1.
St. Louis
–
St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
2.
Missouri
–
Missouri is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1821. With over six million residents, it is the eighteenth most populous state, the largest urban areas are St. Louis, Kansas City, Springfield, and Columbia. The capitol is in Jefferson City on the Missouri River, the state is the twenty-first most extensive by area and is geographically diverse. The Northern Plains were once covered by glaciers, then tallgrass prairie, in the South are the Ozarks, a forested highland, providing timber, minerals, and recreation. The Mississippi River forms the border of the state, eventually flowing into the swampy Missouri Bootheel. Humans have inhabited the land now known as Missouri for at least 12,000 years, the Mississippian culture built cities and mounds, before declining in the 1300s. When European explorers arrived in the 1600s they encountered the Osage, the French established Louisiana, a part of New France, and founded Ste. Genevieve in 1735 and St. Louis in 1764, after a brief period of Spanish rule, the United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Americans from the Upland South, including enslaved African Americans, rushed into the new Missouri Territory, many from Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee settled in the Boonslick area of Mid-Missouri. Soon after, heavy German immigration formed the Missouri Rhineland, Missouri played a central role in the westward expansion of the United States, as memorialized by the Gateway Arch. The Pony Express, Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail, as a border state, Missouris role in the American Civil War was complex and there were many conflicts within. After the war, both Greater St. Louis and the Kansas City metropolitan area became centers of industrialization and business, today, the state is divided into 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis. Missouris culture blends elements from the Midwestern and Southern United States, the musical styles of ragtime, Kansas City jazz, and St. Louis Blues, developed in Missouri. The well-known Kansas City-style barbecue, and lesser known St. Louis-style barbecue can be found across the state, St. Louis is also a major center of beer brewing, Anheuser-Busch is the largest producer in the world. Missouri wine is produced in the nearby Missouri Rhineland and Ozarks, Missouris alcohol laws are among the most permissive in the United States. Outside of the large cities popular tourist destinations include the Lake of the Ozarks, U. S. President Harry S. Truman is from Missouri. Other well known Missourians include Mark Twain, Walt Disney, Chuck Berry, some of the largest companies based in the state include Express Scripts, Monsanto, Emerson Electric, Edward Jones, and OReilly Auto Parts. Missouri has been called the Mother of the West and the Cave State, however, Missouris most famous nickname is the Show Me State, the state is named for the Missouri River, which was named after the indigenous Missouri Indians, a Siouan-language tribe
3.
The Awakening (Chopin novel)
–
The Awakening is a novel by Kate Chopin, first published in 1899. It is one of the earliest American novels that focuses on issues without condescension. It is also seen as a landmark work of early feminism, generating a mixed reaction from contemporary readers. Edna spends most of her time with her close friend Adèle Ratignolle, at Grand Isle, Edna eventually forms a connection with Robert Lebrun, a charming, earnest young man who actively seeks Ednas attention and affections. When they fall in love, Robert senses the doomed nature of such a relationship, the narrative focus moves to Ednas shifting emotions as she reconciles her maternal duties with her desire for social freedom and to be with Robert. When summer vacation ends, the Pontelliers return to New Orleans, Edna gradually reassesses her priorities and takes a more active role in her own happiness. She starts to isolate herself from New Orleans society and to withdraw some of the duties traditionally associated with motherhood. Léonce eventually talks to a doctor about diagnosing his wife, fearing she is losing her mental faculties, the doctor advises Léonce to let her be and assures him that things will return to normal. When Léonce prepares to travel to New York City on business, left home alone for an extended period gives Edna physical and emotional room to breathe and reflect on various aspects of her life. Edna is shown as a sexual being for the first time in the novel, Edna also reaches out to Mademoiselle Reisz, a gifted pianist whose playing is renowned but who maintains a generally hermetic existence. Her playing had moved Edna profoundly earlier in the novel, representing what Edna was starting to long for, Mademoiselle Reisz focuses her life on music and herself instead of on societys expectations, acting as a foil to Adèle Ratignolle, who encourages Edna to conform. Reisz is in contact with Robert while he is in Mexico, Edna begs her to reveal their contents, which she does, proving to Edna that Robert is thinking about her. Eventually, Robert returns to New Orleans, at first aloof, he eventually confesses his passionate love for her. He admits that the trip to Mexico was an excuse to escape a relationship that would never work. Edna is called away to help Adèle with a difficult childbirth, Adèle pleads with Edna to think of what she would be turning her back on if she did not behave appropriately. When Edna returns home, she finds a note from Robert stating that he has left forever, in devastated shock, Edna rushes back to Grand Isle, where she had first met Robert Lebrun. Edna escapes in a manner by committing suicide, drowning herself in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Edna Pontellier – a respectable Presbyterian from Kentucky, living in Creole society in Louisiana and she rebels against conventional expectations and discovers an identity independent from her role as a wife and mother
4.
Novel
–
A novel is any relatively long piece of written narrative fiction, normally in prose, and typically published as a book. The genre has also described as possessing, a continuous. This view sees the novels origins in Classical Greece and Rome, medieval, early modern romance, the latter, an Italian word used to describe short stories, supplied the present generic English term in the 18th century. The romance is a closely related long prose narrative, Romance, as defined here, should not be confused with the genre fiction love romance or romance novel. Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel, a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo, a novel is a long, fictional narrative which describes intimate human experiences. Most European languages use the word romance for extended narratives, fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing novels from historiography. However this can be a problematic criterion, historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. Novels can, on the hand, depict the social, political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity. Even in the 19th century, fictional narratives in verse, such as Lord Byrons Don Juan, Alexander Pushkins Yevgeniy Onegin, vikram Seths The Golden Gate, composed of 590 Onegin stanzas, is a more recent example of the verse novel. Both in 12th-century Japan and 15th-century Europe, prose fiction created intimate reading situations, on the other hand, verse epics, including the Odyssey and Aeneid, had been recited to a select audiences, though this was a more intimate experience than the performance of plays in theaters. A new world of Individualistic fashion, personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, conduct and gallantry spread with novels, the novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction, followed by the novella, short story, and flash fiction. However, in the 17th century critics saw the romance as of epic length, the length of a novel can still be important because most literary awards use length as a criterion in the ranking system. Urbanization and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty China led to the evolution of oral storytelling into consciously fictional novels by the Ming dynasty, parallel European developments did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when the availability of paper allowed for similar opportunities. By contrast, Ibn Tufails Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al-Nafis Theologus Autodidactus are works of didactic philosophy, in this sense, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan would be considered an early example of a philosophical novel, while Theologus Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel. Epic poetry exhibits some similarities with the novel, and the Western tradition of the novel back into the field of verse epics. Then at the beginning of the 18th century, French prose translations brought Homers works to a wider public, longus is the author of the famous Greek novel, Daphnis and Chloe. Romance or chivalric romance is a type of narrative in prose or verse popular in the circles of High Medieval. In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love
5.
Feminism
–
Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement
6.
Southern United States
–
The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
7.
Zelda Fitzgerald
–
Zelda Fitzgerald was a novelist, American socialite, and the wife of American author F. Scott Fitzgerald. Born in Montgomery, Alabama, she was noted for her beauty and high spirits and she and Scott became emblems of the Jazz Age, for which they are still celebrated. The immediate success of Scotts first novel This Side of Paradise brought them into contact with high society, Ernest Hemingway, whom Zelda disliked, blamed her for Scotts declining literary output, though her extensive diaries provided much material for his fiction. After being diagnosed with depression, she was increasingly confined to specialist clinics. Zelda died 7 years later in a fire at her hospital in Asheville, a 1970 biography by Nancy Milford was on the short list of contenders for the Pulitzer Prize. In 1992, Zelda was inducted into the Alabama Womens Hall of Fame and her life was dramatized in the 2017 TV series Z, The Beginning of Everything. Born in Montgomery, Alabama, Zelda Sayre was the youngest of six children and her mother, Minerva Buckner Minnie Machen, named her after characters in two little-known stories, Jane Howards Zelda, A Tale of the Massachusetts Colony and Robert Edward Francillons Zeldas Fortune. The family was descended from settlers of Long Island, who had moved to Alabama before the Civil War. By the time of Zeldas birth, the Sayres were a prominent Southern family. S and her siblings were Anthony Dickinson Sayre, Jr. Marjorie Sayre, Rosalind Sayre and Clothilde Sayre. As a child, Zelda Sayre was extremely active and she danced, took ballet lessons and enjoyed the outdoors. In 1914, Sayre began attending Sidney Lanier High School and she was bright, but uninterested in her lessons. Her work in ballet continued into high school, where she had a social life. She drank, smoked and spent much of her time with boys, a newspaper article about one of her dance performances quoted her as saying that she cared only about boys and swimming. She developed an appetite for attention, actively seeking to flout convention—whether by dancing the Charleston, or by wearing a tight, flesh-colored bathing suit to fuel rumors that she swam nude. Her fathers reputation was something of a safety net, preventing her social ruin, consequently, Sayres antics were shocking to many of those around her, and she became—along with her childhood friend and future Hollywood starlet Tallulah Bankhead—a mainstay of Montgomery gossip. Her ethos was encapsulated beneath her high-school graduation photo, Why should all life be work, lets think only of today, and not worry about tomorrow. Zelda first met the future novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald in July 1918, when he had volunteered for the army, Scott began to call her daily, and came into Montgomery on his free days. He talked of his plans to be famous, and sent her a chapter of a book he was writing and he was so taken by Zelda that he redrafted the character of Rosalind Connage in This Side of Paradise to resemble her
8.
New Orleans
–
New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
9.
Cloutierville, Louisiana
–
Cloutierville is an unincorporated community in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana, United States. It lies about 20 miles south of the city of Natchitoches on the Cane River, the community is part of the Natchitoches Micropolitan Statistical Area, off exit 119 of Interstate 49. This is a homeland of many multiracial Louisiana Creole people and it is in the NPS Cane River National Heritage Area. The town was built on the plantation of Alexis Cloutier and incorporated in 1822, the plantation house was later owned by Kate Chopin. Chopins former home was open to the public as the Bayou Folk Museum, the historic wooden St. John the Baptist Catholic Church and its cemetery are located in Cloutierville. Former State Representative Jean Doerge of Webster Parish, an educator, is a graduate of Cloutierville High School. Cane River National Heritage Area topics National Register of Historic Places listings in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana
10.
The Atlantic
–
The Atlantic is an American magazine, founded in 1857 as The Atlantic Monthly in Boston, Massachusetts. Since 2006, the magazine is based in Washington, D. C, created as a literary and cultural commentary magazine, it has grown to achieve a national reputation as a high-quality review organ with a moderate worldview. The magazine has recognized and published new writers and poets. It has published leading writers commentary on abolition, education, the periodical has won more National Magazine Awards than any other monthly magazine. The first issue of the magazine was published on November 1,1857, the magazines initiator and founder was Francis H. Underwood, an assistant to the publisher, who received less recognition than his partners because he was neither a humbug nor a Harvard man. After experiencing financial hardship and a series of changes, the magazine was reformatted as a general editorial magazine. Focusing on foreign affairs, politics, and the cultural trends, it is now primarily aimed at a target audience of serious national readers. In 2010, The Atlantic posted its first profit in a decade, in profiling the publication at the time, The New York Times noted the accomplishment was the result of a cultural transfusion, a dose of counterintuition and a lot of digital advertising revenue. The magazine, subscribed to by over 425,000 readers, the Atlantic features articles in the fields of the arts, the economy, foreign affairs, political science, and technology. The Atlantics president is Bob Cohn, in April 2005, The Atlantics editors decided to cease publishing fiction in regular issues in favor of a newsstand-only annual fiction issue edited by longtime staffer C. Michael Curtis. They have since re-instituted the practice, on January 22,2008, TheAtlantic. com dropped its subscriber wall and allowed users to freely browse its site, including all past archives. TheAtlantic. com covers politics, business, entertainment, technology, health, international affairs, and more. In December 2011, a new Health Channel launched on TheAtlantic. com, incorporating coverage of food, as well as related to the mind, body, sex, family. TheAtlantic. com has expanded to visual storytelling with the addition of the In Focus photo blog, curated by Alan Taylor. A leading literary magazine, The Atlantic has published significant works. It was the first to publish pieces by the abolitionists Julia Ward Howe, for example, Emily Dickinson, after reading an article in The Atlantic by Thomas Wentworth Higginson, asked him to become her mentor. In 2005, the magazine won a National Magazine Award for fiction, the magazine also published many of the works of Mark Twain, including one that was lost until 2001. Editors have recognized major cultural changes and movements, for example, the magazine has also published speculative articles that inspired the development of new technologies
11.
Vogue (magazine)
–
Vogue is an American fashion and lifestyle magazine made up of many components including fashion, beauty, culture, living, and runway. Vogue began as a newspaper in 1892 in the United States. The British Vogue was the first international edition launched in 1916, Turnures intention was to create a publication that celebrated the ceremonial side of life, one that attracts the sage as well as debutante, men of affairs as well as the belle. From its inception, the magazine targeted the new New York upper class, the magazine at this time was primarily concerned with fashion, with coverage of sports and social affairs included for its male readership. Despite the magazines content, it very slowly during this period. Condé Montrose Nast purchased Vogue in 1905 one year before Turnures death and he changed it to a bi-weekly magazine and started Vogue overseas in the 1910s. Under Nast, the magazine shifted its focus to women. The magazines number of publications and profit increased dramatically under Nasts management, by 1911, the Vogue brand had garnered a reputation that it continues to maintain, targeting an elite audience and expanding into the coverage of weddings. According to Condé Naste Russia, after the First World War made deliveries in the Old World impossible, the decision to print in England proved to be successful causing Nast to release the first issue of French Vogue in 1920. The magazines number of subscriptions surged during the Great Depression, during this time, noted critic and former Vanity Fair editor Frank Crowninshield served as its editor, having been moved over from Vanity Fair by publisher Condé Nast. In July of 1932, American Vogue placed its first color photograph on the cover of the magazine, the photograph was taken by photographer Edward Steichen and portrays a woman swimmer holding a beach ball in the air. Nast was responsible for introducing color printing and the two-page spread and he greatly impacted the magazine and turned it into a successful business and the womens magazine we recognize today and greatly increased the sales volumes until his death in 1942. Toward this end, Vogue extended coverage to include East Village boutiques such as Limbo on St, marks Place, as well as including features of downtown personalities such as Andy Warhols Superstar Jane Holzers favorite haunts. Vogue also continued making household names out of models, a practice continued with Suzy Parker, Twiggy, Jean Shrimpton, Lauren Hutton, Veruschka, Marisa Berenson, Penelope Tree. In 1973, Vogue became a monthly publication, under editor-in-chief Grace Mirabella, the magazine underwent extensive editorial and stylistic changes to respond to changes in the lifestyles of its target audience. Mirabella states that she was chosen to change Vogue because women werent interested in reading about or buying clothes that served no purpose in their changing lives and she was selected to make the magazine appeal to the the free, working, liberated woman of the seventies. She changed the magazine by adding text with interviews, arts coverage, when that type of stylihtic ceange f ell out of favor in the 1980s, Mirabella was brutally fired. Her take on it, For a magazine devoted to style, in July of 1988, after Vogue had began to lose ground to a three-year-old upstart Elle, Anna Wintour was named editor-in-chief
12.
The Century Magazine
–
It was the successor of Scribners Monthly Magazine and ceased publication in 1930. The change of name brought no change in scope or policy, and Scribner’s Monthly. Dr. Holland was an editor who knew what the public wanted. From the first he secured well-known contributors of high rank, a Publisher’s Department, with A word to our readers, or A talk with our readers, though relegated to the advertising pages, continued the methods of the old-fashioned personal journalist. The Century has always given much space to illustrated articles on history, the Life of Lincoln by Nicolay and Hay, large parts of which appeared serially in the Century, was of higher grade. Stedman had, even in the days of Scribner’s Monthly, contributed articles on the American poets, without neglecting fiction, poetry, and other general literature the magazine has devoted rather more attention than has Harper’s to matters of timely, though not of temporary, interest. The magazine was successful during the 19th century, most notably for the aforementioned series of articles about the American Civil War. It included reminiscences of 230 participants from all ranks of the service on both sides of the conflict, upon Gilder’s death in 1909, Robert Underwood Johnson replaced him as editor. According to Arthur John, the later history was marked by sudden shifts in content, format. In 1929, due to competition from cheaper magazines and newspapers, The Century became a quarterly, at the time it folded, The Century had 20,000 subscribers, less than a tenth of its peak circulation of the late nineteenth century. Scribner’s Monthly Magazine, the periodical that became The Century in 1881, the noted critic and editor Frank Crowninshield briefly served as the magazines art editor. The tone and content of The Century changed over its long history and it began as an Evangelical Christian publication, but over time began to speak to a more general educated audience as it developed into the largest periodical in the country. Novelist and poet Josiah G. Holland was one of the three founders of Scribner’s Monthly and wrote regular editorials for the periodical, setting the tone for the magazines content. As Holland was deeply religious, Scribners to a great extent reflected the views, while hostile towards sectarianism within Protestantism, Scribners initially took a strong stand against both Catholicism and those who doubted the divinity of Christ. Less than one year later, the magazine attacked the skepticism of Henry David Thoreau, mormon polygamy was also a frequent target. At the same time, Scribner’s Monthly, being non-dogmatic in its Protestantism, by the end of the 1870s, however, Scribner’s had departed from its original Evangelical orientation. An April 1879 editorial declared all seekers of truth, whether believing Christians or not, to be allies, Catholics were said to have just as much to teach Protestants as Protestants had to teach Catholics. After the magazine became The Century in 1881, it continued to hold onto this secular outlook under Gilder, the break with the past was reflected in the magazine’s changing treatment of the question of evolution
13.
The Youth's Companion
–
The Companion was published in Boston, Massachusetts by the Perry Mason Company. From 1892 to 1915 it was based in the Youths Companion Building, early issues of the Companion were centered on religion, having been created, in the words of its first publishers Nathaniel Willis and Asa Rand, to encourage virtue and piety, and. Warn against the ways of transgression, in its early years its circulation did not reach 5,000. Through the years, publishers included Willis & Rand, Olmstead & Co. another innovation was a medical column for older readers. In consequence, its circulation increased one-hundredfold, with sales peaking in 1893 and it was advertised in 1897 as an Illustrated Family Paper, having, as one person said of it, done away with childish things. On September 8,1892, the published the first copy of the Pledge of Allegiance. From 1893–1907, Johnson Morton served as an editor, in later years the magazine published articles from Willa Cather and Winston Churchill. Erle Stanley Gardner was, as a child, very fond of the magazine, when he embarked on his own writing career, Gardner borrowed the name Perry Mason for his famous fictional attorney-detective. Http, //history. vineyard. net/pdgech2. htm The Youths Companion - an advertising bookmark of the newspaper from 1902 The Youths Companion Project Univ. of Pittsburgh
14.
Miscegenation
–
Miscegenation is the mixing of different racial groups through marriage, cohabitation, sexual relations, or procreation. The term miscegenation has been used since the 19th century to refer to marriage and interracial sexual relations. Historically, the term has been used in the context of laws banning marriage and sex. The Latin term entered historical records during European colonialism and the Age of Discovery, in the present day, the word miscegenation is avoided by many scholars, because the term suggests a concrete biological phenomenon, rather than a categorization imposed on certain relationships. The term remains in use among scholars when referring to past practices concerning multiraciality, in Spanish, Portuguese and French, the words used to describe the mixing of races are mestizaje, mestiçagem and métissage. These words, much older than the term miscegenation, are derived from the Late Latin mixticius for mixed, Portuguese also uses miscigenação, derived from the same Latin root as the English word. Today, the mixes among races and ethnicities are diverse, so it is considered preferable to use the term mixed-race or simply mixed, Intermarriage occurred significantly from the very first settlements, with their descendants achieving high rank in government and society. To this day, there are controversies if Brazilian class system would be drawn mostly around socio-economic lines, conversely, people classified in censuses as black, brown or indigenous have disadvantaged social indicators in comparison to the white population. The concept of miscegenation is tied to concepts of racial difference, Mestizo are people of mixed white and indigenous, usually Amerindian ancestry, who do not self-identify as indigenous peoples or Native Americans. Thus the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, Mixture of all races and of all times. Miscegenation comes from the Latin miscere, to mix and genus, the word was coined in an anonymous propaganda pamphlet published in New York City in December 1863, during the American Civil War. The pamphlet was entitled Miscegenation, The Theory of the Blending of the Races, Applied to the American White Man and Negro. It purported to advocate the intermarriage of whites and blacks until they were mixed, as a desirable goal. There was already much opposition to the war effort, the pamphlet and variations on it were reprinted widely in both the north and south by Democrats and Confederates. Only in November 1864 was the pamphlet exposed as a hoax, the hoax pamphlet was written by David Goodman Croly, managing editor of the New York World, a Democratic Party paper, and George Wakeman, a World reporter. By then, the word miscegenation had entered the language of the day as a popular buzzword in political and social discourse. The issue of miscegenation, raised by the opponents of Abraham Lincoln, in the United States, miscegenation has referred primarily to the intermarriage between whites and non-whites, especially blacks. Before the publication of Miscegenation, the amalgamation, borrowed from metallurgy, had been in use as a general term for ethnic
15.
Grand Isle, Louisiana
–
Grand Isle is a town in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, located on a barrier island of the same name in the Gulf of Mexico. The island is at the mouth of Barataria Bay where it meets the gulf, as of the 2010 census, the towns resident population was 1,296, during summers, the population including tourists and seasonal residents sometimes increases to over 20,000. Grand Isle is statistically part of the New Orleans−Metairie−Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area, Grand Isles main street is the seaside start of Louisiana Highway 1, which stretches 436.2 miles away to the northwest corner of the state, ending near Shreveport, Louisiana. LA 1s automobile causeway at the west end of the island is the land access to or from Grand Isle. Direct access to Grand Isles seat of government is 95 miles away in suburban Jefferson Parish. Grand Isle has been repeatedly pummeled by hurricanes through its history, on average, Grand Isle has been affected by tropical storms or hurricanes every 2.68 years, with direct hits on average every 7.88 years. Some of the more severe are listed here, in 1860 a 6-foot storm surge and great winds resulted in the total devastation of the island. In the 1893 Atlantic hurricane season Grand Isle was devastated by a 16-foot storm surge, in the 1909 Atlantic hurricane season the island was hit with a second 16-foot storm surge. A Category 4 hurricane devastated Grand Isle on 29 September during the 1915 Atlantic hurricane season, Grand Isle was hit by a 3. 6-foot storm surge on 22 August during the 1947 Atlantic hurricane season. In 1956 Hurricane Flossy damaged the island, Hurricane Betsy in September 1965 and Tropical Storm Frances in 1998 put the entire island under water. On 26 September 2002, Grand Isle was hit by Hurricane Isidore, soon followed by Hurricane Lili passing to the west of the island, Hurricane Cindy scored a direct hit on Grand Isle on July 5,2005. Even though damage was limited to power outages and beach erosion. Hurricane Katrina pounded Grand Isle for two days, August 28–29,2005, destroying or damaging homes and camps along the entire island, Katrinas surge reached 5 ft at Grand Isle. Large waves severely damaged the bridge linking Grand Isle to the mainland. Less than a later, Grand Isle was further affected by Hurricane Rita. By mid October, a number of businesses were open on the island. Hurricane Gustav reached shore west of the island on September 1,2008, at 9 am CDT and it was one of the few locations in Louisiana affected while the storm was still classified as major hurricane. While both storms eyes passed the island at similar distances, Katrinas eastern passing caused greatest damage on the bay side of island
16.
Louisiana
–
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
17.
Natchitoches, Louisiana
–
Natchitoches is a small city and the parish seat of Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana, United States. Established in 1714 by Louis Juchereau de St. Denis as part of French Louisiana, the City of Natchitoches was not incorporated until after Louisiana had become a state, on February 5,1819. It is the oldest permanent settlement in the region, Natchitoches sister city is Nacogdoches, Texas. It is also the location of Northwestern State University, Natchitoches was established in 1714 by Louis Juchereau de St. Denis. It is the oldest permanent settlement within the borders of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, Natchitoches was founded as a French outpost on the Red River for trade with Spanish-controlled Mexico, French traders settled there as early as 1699. The post was established near a village of Natchitoches Indians, after whom the city was named, after the United States Louisiana Purchase of 1803, migration into the territory increased from the US, and Natchitoches experienced a population boom. Several plantations were built along the Red River, in the 1820s and early 1830s, Natchitoches was a freight transfer point for cotton from parts of east Texas. Cotton shippers used a route crossing the Sabine River to Natchitoches, where the freight was transferred to boats. However, the course of the river shifted, bypassing Natchitoches, a 33-mile lake was left in the rivers previous location. It became known as Cane River Lake, the lake runs through the city’s downtown historic district and Plantation Country. During the Civil War, Natchitoches was set on fire by Union soldiers who retreated through the town after their attempt to capture Shreveport. Confederate cavalry pursued the soldiers and arrived in time to help extinguish the flames before the town was destroyed. In the spring of 1863, Confederate General Richard Taylor and his men passed through Natchitoches en route to Shreveport, andrew W. Hyatt, one of Taylors line officers, wrote in his diary, reaching the banks of Cane River. We are now on a race from the enemy, and are bound for Grand Ecore. Three days later on May 11,1863, Hyatt penned, Natchitoches is quite a town, and the galleries were crowded with pretty women, who waved us a kind reception as we passed through town. Around Natchitoches and its environs,12,556 bales of Confederate cotton were stored, a match factory also opened in the city during the war. Natchitoches often engaged in fund-raising activities to relieve the destitute during the war, winters observed, Eggnog parties and other social affairs during the Christmas holiday season lifted the morale of civilians as well as that of the soldiers. Natchitoches was the site of the 1973 plane crash claimed the life of singer-songwriter Jim Croce
18.
Galway, Ireland
–
Galway is a city in the West of Ireland in the province of Connacht. Galway City Council is the authority for the city. Galway lies on the River Corrib between Lough Corrib and Galway Bay and is surrounded by County Galway and it is the fourth most populous urban area in the Republic of Ireland and the sixth most populous city in the island of Ireland. According to the 2016 Irish Census, Galway city has a population of 79,504, however, Galway will be European Capital of Culture in 2020, alongside Rijeka, Croatia. The citys name is from the Irish name for Abhainn na Gaillimhe, historically, the name was Anglicised as Galliv, which is closer to the Irish pronunciation as is the citys name in Latin, Galvia. The city also bears the nickname The City of the Tribes because of the fourteen merchant families called the tribes of Galway led the city in its Hiberno-Norman period. The term tribes was a one, because the merchants saw themselves as Anglo-Irish and were loyal to the King during the English Civil War. They later adopted the term as a badge of honour and pride in defiance of the towns Cromwellian occupier, residents of the city refer to themselves as Galwegians. Dún Bhun na Gaillimhe was constructed in 1124, by the King of Connacht, eventually, a small settlement grew up around this fort. During the Norman invasion of Connacht in the 1230s, Galway fort was captured by Richard Mor de Burgh, as the de Burghs eventually became Gaelicised, the merchants of the town, the Tribes of Galway, pushed for greater control over the walled city. This led to their complete control over the city and to the granting of mayoral status by the English crown in December 1484. Galway endured difficult relations with its Irish neighbours, a notice over the west gate of the city, completed in 1562 by Mayor Thomas Óge Martyn, stated From the Ferocious OFlahertys may God protect us. A by-law forbade the native Irish unrestricted access into Galway, saying neither O’ nor Mac shall strutte nor swagger through the streets of Galway without permission, during the Middle Ages, Galway was ruled by an oligarchy of fourteen merchant families. These were the The Tribes of Galway, the city thrived on international trade, and in the Middle Ages, it was the principal Irish port for trade with Spain and France. The most famous reminder of days is ceann an bhalla, now known as the Spanish Arch. In 1477 Christopher Columbus visited Galway, possibly stopping off on a voyage to Iceland or the Faroe Islands, seven or eight years later, he noted in the margin of his copy of Imago Mundi, Men of Cathay have come from the west. During the 16th and 17th centuries Galway remained loyal to the English crown for the most part, even during the Gaelic resurgence, however, by 1642 the city had allied itself with the Catholic Confederation of Kilkenny during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. During the resulting Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, Cromwellian forces captured the city after a nine-month siege, the great families of Galway were ruined
19.
French Canadians
–
French Canadians are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population in Canada, today, French Canadians live across North America. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French-Canadian descent, though smaller communities exist throughout Canada, between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States, mostly to the New England region. Other terms for French Canadians who continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebecers or Québécois, the other major group of French Canadians are the Acadians who reside in the Maritime Provinces. In total, those who identify as French Canadian, French, Québécois, the French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the area along the St. From 1535 to the 1690s, the French word Canadien had referred to the First Nations the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona, at the end of the 17th century, Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. French Canadians living in Canada express their identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as French, French Canadians, Québécois, the latter three were grouped together by Jantzen as French New World ancestries because they originate in Canada. Canadien was used to refer to the French-speaking residents of New France beginning in the last half of the 17th century, the English-speaking residents who arrived later from Great Britain were called Anglais. This usage continued until Canadian Confederation in 1867 and those reporting French New World ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada. Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their group, with 70% and 61%, respectively. The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada. As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker, for example, only 50% of third generation Canadians strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average. The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities and these identities include French New World ancestries such as Québécois, Acadian. Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois or Québécoise to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français, francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as French Canadian. Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty and this is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as French Canadian, identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do
20.
Dauphin Island, Alabama
–
Dauphin Island is a town in Mobile County, Alabama, United States, on a barrier island of the same name, at the Gulf of Mexico. The population was 1,238 at the 2010 census, the town is included in the Mobile metropolitan statistical area. The island was renamed for Louis XIVs great-grandson and heir, the Dauphin, the name of the island is often mistaken as Dolphin Island, dauphin is dolphin in the French language. The Gulf of Mexico is to the south of the island, the islands eastern end helps define the mouth of Mobile Bay. The eastern, wider portion of the island is shaded by thick stands of pine trees, beaches attract tourism, and fishing is a popular activity in the waters around the island. The island is connected to the mainland by the Gordon Persons Bridge, although the island has several bird sanctuaries, the main one is the 164-acre Audubon Bird Sanctuary. Dauphin Island is the first landfall encountered by many birds as they migrate north from South America, in May 2012, the central public beach began charging for access. This marked the beach on the island to charge the public following the creation of the privately owned West End Beach. Serpentine shell middens, perhaps 1500 years old, attest to at least seasonal occupation by the Native American Mound Builder culture, shell Mound Park, along the Islands northern shore, is administered by Alabama Marine Resources Division. In 1519, the Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda was the first documented European to visit, dIberville named it Isle Du Massacre because of a large pile of human skeletons discovered there. The gruesome site turned out to be a burial mound which had been broken open by a hurricane, not a massacre site. DIberville later decided to locate a port for Fort Louis de La Louisiane on the due to abundant timber, reliable supply of fresh water. The settlement consisted of a fort, a chapel, government-owned warehouses, the island served as a major trading depot, unloading goods from Saint-Domingue, Mexico, Cuba and France, and collecting furs in a short-lived fur trade. So, smaller boats carried cargo within Mobile Bay to Dauphin Island, Fort Gaines on the eastern tip of the island was built between 1821 and 1848. It was occupied by Confederate forces in 1861, and captured by Federal troops during the Battle of Mobile Bay, the phrase, Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead, was spoken by U. S. Admiral David Farragut just a few hundred yards from Dauphin Islands shore. The first Sand Island Light, authorized in 1834, was replaced by a structure 150 feet high, at a cost of $35,000, the present lighthouse, has been placed on the National Register of Historic Places. Its ownership was transferred from the Department of Interior to the Town of Dauphin Island. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the town has an area of 167.1 square miles
21.
Fairy tale
–
Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends and explicitly moral tales, including beast fables. The term is used for stories with origins in European tradition and, at least in recent centuries. In less technical contexts, the term is used to describe something blessed with unusual happiness. Colloquially, a tale or fairy story can also mean any far-fetched story or tall tale, it is used especially of any story that not only is not true. Legends are perceived as real, fairy tales may merge into legends, Fairy tales are found in oral and in literary form, the name fairy tale was first ascribed to them by Madame dAulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of todays fairy tales have evolved from stories that have appeared, with variations. The history of the tale is particularly difficult to trace because only the literary forms can survive. Still, according to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, such stories may date back thousands of years, Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today. Folklorists have classified fairy tales in various ways, the Aarne-Thompson classification system and the morphological analysis of Vladimir Propp are among the most notable. Other folklorists have interpreted the significance, but no school has been definitively established for the meaning of the tales. It moves in a world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvelous. In this never-never land, humble heroes kill adversaries, succeed to kingdoms, a fairy tale with a tragic rather than a happy end is called an anti-fairy tale. Although the fairy tale is a genre within the larger category of folktale. The term itself comes from the translation of Madame DAulnoys conte de fées, Vladimir Propp, in his Morphology of the Folktale, criticized the common distinction between fairy tales and animal tales on the grounds that many tales contained both fantastic elements and animals. Were I asked, what is a fairytale, I should reply, Read Undine, that is a fairytale. of all fairytales I know, I think Undine the most beautiful. As Stith Thompson points out, talking animals and the presence of magic seem to be common to the fairy tale than fairies themselves. However, the presence of animals that talk does not make a tale a fairy tale, especially when the animal is clearly a mask on a human face. Steven Swann Jones identified the presence of magic as the feature by which fairy tales can be distinguished from other sorts of folktales, davidson and Chaudri identify transformation as the key feature of the genre
22.
Allegory
–
As a literary device, an allegory is a metaphor whose vehicle may be a character, place or event, representing real-world issues and occurrences. Many ancient religions are based on astrological allegories, that is, allegories of the movement of the sun, in classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the Cave in Platos Republic and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa. One of the examples of allegory, Platos Allegory of the Cave. In this allegory, Plato describes a group of people who have lived chained in an all of their lives. The people watch shadows projected on the wall by things passing in front of a fire behind them and begin to ascribe forms to these shadows, using language to identify their world. He tries to tell the people in the cave of his discovery, also allegorical is Ezekiel 16 and 17, wherein the capture of that same vine by the mighty Eagle represents Israels exile to Rome. Allegory has an ability to freeze the temporality of a story, Mediaeval thinking accepted allegory as having a reality underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as the facts of surface appearances, if, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they necessarily confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ. This text also demonstrates the frequent use of allegory in religious texts during the Mediaeval Period, following the tradition, since meaningful stories are nearly always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories which the author may not have recognised. This is allegoresis, or the act of reading a story as an allegory. S, lewis and A Kingdom Far and Clear, The Complete Swan Lake Trilogy by Mark Helprin. The story of the apple falling onto Isaac Newtons head is another famous allegory and it simplified the idea of gravity by depicting a simple way it was supposedly discovered. It also made the scientific revelation well known by condensing the theory into a short tale. According to Henry Littlefields 1964 article, L. Yet, George MacDonald emphasised in 1893 that, A fairy tale is not an allegory, I much prefer history – true or feigned– with its varied applicability to the thought and experience of readers. I think that many confuse applicability with allegory, but the one resides in the freedom of the reader, and this further reinforces the idea of forced allegoresis, as allegory is often a matter of interpretation and only sometimes of original artistic intention. Like allegorical stories, allegorical poetry has two meanings – a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning, some unique specimens of allegory can be found in the following works, Edmund Spenser – The Faerie Queene, The several knights in the poem actually stand for several virtues. Nathaniel Hawthorne – Young Goodman Brown, The Devils Staff symbolises defiance of God, the characters names, such as Goodman and Faith, ironically serve as paradox in the conclusion of the story. Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Scarlet Letter, The scarlet letter symbolises many things, the characters, while developed with interiority, are allegorical in that they represent ways of seeing the world. George Orwell – Animal Farm, The pigs stand for political figures of the Russian Revolution, lászló Krasznahorkai - The Melancholy of Resistance and the film Werckmeister Harmonies, It uses a circus to describe an occupying dysfunctional government
23.
Kate Chopin House (Cloutierville, Louisiana)
–
The Kate Chopin House, also known as the Bayou Folk Museum or Alexic Cloutier House, was a house in Cloutierville, Louisiana. It was the home of Kate Chopin, author of The Awakening, the house was located on Main Street in Cloutierville, in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. The home was built by the founder, Alexis Cloutier and was constructed in a combination of handmade brick, hand-hewn cypress boards. Its construction, done through the use of labor, dated to between 1806 and 1813. Kate Chopin moved here with her husband Oscar and their five children in 1879 and her sixth child, a daughter named Lélia, was born here shortly after the familys arrival. Oscar set up a store and ran the business end of the family plantation. Shortly after their arrival in Cloutierville, he inherited a quarter of the family property, Chopin would later describe the neighborhood in her 1891 short story For Marse Chouchoute as two long rows of very old frame houses, facing each other closely across a dusty roadway. Neighbors, mostly of French-Creole descent, did not approve of Chopins fashion and tendency to smoke cigarettes, play cards, local gossip also suggested that Chopin lifted her skirt higher than necessary when walking, showing her ankles. Kate Chopin only lived here for four years when her husband died. Oscar Chopin had suffered from malaria and overdosed on quinine, leading to his wife Kate to take over the business, however, she soon left the home and relocated to St. Louis, Missouri by mid-1884 to be with her mother. She left her sons with the family of her husband in Cloutierville, Chopin used some of her experience in the town for inspiration for several of her writings, including Bayou Folk, A Night in Acadie, and The Awakening. The house was opened as a museum in 1979 and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1993 for its association with Kate Chopins life and her use of area happenings as source for bayou life covered in much of her writings. Though the building was restored, the wainscotting was original, as were many of the glass panes, a collection of Chopin artifacts was displayed in one of the basement rooms. The museum, known as the Bayou Folk Museum, was run by the Association for Preservation of Historic Natchitoches, the house was destroyed in a fire on October 1,2008. Though the cause of the fire was not determined, the homes destruction inspired the use of measures at other historic structures in Louisiana. Its National Historic Landmark designation and National Register of Historic Places listing were withdrawn in December 2015, baldwins Guide to Museums of Louisiana. ISBN9781455600557 Schmidt, Shannon McKenna and Joni Rendon, novel Destinations, Literary Landmarks from Jane Austens Bath to Ernest Hemingways Key West. ISBN 1-57806-101-6 Cane River National Heritage Area, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
24.
Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana
–
Natchitoches Parish is a parish located in the U. S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 39,566, the parish was formed in 1805. The Natchitoches, LA Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of Natchitoches Parish and this is the heart of the Cane River Louisiana Creole community. Including extensive outbuildings at Magnolia and Oakland plantations, the Cane River Creole National Historical Park interprets the history and it was designated one of the original sites on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail. Natchitoches Parish was created by the act of April 10,1805 that divided the Territory of Orleans into twelve parishes, including Orleans, Iberville, Rapides and Natchitoches. The parish boundaries were much larger than now defined, but were reduced as new parishes were organized to keep up with population increases in the state. Caddo, Claiborne, Bossier, Webster, DeSoto, Bienville, Jackson, Sabine, Red River, Winn, Natchitoches Parish has fifteen border revisions, making it second only to Ouachita parish in number of boundary revisions. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the parish has an area of 1,299 square miles. It is the fourth-largest parish by area in Louisiana. The primary groundwater resources of Natchitoches Parish, from surface to deepest, include the Red River alluvial, upland terrace, Sparta. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 39,566 people residing in the county. 54. 3% were White,41. 4% Black or African American,1. 0% Native American,0. 3% Asian,0. 9% of some other race and 2. 1% of two or more races. As of the census of 2000, there were 39,080 people,14,263 households, the population density was 31 people per square mile. There were 16,890 housing units at a density of 14 per square mile. 1. 45% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,27. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the family size was 3.14. In the parish the population was out with 26. 00% under the age of 18,17. 90% from 18 to 24,24. 30% from 25 to 44,19. 70% from 45 to 64. The median age was 30 years, for every 100 females there were 90.60 males
25.
Plantations in the American South
–
A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
26.
General store
–
A general store is a rural or small town store that carries a general line of merchandise. It carries a selection of merchandise, sometimes in a small space. The store carries routine stock and obtains special orders from warehouses and it differs from a convenience store or corner shop in that it will be the main shop for the community rather than a convenient supplement. General stores often sell staple food items such as milk and bread, the term general merchandise store is also used to describe a hybrid of a department store, with a wide selection of goods, and a discount store, with low prices. Examples include J. C. Penney and Sears, General dealers were established in the 18th and 19th century in many remote populated places where mobility was limited and a single shop was sufficient to service the entire community. Due to its connection and confinement to its customers, general dealers often adjusted their sales offerings to the specific preferences of their community. General dealers existed—apart from mainland England and North America—in all colonies, in the colonies trade in local produce had existed long before official shops were opened. While a large number of stores still exist in Australia. The oldest continually run general store in Canada is Trousdales, located in Sydenham, Ontario, socialbility has always been a feature, as locals come to chat as well as buy. In the Dominican Republic, a colmado is the equivalent to a general store. Colmado literal translation is full to the brim implying its great density of goods in a small space, the colmado is much more than just a general store, for it offers a social gathering point for the residents of the town or neighborhood. The colmado is an important institution in the Dominican Republic serving as an economic and it is common for colmados to have loud Dominican music such as merengue, bachata, or salsa playing. A common pastime for Dominican men is to play dominoes and drink a beer at their local colmado on Sundays, another particularity of the colmado is that they provide delivery services of their products straight to your house door. Products go from beers, snacks, toilet paper to a light or canned food. The Greek merchants in Egypt were called bakal, in India, a tapri is a regional version of a general store. It stores all home, personal, medical, and hygienic daily used products, many Kirana shops sell products other from food, such as clothing or household items, stationery, toys, tools, and medicines. Small Kirna stores, which are located on the corner of streets and generally known as katta or tapri, sell cigarettes, tobacco. In Puerto Rico, a U. S. territory, several stores have proliferated since the 1970s
27.
Louisiana Creole people
–
Louisiana Creole people, are persons descended from the inhabitants of colonial Louisiana during the period of both French and Spanish rule. The term creole was originally used by French settlers to distinguish persons born in Louisiana from those born in the country or elsewhere. As in many other societies around the world, creole was a term used to mean those who were native-born. It also came to be applied to African-descended slaves and Native Americans who were born in Louisiana, Louisiana Creoles share cultural ties, such as the traditional use of the French language and a predominance of practice of Catholicism. As more refugees were allowed in Louisiana, Haitian émigrés who had first gone to Cuba also arrived and these groups had strong influences on the city and its culture. Later immigrants to New Orleans, such as Irish, Germans and Italians, Louisiana Creoles are mostly Catholic in religion. Through the 19th century, most spoke French and were connected to French colonial culture. Only the small Spanish Creole communities of Saint Bernard Parish and Galveztown spoke Spanish and they have maintained cultural traditions from the Canary Islands, where their ancestors came from, to the present. The varieties of Louisiana Creoles shaped the culture, particularly in the southern areas around New Orleans. Louisiana is known as the Creole State, other enclaves of Creole culture have been located in south Louisiana, Frilot Cove, Bois Mallet, Grand Marais, Palmetto, Lawtell, Soileau and others. These communities have had a history of cultural independence. Another area where many creoles can be found is within the River Parishes, St. Charles, St. John, and St. James. Through both the French and Spanish regimes, parochial and colonial governments used the term Creole for ethnic French, parisian French was the predominant language among colonists in early New Orleans. Later the regional French evolved to contain local phrases and slang terms, the French Creoles spoke what became known as Colonial French. Because of isolation, the language in the colony developed differently from that in France and it was spoken by the ethnic French and Spanish and their Creole descendants. The commonly accepted definition of Louisiana Creole today is a person descended from ancestors in Louisiana before the Louisiana Purchase by the United States in 1803. An estimated 7,000 European immigrants settled in Louisiana during the 18th century, Louisiana attracted considerably fewer French colonists than did its West Indian colonies. After the crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, which lasted more than two months, the colonists had numerous challenges ahead of them in the Louisiana frontier
28.
Obstetrics
–
Obstetrics is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynaecology under the discipline known as obstetrics, prenatal care is important in screening for various complications of pregnancy. The newer integrated screen can be done at 10 plus weeks to 13 plus weeks with an ultrasound of the fetal neck and it gives an accurate risk profile very early. A second blood screen at 15 to 20 weeks refines the risk more accurately, the cost is higher than an AFP-quad screen due to the ultrasound and second blood test, but it is quoted to have a 93% pick up rate as opposed to 88% for the standard AFP/QS. This is a standard of care in the United States. If positive, the woman receives IV penicillin or ampicillin while in labor—or, if she is allergic to penicillin, glucose loading test - screens for gestational diabetes, if >140 mg/dL, a glucose tolerance test is administered, a fasting glucose >105 mg/dL suggests gestational diabetes. Specialised ultrasound equipment can also evaluate the flow velocity in the umbilical cord. X-rays and computerized tomography are not used, especially in the first trimester, due to the ionizing radiation, no effects of magnetic resonance imaging on the foetus have been demonstrated, but this technique is too expensive for routine observation. Instead, obstetric ultrasonography is the method of choice in the first trimester and throughout the pregnancy, because it emits no radiation, is portable. The safety of frequent ultrasound scanning has not be confirmed, despite this, increasing numbers of women are choosing to have additional scans for no medical purpose, such as gender scans, 3D and 4D scans. A normal gestation would reveal a gestational sac, yolk sac, the gestational age can be assessed by evaluating the mean gestational sac diameter before week 6, and the crown-rump length after week 6. Multiple gestation is evaluated by the number of placentae and amniotic sacs present, other tools used for assessment include, Fetal screening is used to help assess the viability of the fetus, as well as congenital abnormalities. Fetal karyotype can be used for the screening of genetic diseases, Fetal lung maturity is associated with how much surfactant the fetus is producing. Reduced production of surfactant indicates decreased lung maturity and is a risk factor for infant respiratory distress syndrome. Typically a lecithin, sphingomyelin ratio greater than 1.5 is associated with increased lung maturity, diabetes mellitus and pregnancy deals with the interactions of diabetes mellitus and pregnancy. Risks for the child include miscarriage, growth restriction, growth acceleration, feotal obesity, polyhydramnios, systemic lupus erythematosus and pregnancy confers an increased rate of foetal death in utero and spontaneous abortion, as well as of neonatal lupus. Thyroid disease in pregnancy can, if uncorrected, cause adverse effects on foetal and maternal well-being, the deleterious effects of thyroid dysfunction can also extend beyond pregnancy and delivery to affect neurointellectual development in the early life of the child. Demand for thyroid hormones is increased during pregnancy, and may cause a previously unnoticed thyroid disorder to worsen, hypercoagulability in pregnancy is the propensity of pregnant women to develop thrombosis
29.
St. Louis Post-Dispatch
–
The St. Louis Post-Dispatch is the major regional newspaper in St. Louis, in the U. S. state of Missouri, serving Greater St. Louis. It is the only remaining printed newspaper in the city. It is the fifth-largest newspaper in the midwestern United States, and is the 26th-largest newspaper in the U. S, according to its masthead, the publication has received eighteen Pulitzer Prizes. The paper is owned by Lee Enterprises of Davenport, Iowa, Circulation dropped for the daily paper from 213,472 to 191,631 to 178,801 for the two years after 2010, ending on September 30,2011, and September 30,2012. The Sunday paper also decreased from 401,427 to 332,825 to 299,227 and he appointed John A. Cockerill as the managing editor. Its first edition,4,020 copies of four pages each, in 1882, James Overton Broadhead ran for US Congress against John Glover. Broadheads friend and law partner, Alonzo W. Slayback, publicly defended Broadhead, the next day,13 Oct 1882, Cockerill re-ran an offensive card by John Glover that the paper had published the prior November. Incensed, Slayback barged into Cockerills offices at the paper demanding an apology, Cockerill shot and killed Slayback, he claimed self-defense, and a pistol was allegedly found on Slaybacks body. A grand jury refused to indict Cockerill for murder, but the consequences for the paper were severe. Therefore, in May 1883, Pulitzer sent Cockerill to New York to manage the New York World for him, the Post-Dispatch was one of the first daily newspapers to print a comics section in color, on the back page of the features section, styled the Everyday Magazine. At one time, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch had the second-largest news bureau in Washington, after his retirement, generations of Pulitzers guided the newspaper, ending when great-grandson Joseph Pulitzer IV left the company in 1995. The Post-Dispatch was characterized by an editorial page and columnists. The editorial page was noted also for political cartoons by Daniel R. Fitzpatrick, several months prior to the anniversary edition, the newspaper published a 63rd anniversary tribute to Our Own Oddities, a lighthearted feature that ran from 1940 to 1990. During the presidency of Harry S. Truman, the paper was one of his most outspoken critics and it associated him with the Pendergast machine in Kansas City, and constantly attacked his integrity. A Pulitzer Prize-winning campaign to clean up smoke pollution in St. Louis, in the late 1930s and early 1940s, the city had the filthiest air in America. The sports coverage, including nine St. Louis baseball Cardinals championships, an NBA title by the St. Louis Hawks in 1958, coverage of the citys cultural icons including Kate Chopin, Tennessee Williams, Chuck Berry, and Miles Davis. He said no family members would serve on the board of the merged company, the Post-Dispatch underwent a major redesign in September 2005, which brought a new layout, new fonts, and localized editions for St. Charles County and Illinois. Many readers have criticized the new format for devoting a larger percentage of space to advertisements
30.
British regional literature
–
The setting is particularly important in regional literature. Thomas Hardys novels can be described as regional because of the way he makes use of elements in relation to a part of the West of England. On the other hand, it seems much less appropriate to describe Charles Dickens as a regional novelist of London and the south of England. John Cowper Powys has been seen as a successor to Thomas Hardy, as with Hardys novels, the landscape plays a major role in Powyss works, and an elemental philosophy is important in the lives of his characters. Powyss first novel Wood and Stone was dedicated to Thomas Hardy, Maiden Castle, the last of the Wessex novels, is set in Dorchester, Thomas Hardys Casterbridge, and which he intended to be a rival to Hardys Mayor of Casterbridge. The term has also used, in the past, disparagingly, especially with regard to women writers. Noted for his eye for and sympathy with nature, critics of the time described this as one of the most striking features of his writings and he may be said to have done for Devon what Sir Walter Scott did for the Highlands and Hardy for Wessex. However, Blackmore is now remembered for one work, Lorna Doone, catherine Cookson, who wrote about her deprived youth in South Tyneside, County Durham was one United Kingdoms most widely read novelists in the twentieth century. Amongst poets there is William Wordsworth, and the other Lake Poets, while the poet William Barnes is seen as primarily a Dorset poet, john Clare was commonly known as the Northamptonshire Peasant Poet. His formal education was brief, his employment and class-origins were lowly. He wrote in his Northamptonshire dialect, introducing local words to the literary canon such as pooty, lady-cow, alfred Tennyson has been identified as a Lincolnshire poet, while Philip Larkin is principally associated with the city of Hull, and Basil Bunting with Northumberland. For information on Welsh regional writers, see Welsh literature in English The Royal Society of Literature Ondaatje Prize is a literary award given by the Royal Society of Literature. The prize bears the name of its benefactor Christopher Ondaatje and incorporates the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize which was presented up to 2002 for regional fiction, bentley, Phyllis Eleanor, The English regional novel 1894–1977. Keith, W. J. Regions of the imagination, the development of British rural fiction, Toronto, Buffalo, University of Toronto Press, c1988. Pite, Ralph, Hardys geography, Wessex and the regional novel, mapping the Wessex novel, landscape, history and the parochial in British literature, 1870–1940. London, New York, Continuum International Pub, the regional novel in Britain and Ireland. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1998, and The Bibliography of Regional Fiction in Britain and Ireland, 1800–2000
31.
Marquis Who's Who
–
Marquis Whos Who /ˈmɑːrkwᵻs/ is the American publisher of a number of directories containing short biographies. The books are usually titled Whos Who in, followed by some subject, such as Whos Who in America, Whos Who of American Women, Whos Who in the World, Whos Who in Science and Engineering, Whos Who in American Politics, etc. Marquis Whos Who books are found in the reference section of local libraries, at corporate libraries. Whos Who in America, its publication, is a registered trademark of Marquis Whos Who Ventures, LLC. In 2005, while owned by News Communications, Inc. publishers of The Hill, Marquis states in the Preface that Whos Who in America endeavors to profile the leaders of American society, those men and women who are influencing their nations development. The content is provided online to libraries and other paid subscribers. Marquis Whos Who claims to require no publication or processing fees from the selected as biographees. Today, the company publishes over a different series and offers an online database with information on 1.4 million individuals. Originally independent, it was acquired by the conglomerate ITT, Macmillan bought ITTs publishing division in 1985. Reed Publishing bought Marquis and National Register from Macmillan in 1991, News Communications, Inc. which owns The Hill, bought Marquis in 2003. Individuals become eligible for listing by virtue of their positions and/or noteworthy achievements that have proved to be of significant value to society, an individuals desire to be listed is not sufficient reason for inclusion. Similarly, wealth or social position are not criteria, purchase of the book is never a factor in the selection of biographees. Some insight into the process can be obtained from William L Hamiltons article entitled Who Are You. That appeared in The New York Times in 2005 and he writes about new owners acquiring Marquis in 2003, an editorial team of 70, including 12 researchers, make the call on whos notable and whos not. Marquis calls its selection criteria stringent and says that data on candidates for listing are reviewed by its editors to confirm that its requirements are met. Their chief executive, Gene M. McGovern, told The New York Times that the fundamental standards here are position, once selected, a biographical draft is sent to biographees for pre-publication checking. In cases where notable individuals decline to submit data, Marquis compiles information itself. You truly have to look at how they are marketing and what the spin is and its something you might want to watch out for
32.
Louisiana Purchase Exposition
–
The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, informally known as the St. Louis Worlds Fair, was an international exposition held in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, from April 30 to December 1,1904. Local, state, and federal funds totaling $15 million were used to finance the event, more than 60 countries and 43 of the 45 American states maintained exhibition spaces at the fair, which was attended by nearly 19.7 million people. Historians generally emphasize the prominence of themes of race and empire, from the point of view of the memory of the average person who attended the fair, it primarily promoted entertainment, consumer goods and popular culture. In 1904, St. Louis hosted a Worlds Fair to celebrate the centennial of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, an additional $5 million was generated through private donations by interested citizens and businesses from around Missouri, a fundraising target reached in January 1901. The fundraising mission was aided by the support of President of the United States William McKinley. The exposition remained in operation from its opening until December 1,1904, the fairs 1, 200-acre site, designed by George Kessler, was located at the present-day grounds of Forest Park and on the campus of Washington University, and was the largest fair to date. There were over 1,500 buildings, connected by some 75 miles of roads and it was said to be impossible to give even a hurried glance at everything in less than a week. The Palace of Agriculture alone covered some 20 acres, exhibits were staged by approximately 50 foreign nations, the United States government, and 43 of the then-45 U. S. states. These featured industries, cities, private organizations and corporations, theater troupes, over 19 million individuals were in attendance at the fair. In conjunction with the Exposition the U. S, post Office issued a series of five commemorative stamps celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase. Louisiana Purchase Commemoratives Kessler, who designed many parks in Texas. A popular myth says that Frederick Law Olmsted, who had died the year before the Fair, designed the park, there are several reasons for this confusion. First, Kessler in his twenties had worked briefly for Olmsted as a Central Park gardener, second, Olmsted was involved with Forest Park in Queens, New York. Third, Olmsted had planned the renovations in 1897 to the Missouri Botanical Garden several blocks to the southeast of the park, finally, Olmsteds sons advised Washington University on integrating the campus with the park across the street. Taylor quickly appointed Emmanuel Louis Masqueray to be his Chief of Design, Masqueray resigned shortly after the Fair opened in 1904, having been invited by Archbishop John Ireland of St. Paul, Minnesota to design a new cathedral for the city. Paul J. Pelz was architect for the Palace of Machinery, many African Americans contributed to architecture design, but were not credited. Florence Hayward, a freelance writer in St. Louis in the 1900s was determined to play a role in the Worlds Fair. She negotiated a position on the otherwise all-male Board of Commissioners, Hayward learned that one of the potential contractors for the fair was not reputable and warned the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company
33.
Calvary Cemetery (St. Louis)
–
Calvary Cemetery is a Roman Catholic cemetery located in St. Louis, Missouri and operated by the Archdiocese of St. Louis. Founded in 1854, it is the second oldest cemetery in the Archdiocese, Calvary Cemetery contains 470 acres of land and more than 300,000 graves, including those of General William Tecumseh Sherman, Dred Scott, Tennessee Williams, Kate Chopin, and Auguste Chouteau. In 1849 a cholera epidemic struck St. Louis and claimed the lives of more than 4,000 people, at the same time, existing cemeteries in St. Louis were nearly full and had no room to expand. Recognizing the need for a new rural Catholic cemetery, Archbishop Peter Richard Kenrick purchased Senator Henry Clay’s “Old Orchard Farm” in 1853, located several miles northwest of St. Louis. Kenrick initially set aside the eastern half of the 323-acre farm for a new cemetery, and kept the western half for himself, thus Calvary Cemetery opened for burials in 1854, with Archbishop Kenrick as its first president. Prior to the establishment of Calvary Cemetery, parts of the Clay farm had served as a place for Native Americans. After 1854, these remains were reinterred in a grave under a large crucifix at one of the highest points in the cemetery. Graves at other Catholic cemeteries across St. Louis, such as Old Cathedral, Rock Springs, Holy Trinity, Old St. Patricks, New Bremen and others were dug up. Accessible space for traditional burials is available for the next 300 years at Calvary Cemetery. When they arrived in St. Louis these men had to rely on gestures to communicate. Two of the men, Black Eagle and Speaking Eagle, died of illness while in St. Louis and are buried in Calvary Cemetery, Senator Thomas Hart Benton on Bloody Island John Baptiste Charles Lucas, U. S
34.
Guy de Maupassant
–
Maupassant was a protégé of Flaubert and his stories are characterized by economy of style and efficient, effortless dénouements. He wrote some 300 short stories, six novels, three books, and one volume of verse. His first published story, Boule de Suif, is considered his masterpiece. Henri-René-Albert-Guy de Maupassant was born 5 August 1850 at the Château de Miromesnil (Castle Miromesnil and he was the first son of Laure Le Poittevin and Gustave de Maupassant, both from prosperous bourgeois families. When Maupassant was 11 and his brother Hervé was five, his mother, after the separation, Laure Le Poittevin kept her two sons. With the fathers absence, Maupassants mother became the most influential figure in the boys life. She was an exceptionally well-read woman and was fond of classical literature. From his early education he retained a marked hostility to religion, finding the place to be unbearable, he finally got himself expelled in his next-to-last year. In 1867, as he entered high school, Maupassant made acquaintance with Gustave Flaubert at Croisset at the insistence of his mother. Next year, in autumn, he was sent to the Lycée Pierre-Corneille in Rouen where he proved a good scholar indulging in poetry, in October 1868, at the age of 18, he saved the famous poet Algernon Charles Swinburne from drowning off the coast of Étretat. The Franco-Prussian War broke out soon after his graduation from college in 1870, in 1871, he left Normandy and moved to Paris where he spent ten years as a clerk in the Navy Department. During this time his only recreation and relaxation was boating on the Seine on Sundays and holidays, Gustave Flaubert took him under his protection and acted as a kind of literary guardian to him, guiding his debut in journalism and literature. At Flauberts home, he met Émile Zola and the Russian novelist Ivan Turgenev and he wrote and played himself in a comedy in 1875, À la feuille de rose, maison turque. In 1878, he was transferred to the Ministry of Public Instruction and became an editor to several leading newspapers such as Le Figaro, Gil Blas, Le Gaulois. He devoted his time to writing novels and short stories. In 1880 he published what is considered his first masterpiece, Boule de Suif, Flaubert characterized it as a masterpiece that will endure. This was Maupassants first piece of fiction set during the Franco-Prussian War, and was followed by short stories such as Deux Amis, Mother Savage. The decade from 1880 to 1891 was the most fertile period of Maupassants life, made famous by his first short story, he worked methodically and produced two or sometimes four volumes annually
35.
Abolitionism
–
Abolitionism is a movement to end slavery, whether formal or informal. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism is a movement to end the African and Indian slave trade. An abolitionist movement only started in the late 18th century, however, soon after his death in 1785, they joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, Vermont, which existed as an unrecognized state from 1777 to 1791, abolished adult slavery in 1777. In other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans, during the following decades, the abolitionist movement grew in northern states, and Congress regulated the expansion of slavery in new states admitted to the union. France abolished slavery within the French Kingdom in 1315, Haiti achieved independence from France in 1804 and brought an end to slavery in its territory. The northern states in the U. S. all abolished slavery by 1804, the United Kingdom and the United States outlawed the international slave trade in 1807, after which Britain led efforts to block slave ships. In Eastern Europe, groups organized to abolish the enslavement of the Roma in Wallachia and Moldavia and it was declared illegal in 1948 under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The last country to abolish slavery was Mauritania, where it was officially abolished by presidential decree in 1981. In 1315, Louis X, king of France, published a decree proclaiming that France signifies freedom and this prompted subsequent governments to circumscribe slavery in the overseas colonies. Some cases of African slaves freed by setting foot on the French soil were recorded such as example of a Norman slave merchant who tried to sell slaves in Bordeaux in 1571. He was arrested and his slaves were freed according to a declaration of the Parlement of Guyenne which stated that slavery was intolerable in France, born into slavery in Saint Domingue, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas became free when his father brought him to France in 1776. As in other New World colonies, the French relied on the Atlantic slave trade for labour for their sugar plantations in their Caribbean colonies. In addition, French colonists in Louisiane in North America held slaves, particularly in the South around New Orleans, Louis XIVs Code Noir regulated the slave trade and institution in the colonies. It gave unparalleled rights to slaves and it includes the right to marry, gather publicly, or take Sundays off. Although the Code Noir authorized and codified cruel corporal punishment against slaves under certain conditions and it also forced the owners to instruct them in the Catholic faith, implying that Africans were human beings endowed with a soul, a fact that was not seen as evident until then. It resulted in a far higher percentage of blacks being free in 1830 and they were on average exceptionally literate, with a significant number of them owning businesses, properties, and even slaves. Other free people of colour, such as Julien Raimond, spoke out against slavery, during the Age of Enlightenment, many philosophers wrote pamphlets against slavery and its moral and economical justifications, including Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws or in the Encyclopédie
36.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
37.
Freedman
–
A freedman or freedwoman is a former slave who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, slaves were freed either by manumission or emancipation, a fugitive slave is one who escaped slavery by fleeing. Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become plebeian citizens, the act of freeing a slave was called manumissio, from manus, hand, and missio, the act of releasing. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only freedom from ownership. A slave who had acquired libertas was known as a libertus in relation to his former master, as a social class, freed slaves were liberti, though later Latin texts used the terms libertus and libertini interchangeably. Libertini were not entitled to public office or state priesthoods. During the early Empire, however, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship. The Claudian Civil Service set a precedent whereby freedmen could be used as servants in the Roman bureaucracy. In addition, Claudius passed legislation concerning slaves, including a law stating that sick slaves abandoned by their owners became freedmen if they recovered, the emperor was criticized for using freedmen in the Imperial Courts. Some freedmen enjoyed enormous success and became quite wealthy, the brothers who owned House of the Vettii, one of the biggest and most magnificent houses in Pompeii, are thought to have been freedmen. A freedman who became rich and influential might still be looked down on by the aristocracy as a vulgar nouveau riche. Trimalchio, a character in the Satyricon of Petronius, is a caricature of such a freedman, for centuries Arab slave traders took and transported an estimated 10 to 15 million sub-Saharan Africans to slavery in North Africa and the Middle East. They also enslaved Europeans from coastal areas and the Balkans, many Arabs took women slaves as concubines in their harems. In the patrilineal societies, mixed-race children of concubines and Arab men were considered free and were given inheritance rights related to their fathers property. In the United States, the freedmen and freedwomen refer chiefly to former slaves emancipated during and after the American Civil War, by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves freed before the war, usually by individual manumissions, often in wills, were referred to as Free Negroes or free blacks. There were numerous such families formed in the Upper South before the Revolution, for the first two decades after the Revolution, thousands of slaves were freed in the Upper South, and most northern states abolished slavery, some on a gradual basis. In Louisiana and other areas of the former New France, free people of color were classified in French as gens de couleur libres and they were born to African or African-European mothers and white fathers of mixed-race African and French or other European ancestry
38.
Free people of color
–
The term free people of color, in the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, at first specifically referred to persons of mixed African and European descent who were not enslaved. The term was used in the French colonies, including La Louisiane and settlements on Caribbean islands, such as Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe. Freed African slaves were included in the term affranchis, but historically they were considered as distinct from the people of color. In these territories and major cities, particularly New Orleans, and those held by the Spanish. These colonial societies classified mixed-race people in a variety of ways, generally related to visible features, racial classifications were numerous in Latin America. It included persons of mixed race as well as freed African slaves and they were also important in forming an educated class of people of color in French colonies of the Caribbean islands. When French settlers and traders first arrived in these colonies, the men frequently took Native American women as their concubines or common-law wives, when African slaves were imported to the colony, the colonists took African women as concubines or wives. In the period of French and Spanish rule, men tended to marry later after becoming financially established, the free people of color developed formal arrangements for placées, which the young womens mothers negotiated. Under the system of plaçage, often the mothers negotiated a kind of dowry or property transfer to their daughters, including freedom for them and their children, and education for the children. The French Creole men often paid for education of their natural children from these relationships, especially if they were sons. Over time, free people of developed as a separate class between the colonial French and Spanish and the mass of enslaved black African workers. They often achieved education and some measure of wealth, they spoke French and practiced Catholicism, at one time the center of their residential community in New Orleans was the French Quarter. Many were artisans who owned property and their own businesses and they formed a social category distinct from both whites and slaves, and maintained their own society into the period after United States annexation. Free people of color were also an important part of the history of the Caribbean during the period of slavery, initially descendants of French men and African slaves, and often marrying within their own mixed-race community, some achieved wealth and power. By the late century, most free people of color in Saint-Domingue were native born. Free people of color were leaders in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, in Saint-Domingue, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and other French Caribbean colonies before slavery was abolished, the free people of color were known as gens de couleur libres, and affranchis. Comparable groups became an important part of the populations of British Jamaica, the Spanish Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Claiborne, appointed by Thomas Jefferson as governor of the Territory of Orleans, formally accepted delivery of the French colony on 20 December 1803. Free men of color had been members of the militia for decades during both Spanish and French rule of the colony of Louisiana and they volunteered their services and pledged their loyalty to Claiborne and to their newly adopted country
39.
Mulatto
–
Mulatto is a term used to refer to persons born of one white parent and one black parent or to persons born of a mulatto parent or parents. In English, the term is generally confined to historical contexts. English speakers of mixed white and black ancestry seldom choose to identify themselves as mulatto. Some residents of Latin America, Spain America, the Caribbean, in Latin America, most mulattoes have descended from multi-ethnic relationships dating to the slavery period, rather than from recent ethnic mixing. This is especially true in Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Haiti, Cape Verde, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. The etymology of the term is believed to derive from the Spanish and Portuguese mulato, which comes from mula, meaning mule, the hybrid offspring of a horse. Some dictionaries and scholarly works trace the origins to the Arabic term muwallad. Muwallad literally means born, begotten, produced, generated, brought up, with the implication of being born and raised among Arabs, Muwallad is derived from the root word WaLaD, and colloquial Arabic pronunciation can vary greatly. Walad means, descendant, offspring, scion, child, son, boy, young animal, in al-Andalus, Muwallad referred to the offspring of non-Arab/Muslim people who adopted the Islamic religion and manners. Notable examples of this include the famous Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm. Thus, in context, the term Muwalad has a meaning close to the adopted. According to the source, the term does not denote being of mixed-race but rather being of foreign-blood. In English, printed usage of mulatto dates to at least the 16th century and this earliest usage regarded black and white as discrete species, with the mulatto constituting a third separate species. According to Julio Izquierdo Labrado, the 19th-century linguist Leopoldo Eguilaz y Yanguas, as well as some Arabic sources muwallad is the origin of mulato. The Real Academia Española casts doubt on the muwallad theory, Scholars such as Werner Sollors cast doubt on the mule etymology for mulatto. In the 18th and 19th centuries, racialists such as Edward Long and they projected this belief back onto the etymology of the word mulatto. Sollers points out that this etymology is anachronistic, The Mulatto sterility hypothesis that has much to do with the rejection of the term by some writers is only half as old as the word Mulatto. Of São Tomé and Príncipes 193,413 inhabitants, the largest segment is classified as mestiço. or mixed race, 71% of the population of Cape Verde is also classified as such
40.
Public broadcasting
–
Public broadcasting includes radio, television and other electronic media outlets whose primary mission is public service. In much of the world, funding comes from the government, the great majority are operated as private not-for-profit corporations. Public broadcasting may be nationally or locally operated, depending on the country, in some countries, public broadcasting is run by a single organization. Other countries have multiple public broadcasting organizations operating regionally or in different languages, historically, public broadcasting was once the dominant or only form of broadcasting in many countries. Commercial broadcasting now also exists in most of countries, the number of countries with only public broadcasting declined substantially during the latter part of the 20th century. The primary mission of public broadcasting that of service, speaking to. The British model has been accepted as a universal definition. In the context of a national identity, the role of public broadcasting may be unclear. Likewise, the nature of good programming may raise the question of individual or public taste. Within public broadcasting there are two different views regarding commercial activity, one is that public broadcasting is incompatible with commercial objectives. The other is that public broadcasting can and should compete in the marketplace with commercial broadcasters and this dichotomy is highlighted by the public service aspects of traditional commercial broadcasters. Public broadcasters in each jurisdiction may or may not be synonymous with government controlled broadcasters, in some countries like the UK public broadcasters are not sanctioned by government departments and have independent means of funding, and thus enjoy editorial independence. Public broadcasters may receive their funding from a television licence fee, individual contributions. One of the principles of broadcasting is to provide coverage of interests for which there are missing or small markets. Public broadcasting attempts to supply topics of social benefit that are not provided by commercial broadcasters. Typically, such underprovision is argued to exist when the benefits to viewers are relatively high in comparison to the benefits to advertisers from contacting viewers and this frequently is the case in undeveloped countries that normally have low benefits to advertising. Additionally, public broadcasting may facilitate the implementation of a cultural policy, examples include, The Canadian government is committed to official bilingualism. As a result, the broadcaster, the CBC employs translators
