alarmed him. In July 1801, Yashwantrao appeared before Sindhias capital of Ujjain, and after defeating some battalions under John Hessing, extorted a large sum from its inhabitants, but did not ravage the town. In October, however, Sarjerao Ghatge took revenge by sacking Indore, razing it almost to the ground, then, in 1802, on the festival of Diwali, Yashwantrao Holkar defeated the combined armies of Scindia and Peshwa Bajirao II at Hadapsar, near Pune. The battle took place at Ghorpadi, Banwadi, and Hadapsar, finally, on December 31,1802, the Peshwa signed the Treaty of Bassein, by which the British were recognized as the paramount power in India. In 1811, Shrimant Daulat Rao conquered the kingdom of Chanderi. In 1816 Sindhia was called on to assist in the suppression of the Pindaris, for some time it was doubtful what line he would take, but he ultimately signed the Treaty of Gwalior in 1817 by which he promised full cooperation. He did not, however, act up to his professions, and connived at the retention of the fort of Asirgarh, a fresh treaty in 1818 effected a readjustment of boundaries, Ajmer and other lands being ceded. Hunter, William Wilson, Sir, et al, imperial Gazetteer of India, Volume 12. A History of Modern India, 1480-1950
35.
Gwalior State
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Gwalior State was an Indian kingdom and princely state during the British Raj. It was ruled In subsidiary alliance with the British by the Scindia dynasty of the Marathas and was entitled to a 21-gun salute. The state took its name from the old town of Gwalior, which, although never the capital, was an important place because of its strategic location. The state was founded in the early 18th century by Ranoji Sindhia, under Mahadji Sindhia Gwalior State became a leading power in northern India, and dominated the affairs of the confederacy. The Anglo-Maratha Wars brought Gwalior State under British suzerainty, so that it became a state of the British Indian Empire. Gwalior was the largest state in the Central India Agency, under the supervision of a Resident at Gwalior. In 1936, the Gwalior residency was separated from the Central India Agency, after Indian Independence in 1947, the Sindhia rulers acceded to the new Union of India, and Gwalior state was absorbed into the new Indian state of Madhya Bharat. The state had an area of 64,856 km2, and was composed of several detached portions. The northern section consisted of a block of territory with an area of 44,082 km2. The Malwa section, which included the city of Ujjain, had an area of 20,774 km2 and it was made up of several detached districts, between which portions of other states were interposed, and which were themselves intermingled in bewildering intricacy. In 1940 Gwalior State had 4,006,159 inhabitants, the predecessor state of Gwalior was founded in the 10th century. It was annexed by the Delhi Sultanate and was a part of it till 1398 and it again became a part of the Mughal empire from 1528 to 1731. The head of the received a patent of rank from the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Ranoji fixed his headquarters in the ancient city of Ujjain, which became the capital of the Sindhia dominion, and on 19 July 1745 he died near Shujalpur. He left three sons, Jayappa, Dattaji, and Jotiba, and two illegitimate, Tukaji and Mahadji. Jayappa succeeded to the territories of Ranoji, but was killed at Nagaur in 1759 and he was followed by his son Jankoji, who was taken prisoner at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 and put to death, and Mahadji succeeded. Madhavrao I, popularly known as Mahadji, and his successor Daulatrao took a part in shaping the history of India during their rule. Mahadji returned from the Deccan to Malwa in 1764, and by 1769 reestablished his power there, in 1772 Madhavrao Peshwa died, and in the struggles which ensued Mahadji took an important part, and seized every chance of increasing his power and augmenting his possessions
36.
Colonnade
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In classical architecture, a colonnade denotes a long sequence of columns joined by their entablature, often free-standing, or part of a building. Paired or multiple pairs of columns are normally employed in a colonnade which can be straight or curved, the space enclosed may be covered or open. In St. Peters Square in Rome, Berninis great colonnade encloses a vast open elliptical space, when in front of a building, screening the door, it is called a portico, when enclosing an open court, a peristyle. A portico may be more than one rank of columns deep, colonnades have been built since ancient times and interpretations of the classical model have continued through to modern times, and Neoclassical styles remained popular for centuries. At the British Museum, for example, porticos are continued along the front as a colonnade, the porch of columns that surrounds the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. can be termed a colonnade. The longest colonnade in the United States, with 36 Corinthian columns, is the New York State Education Building in Albany, New York
37.
Nandi (bull)
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Nandi is the name of the gate- guardian deity of Kailasa, the abode of Lord Shiva. He is usually depicted as a bull which serves as the mount to the god Shiva. The word nandi has come from Tamil root word Nandhu means to grow to flourish or to appear which was used to indicate growing fluorished white bulls as well as divine bull nandi. The Sanskrit word nandi (Sanskrit, नन्दि has the meaning of happy, joy and satisfaction, almost all Shiva temples display stone images of a seated Nandi, generally facing the main shrine. However, it is documented that the application of the name Nandi to the bull is infact a development of recent syncretism of different regional beliefs within Saivism. The oldest Saivite texts in Sanskrit, Tamil and other Indian languages, the worship of Shiva and Nandi can be trace to even Indus Valley Civilization time period. Nandi is described as the son of the sage Shilada, Shilada underwent severe penance to have a boon — a child with immortality towards Lord Shiva and got Nandi as his son. It is said that Nandi was born from a Yajna performed by the Shilada, Nandi grew as an ardent devotee of Lord Shiva and he did penance to become the gate-keeper of the Lord Shiva as well as his mount. Nandi got the knowledge of Agamic and Tantric wisdom taught by Lord Shiva from goddess Parvati. These eight disciples are directed to eight directions of the world by Nandinatha to spread the wisdom he taught them, there are so many other puranic tales are available about nandi. One describes his conflict with Ravana, the anti-hero of Ramayana. andi who cursed Ravana that his kingdom would be burnt by a monkey, and later Hanuman burnt Lanka when he went in search of Sita, who was kept prisoner by Ravana in Ashok Vatika. Tamil Thiruvilaiyadal puranam mentions another story in which nandi ] as a whale and it tells that Parvati lost her concentration while Shiva was explaining the meaning of Vedas to her. Parvati incarnated as a fisherwoman for the atone, to unite his master and his beloved wife, Nandi took the form of a whale and started to trouble the people. Fisherwoman Parvatis father told that anyone who killed the whale will marry his daughter, later Lord Shiva took the form of a fisherman, killed the whale and got Parvati in her previous form. Agamas describe him in a form with the head of bull and four hands with antelope, axe, mace. In his mount form, nandi is depicted as a bull in all Shiva temples. This nandi form has been even in Southeast Asian countries including Cambodia. The white color of the bull symbolizes purity and justice, symbolically, the seated Nandi towards sanctum in Siva temples, represents an individual ] and the message that the jiva should always be focused on the Parameshwara
38.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
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Nagpur kingdom
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The Kingdom of Nagpur was a kingdom in east-central India founded by the Gond rulers of Deogarh in the early 18th century. It came under the rule of Marathas of the Bhonsale dynasty in the mid-18th century, the city of Nagpur was the capital of the state. After the Third Anglo-Maratha War, it became a state of the British Empire in 1818. There is no record of the Nagpur kingdom prior to the beginning of the 18th century. Bakht Buland, the ruler of Deogharh, visited Delhi, afterwards was determined to encourage the development of his own kingdom, to this end he invited Hindu and Muslim artisans and cultivators to settle in the plain country, and founded the city of Nagpur. His successor, Chand Sultan continued the development of his country, in the history of Nagpur, rule by the Marathas began with Raghoji Bhonsale. The Bhonsale family were originally headmen from Deur, a village in Satara District, raghojis grandfather and his two brothers had fought in the armies of Shivaji, and to the most distinguished of them was entrusted a high military command and the collection of chauth in Berar. Raghoji, on being called in by the contending Gond factions, Raghoji then retired back to Berar with a suitable reward for his assistance. Dissentions, however, broke out between the brothers, and in 1743 Raghoji again intervened at the request of the elder brother, but he had not the heart to give back, for a second time, the country he held within his grasp. Burhan Shan, the Gond Raja, though allowed to retain the outward insignia of royalty, became practically a state pensioner, twice his armies invaded Bengal, and he obtained the cession of Cuttack. Chanda, Chhattisgarh, and Sambalpur were added to his dominions between 1745 and 1755, the year of his death. His successor Janoji took part in the wars between the Peshwa and the Nizam of Hyderabad, and after he had in turn betrayed both of them, they united against him and sacked and burnt Nagpur in 1765. In 1785 Mandla and the upper Narmada valley were added to the Nagpur dominions by treaty with the Peshwa. Mudhoji had courted the favor of the British East India Company, and this policy was continued for some time by Raghoji II, who acquired Hoshangabad, but in 1803 he united with Daulatrao Sindhia of Gwalior against the British. To the close of the 18th century the Maratha administration had been on the good. The first four of the Bhonsales were military chiefs with the habits of rough soldiers, connected by blood, descended from a class of cultivators, they favored and fostered that order. They were rapacious, but seldom cruel to the lower castes, up to 1792 their territories were seldom the theater of hostilities, and the area of cultivation and revenue continued to increase under a fairly equitable and extremely simple system of government. After the treaty of Deogaon, however, all this had changed, Raghoji II was deprived of a third of his territories, and he attempted to make up the loss of revenue from the remainder
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Ranjit Singh
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Maharaja Ranjit Singh, was the founder of the Sikh Empire, which ruled the northwest Indian subcontinent in the early half of the 19th century. He survived smallpox in infancy but lost sight in his left eye and he fought his first battle alongside his father at age 10. After his father died, he fought wars to expel the Afghans in his teenage years. His empire grew in the Punjab region under his leadership through 1839, prior to his rise, the Punjab region had numerous warring misls, twelve of which were under Sikh rulers and one Muslim. Ranjit Singh successfully absorbed and united the Sikh misls and took other local kingdoms to create the Sikh Empire. He repeatedly defeated invasions by Muslim armies, particularly those arriving from Afghanistan, Ranjit Singhs reign introduced reforms, modernization, investment into infrastructure, and general prosperity. His Khalsa army and government included Sikhs, Hindus, Muslims and he was popularly known as Sher-i-Punjab, or Lion of Punjab. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was succeeded by his son, Maharaja Kharak Singh, Ranjit Singh was born on 13 November 1780, to Mahan Singh Sukerchakia and Raj Kaur – the daughter of Raja Gajpat Singh of Jind, in Gujranwala, in the Majha region of Punjab. The childs name was changed to Ranjit by his father to commemorate his armys victory over the Muslim Chatha chieftain Pir Muhammad, Ranjit Singh contracted smallpox as an infant, which resulted in the loss of sight in his left eye and a pockmarked face. He was short in stature, never schooled, and did not learn to read or write anything beyond the Gurmukhi alphabet, however, he was trained at home in horse riding, musketry, at age 12, his father died. He then inherited his fathers Sukkarchakkia misl estates and was raised by his mother Raj Kaur, the first attempt on his life was made when he was age 13, by Hashmat Khan, but Ranjit Singh prevailed and killed the assailant instead. At age 18, his mother died and Lakhpat Rai was assassinated, in his teens, Ranjit Singh took to alcohol, a habit that intensified in the later decades of his life, according to the chronicles of his court historians and the Europeans who visited him. However, he neither smoked nor ate beef, and required all officials in his court, regardless of their religion, Ranjit Singh married many times, in various ceremonies, and had twenty wives. Some scholars note that the information on Ranjit Singhs marriages is unclear, according to Khushwant Singh in an 1889 interview with the French journal Le Voltaire, his son Dalip Singh remarked, I am the son of one of my fathers forty-six wives. At age 15, Ranjit Singh married his first wife Mahitab Kaur, the daughter of Sada Kaur and this marriage was pre-arranged in an attempt to reconcile warring Sikh misls, wherein Mahitab Kaur was betrothed to Ranjit Singh. However, the failed, with Mahitab Kaur never forgiving the fact that her father had been killed by Ranjit Singhs father. The separation became complete when Ranjit Singh married his second wife Raj Kaur of Nakai Misl in 1798, Raj Kaur, the daughter of Sardar Ran Singh Nakai, the third ruler of Nakai Misl, was Ranjit Singhs second wife and the mother of his heir, Kharak Singh. She changed her name from Raj Kaur to avoid confusion with Ranjit Singhs mother, throughout her life she remained the favourite of Ranjit Singh, who called her Mai Nakain
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Pandit
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A pandit, also spelled pundit is a scholar or a teacher of any field of knowledge in Hinduism, particularly the Vedic scriptures, dharma, Hindu philosophy, or secular subjects such as music. He may be a Guru in a Gurukul, in Sanskrit, states Monier Williams, Pandit generally refers to any wise, educated or learned man with specialized knowledge. The term is derived from paṇḍ which means to collect, heap, pile up, the term is found in Vedic and post-Vedic texts, but without any sociological context. In the colonial era literature, the term refers to Brahmins specialized in Hindu law. The related term Purohit refers to a house priest
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Shiva Purana
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The Shiva Purana is one of eighteen Purana genre of Sanskrit texts in Hinduism, and part of the Shaivism literature corpus. It primarily centers around the Hindu god Shiva and goddess Parvati, the Shiva Purana asserts that it once consisted of 100,000 verses set out in twelve samhitas, however the Purana adds that it was abridged by sage Vyasa before being taught to Romaharshana. The two versions that include books, title some of the same and others differently. The Shiva Purana, like other Puranas in Hindu literature, was likely a living text, the oldest manuscript of surviving texts was likely composed, estimates Klaus Klostermaier, around 10th- to 11th-century CE. Some chapters of currently surviving Shiva Purana manuscripts were composed after the 14th-century. The Shiva Purana contains chapters with Shiva-centered cosmology, mythology, relationship between gods, ethics, Yoga, Tirtha sites, bhakti, rivers and geography, the text is an important source of historic information on different types and theology behind Shaivism in early 2nd-millennium CE. The oldest surviving chapters of the Shiva Purana have significant Advaita Vedanta philosophy, in the 19th- and 20th-century, the Vayu Purana was sometimes titled as Shiva Purana, and sometimes proposed as a part of the complete Shiva Purana. With the discovery of more manuscripts, modern scholarship considers the two text as different, with Vayu Purana as the older text composed sometime before 2nd-century CE. Some scholars list it as a Mahapurana, while some state it is an Upapurana, the date and authors of Shiva Purana are unknown. Certain books and chapters in currently surviving Shiva Purana manuscripts were composed later. The Shiva Purana, like other Puranas in Hindu literature, were edited, recast. Hazra states that the Bombay manuscript published in the 19th-century is rarer, several recensions of this text exist. These are the Īśāna Saṁhitā, the Īśvara Saṁhitā, the Sūrya Saṁhitā, the Tirthakṣetramāhātmya Saṁhitā, the Pūrvakhaṇḍa consists 3270 ślokas in 51 chapters written in Nagari script and the Uttarakhaṇḍa has 45 chapters written in Oriya script. It was preserved in Mahimprakash Brahmachari Matha in Puri, the Pūrvakhaṇḍa of this manuscript is same as the Sanatkumara Saṁhitā of the Vangavasi Press edition. The Jnanasamhita in one manuscript shares content with Rudrasamhita of the manuscript, presents cosmology and mythology. The text discusses goddesses and gods, dedicates parts of chapters praising Vishnu and Brahma, the text emphasizes bhakti and yoga, rather than bookish learning of the Vedas. The Shiva Purana dedicates chapters to Shaiva-Advaita philosophy, like Linga Purana and other Shaivism-related Puranas, the text also presents the Brahman as satcitananda theme, with masculine and feminine Shiva-Shakti as a unity, and perception of plurality-discrimination as a form of nescience. These ideas, states Klaus Klostermaier, similar to found in Devi-related Puranas
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Brahma
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Brahma is the creator god in the Trimurti of Hinduism. Brahma is also known as Svayambhu, Vāgīśa, and the creator of the four Vedas, Brahma is identified with the Vedic god Prajapati, as well as linked to Kama and Hiranyagarbha, he is more prominently mentioned in the post-Vedic Hindu epics and the mythologies in the Puranas. In the epics, he is conflated with Purusha, Brahma, along with Vishnu and Shiva, is part of a Hindu Trinity, however, ancient Hindu texts mention other trinities of gods or goddesses which do not include Brahma. While Brahma is often credited as the creator of the universe and various beings in it, other Puranas suggest that he is born from Shiva or his aspects, or he is a supreme god in diverse versions of Hindu mythology. Brahma, along with all deities, is viewed as a form of the otherwise formless Brahman. Brahma does not enjoy popular worship in present-age Hinduism and has lesser importance than the members of the Trimurti, Vishnu. Brahma is revered in ancient texts, yet rarely worshipped as a deity in India. Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India, the most famous being the Brahma Temple, Brahma temples are found outside India, such as in Thailand at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok. The origins of Brahma are uncertain, in part because related words such as one for Ultimate Reality. The existence of a deity named Brahma is evidenced in late Vedic text. The spiritual concept of Brahman is far older, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and visible icon of the impersonal universal principle called Brahman. In Sanskrit grammar, the noun stem brahman forms two distinct nouns, one is a neuter noun bráhman, whose singular form is brahma. Contrasted to the noun is the masculine noun brahmán, whose nominative singular form is Brahma. This noun is used to refer to a person, and as the name of a deity Brahma it is the subject matter of the present article. One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth Prapathaka of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, Brahma is discussed in verse 5,1 also called the Kutsayana Hymn first, and expounded in verse 5,2. In the pantheistic Kutsayana Hymn, the Upanishad asserts that ones Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being. In verse 5,2 Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are mapped into the theory of Guṇa, the post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of cosmogony, many involving Brahma. Brahma is a creator as described in the Mahabharata and Puranas
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Vishnu
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Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
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Media related to Kashi Vishwanath Temple at Wikimedia Commons
