1.
Raspberry Island (Alaska)
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Raspberry Island is an island of the Kodiak Archipelago located in the Gulf of Alaska in the U. S. state of Alaska. It is located two miles northwest of Whale Island, and just across the mile-wide Raspberry Strait from the end of Afognak. The island is separated from Kodiak Island by the Kupreanof Strait, Raspberry Island is 18 miles long with a width that varies from 3 miles to 8 miles. The highest point on the island is 3,300 ft, the island is considered part of the Aleneva census-designated place in the Kodiak Island Borough. The only permanent residents on Raspberry Island are located at Port Wakefield, power is provided via hydro power harnessed in nearby creeks. The nearest town is Kodiak, Alaska, a boat ride or a thirty-minute float plane ride away. Sitka spruce is one of the dominant trees on Raspberry Island, spruce forests are interrupted by fields of salmonberry bushes, alders and wildflowers. Higher elevations have wild blueberry and cranberry bushes with more grasses, wildlife of note on the island includes Sitka deer, red foxes and Kodiak bears, as well as tufted puffins and bald eagles. Afognak and Raspberry islands are the locations in Alaska with elk populations. The islands Roosevelt Elk developed from eight calves translocated from Washington states Olympic Peninsula in 1928, the elk have adapted well to the island, with some mature bulls weighing nearly 1,300 pounds. The muskrat is another species that was introduced to the island. Whales commonly meander down Raspberry Strait but must turn around because it too shallow for them to pass all the way through. Kayakers take advantage of this phenomenon to wait for them to pass by again on their way out to deeper water. Several fishing canneries existed on the island including Port Wakefield and Northwest Cannery in the early 20th century and these went out of business several decades later and a fox fur farm existed on the Northwest Cannery site for a while. Deposits of placer gold were noted at Raspberry Beach as early as 1915, however, the last recorded mining activity on the beach was in 1935. The half-mile long beach is located on the northwest coast of the island at Drivers Bay, much of the island is owned by the First Native Corporation and is uninhabited except for the two wilderness lodges that exist on land previously owned by the canneries. After the decline of the canneries, their land was purchased and used by the two wilderness lodges as tourist destinations. They are unique because the land surrounding them and on the opposing Afognak Island is owned by the First Native corporation, fishing vessels based in the city of Kodiak and Port Lions regularly fish the waters around Raspberry Island for the abundant salmon and halibut
2.
Whitewater
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The term is also loosely used to refer to less turbulent, but still agitated, flows. The term whitewater also has a meaning, applying to any river or creek itself that has a significant number of rapids. The term is used as an adjective describing boating on such rivers. Four factors, separately or in combination, can create rapids, gradient, constriction, obstruction, gradient, constriction and obstruction are streambed topography factors and are relatively consistent. Flow rate is dependent upon both seasonal variation in precipitation and snowmelt and upon release rates of upstream dams, streambed topography is the primary factor in creating rapids, and is generally consistent over time. The gradient of a river is the rate at which it loses elevation along its course and this loss determines the rivers slope, and to a large extent its rate of flow. Shallow gradients produce gentle, slow rivers while steep gradients are associated with raging torrents, constrictions can form a rapid when a rivers flow is forced into a narrower channel. This pressure causes the water to more rapidly and to react differently to riverbed events. As with hydraulics, the power of eddies increases with the flow rate, in large rivers with high flow rates next to an obstruction, eddy walls can occur. An eddy wall is formed when the height of the river is higher than the level of the water in the eddy behind the obstruction. A marked increase or decrease in flow can create a rapid, flow rate is typically measured in cubic metres per second, or in cubic feet per second, depending on the country. The most widely used grading system is the International Scale of River Difficulty, grade-VI rapids are sometimes downgraded to grade-V or V+ if they have been run successfully. Harder rapids are often portaged, a French term for carrying, a portaged rapid is where the boater lands and carries the boat around the hazard. A rapids grade is not fixed, since it may vary depending on the water depth. Although some rapids may be easier at high flows because features are covered or washed-out, high water usually makes rapids more difficult, at flood stage, even rapids which are usually easy can contain lethal and unpredictable hazards. Class 1, Very small rough areas, requires no maneuvering, Class 2, Some rough water, maybe some rocks, small drops, might require maneuvering. Class 3, Medium waves, maybe a 3–5 ft drop, Class 4, Whitewater, large waves, long rapids, rocks, maybe a considerable drop, sharp maneuvers may be needed. Class 5, Whitewater, large waves, continuous rapids, large rocks and hazards, maybe a large drop, often characterized by must make moves, i. e. failure to execute a specific maneuver at a specific point may result in serious injury or death
3.
Rapids
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Rapids are sections of a river where the river bed has a relatively steep gradient, causing an increase in water velocity and turbulence. Rapids are hydrological features between a run and a cascade, rapids are characterised by the river becoming shallower with some rocks exposed above the flow surface. As flowing water splashes over and around the rocks, air bubbles become mixed in with it and portions of the surface acquire a white colour, forming what is called whitewater. Rapids occur where the bed material is resistant to the erosive power of the stream in comparison with the bed downstream of the rapids. Very young streams flowing across solid rock may be rapids for much of their length, rapids cause water aeration of the stream or river resulting in better water quality. Rapids are categorized in classes, generally running from I to VI, a Class 5 rapid may be categorized as Class 5. 1-5.9. While class I rapids are easy to negotiate and require no maneuvering, river rafting sports is carried out where many rapids are there in the course
4.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
5.
Canary Wharf
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Canary Wharf is a major business district located in Tower Hamlets, East London. Canary Wharf contains around 16,000,000 square feet of office and retail space, Morgan, KPMG, MetLife, Moodys, Morgan Stanley, RBC, S&P Global, Skadden, State Street, and Thomson Reuters. Canary Wharf is located on the West India Docks on the Isle of Dogs, from 1802 to 1939, the area was one of the busiest docks in the world. After the 1960s, the industry began to decline, leading to all the docks being closed by 1980. Canary Wharf itself takes its name from No.32 berth of the West Wood Quay of the Import Dock and this was built in 1936 for Fruit Lines Ltd, a subsidiary of Fred Olsen Lines for the Mediterranean and Canary Islands fruit trade. The Canary islands were so named after the dogs found there by the Spanish and as it is located on the Isle of Dogs. The Canary Wharf of today began when Michael von Clemm, former chairman of Credit Suisse First Boston, further discussions with G Ware Travelstead led to proposals for a new business district. The first buildings were completed in 1991, including One Canada Square, which became the UKs tallest building at the time, by the time it opened, the London commercial property market had collapsed, and Olympia and York Canary Wharf Limited filed for bankruptcy in May 1992. Initially, the City of London saw Canary Wharf as an existential threat and it modified its planning laws to expand the provision of new offices in the City of London, for example, creating offices above railway stations and roads. The resulting oversupply of office space contributed to the failure of the No 1 Canada Square project, in 1997, some residents living on the Isle of Dogs launched a lawsuit against Canary Wharf Ltd for private nuisance because the tower interfered with television signals. In December 1995 an international consortium, backed by the owners of Olympia & York and other investors. The new company was called Canary Wharf Limited, and later became Canary Wharf Group, recovery in the property market generally, coupled with continuing demand for large floorplate Grade A office space, slowly improved the level of interest. A critical event in the recovery was the start of work on the Jubilee Line Extension. At the peak of property prices in 2007, the HSBC building sold for a record £1.1 billion, in March 2014 planning permission was granted for the second residential building on the Canary Wharf estate, a 58-storey tower including 566 apartments plus shops and a health club. In July 2014 Canary Wharf Group was granted planning permission for a major expansion of the Canary Wharf estate. The plans include the construction of 30 buildings comprising a total of 4.9 million square feet, construction is planned to commence in autumn 2014 with the first buildings to be occupied at the end of 2018. In 2014, Singapore listed Oxley Holdings, together with developer Ballymore UK, have a joint venture to set up a new waterfront township of Royal Wharf with 3385 new homes housing over 10,000 people. This table lists completed buildings in Canary Wharf that are over 60 metres tall, the Canary Wharf developers played a pro-active role in improving transport links, which they recognised as essential to the success of the project
6.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
7.
Kayak
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A kayak is a small, narrow watercraft which is propelled by means of a double-bladed paddle. The word kayak originates from the Greenlandic language, where it is the word qajaq, in the UK the term canoe is often used when referring to a kayak. The traditional kayak has a deck and one or more cockpits. Kayaks are also being sailed, as well as propelled by means of electric motors. The kayak was first used by the indigenous Aleut, Inuit, Yupik, kayaks were originally developed by the Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut. They used the boats to hunt on inland lakes, rivers and coastal waters of the Arctic Ocean, North Atlantic, Bering Sea and these first kayaks were constructed from stitched seal or other animal skins stretched over a wood or whalebone-skeleton frame. Kayaks are believed to be at least 4,000 years old, the oldest existing kayaks are exhibited in the North America department of the State Museum of Ethnology in Munich. Native people made many types of boat for different purposes, the baidarka, developed by indigenous cultures in Alaska, was also made in double or triple cockpit designs, for hunting and transporting passengers or goods. An umiak is an open sea canoe, ranging from 17 to 30 feet, made with seal skins. It is considered a kayak although it was originally paddled with single-bladed paddles, native builders designed and built their boats based on their own experience and that of the generations before them, passed on through oral tradition. A special skin jacket, Tuilik, was laced to the kayak. This enabled the eskimo roll to become the method of regaining posture after capsizing, especially as few Inuit could swim. Inuit kayak builders had specific measurements for their boats, the length was typically three times the span of his outstretched arms. The width at the cockpit was the width of the builders hips plus two fists, the typical depth was his fist plus the outstretched thumb. Thus typical dimensions were about 17 feet long by 20–22 inches wide by 7 inches deep and this measurement system confounded early European explorers who tried to duplicate the kayak, because each kayak was a little different. Most of the Aleut people in the Aleutian Islands eastward to Greenland Inuit relied on the kayak for hunting a variety of seals, though whales. Skin-on-frame kayaks are still being used for hunting by Inuit people in Greenland, because the smooth and flexible skin glides silently through the waves. In other parts of the home builders are continuing the tradition of skin on frame kayaks, usually with modern skins of canvas or synthetic fabric
8.
Canoeing
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Canoeing is a sport or recreational activity which involves paddling a canoe with a single-bladed paddle. In some parts of Europe canoeing refers to both canoeing and kayaking, with a canoe being called an Open canoe, an ancient mode of transportation, modern recreational canoeing was established in the late 19th century. In 1924, canoeing associations from Austria, Germany, Denmark and Sweden founded the Internationalen Representation for Kanusport, canoeing became part of the Olympic Games in the summer of 1936. The main form of sport was sprint canoe. Others include canoe polo, whitewater canoeing, canoe marathon, ICF canoe marathon, national canoe associations include the American, Canadian, British, Scottish, and Welsh. A recreational form of canoeing is canoe camping, others include a wide range of casual canoeing on lakes, rivers, ponds and streams
9.
Inuit
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Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities
10.
Eskimo
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The Eskimo are the indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the northern circumpolar region from eastern Siberia, across Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. The two main peoples known as Eskimo are, the Alaskan Inupiat peoples, Greenlandic Inuit, and the mass-grouping Inuit peoples of Canada, and the Yupik of eastern Siberia and Alaska. The Yupik comprise speakers of four distinct Yupik languages, one used in the Russian Far East, a third northern group, the Aleut, is closely related to the Eskimo. They share a relatively recent common ancestor, and a language group, a member of an indigenous people inhabiting northern Canada, Alaska, Greenland, and eastern Siberia, and traditionally living by hunting seals and other Arctic animals and birds and by fishing. In its linguistic origins, the word Eskimo comes from Innu-aimun ayas̆kimew meaning a person who laces a snowshoe and is related to husky, so does not have a direct pejorative meaning. In Canada and Greenland, the term Eskimo is seen as pejorative by some and has been replaced by the term Inuit or terms specific to a particular nation or community. This has resulted in a trend whereby some Canadians and Americans believe that they should not use the word Eskimo and use the Canadian word Inuit instead, the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982, sections 25 and 35 recognized the Inuit as a distinctive group of aboriginal peoples in Canada. Under U. S. and Alaskan law, Alaska Native refers to all peoples of Alaska. As a result, the term Eskimo is still in use in Alaska, alternative terms, such as Inuit-Yupik, have been proposed, but none has gained widespread acceptance. Several earlier indigenous peoples existed in the region, the earliest positively identified North American Eskimo cultures date to 5,000 years ago. They appear to have developed in Alaska from people related to the Arctic small tool tradition in eastern Asia, similar artifacts have been found in Siberia that date to perhaps 18,000 years ago. The Yupik languages and cultures in Alaska evolved in place, beginning with the original pre-Dorset indigenous culture developed in Alaska, approximately 4000 years ago, the Unangan culture of the Aleut became distinct. It is not generally considered an Eskimo culture, approximately 1500–2000 years ago, apparently in Northwestern Alaska, two other distinct variations appeared. Inuit language became distinct and, over a period of centuries, its speakers migrated across Northern Alaska, through Canada. The distinct culture of the Thule people developed in northwestern Alaska and very quickly spread over the area occupied by Eskimo people. Two principal competing etymologies have been proposed for the name Eskimo, the most commonly accepted today appears to be the proposal of Ives Goddard at the Smithsonian Institution, who derives the term from the Montagnais word meaning snowshoe-netter or to net snowshoes. The word assime·w means she laces a snowshoe in Montagnais, Montagnais speakers refer to the neighbouring Mikmaq people using words that sound very much like eskimo. In 1978, Jose Mailhot, a Quebec anthropologist who speaks Montagnais, french traders who encountered the Montagnais in the eastern areas, adopted their word for the more western peoples and spelled it as Esquimau in a transliteration
11.
Arctic
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The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places, the Arctic region is a unique area among Earths ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold, in recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός, near the Bear, northern, there are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle, the southern limit of the midnight sun. The Arctics climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers and its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall, average winter temperatures can be as low as −40 °C, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures, the Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. Due to the migration of the planets isotherms, the Arctic region is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss, there is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of available for plant growth decreases considerably. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease, trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m in height, sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare, non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses, herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear
12.
Ultraviolet
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Ultraviolet is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation constitutes about 10% of the light output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as lamps, tanning lamps. Consequently, the effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects. Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure, along with risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earths atmosphere. More-energetic, shorter-wavelength extreme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground, Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum thus has both beneficial and harmful to human health. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans, the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher, and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm, near-UV radiation is visible to some insects, mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays, this gives birds true UV vision, reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears, who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow. UV also allows mammals to see urine trails, which is helpful for animals to find food in the wild. The males and females of some species look identical to the human eye. Ultraviolet means beyond violet, violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light, Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light. He called them oxidizing rays to emphasize chemical reactivity and to them from heat rays. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, in 1878 the effect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm, in 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established. The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it is absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann
13.
Boat
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A boat is a watercraft of a large range of sizes designed to float, plane, work or travel on water. Small boats are found on inland waterways or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the whaleboat were designed for operation from a ship in an offshore environment, in naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel. Another less restrictive definition is a vessel that can be lifted out of the water, some definitions do not make a distinction in size, as bulk freighters 1,000 feet long on the Great Lakes are called oreboats. For reasons of tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than ships, regardless of their size. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on their size, shape. Boats have a variety of shapes, sizes and construction methods due to their intended purpose. Canoe-type boats have used since prehistoric times and various versions are used throughout the world for transportation. Fishing boats vary widely in style partly to local conditions. Pleasure boats include ski boats, pontoon boats, and sailboats, house boats may be used for vacationing or long-term housing. Small boats can provide transport or convey cargo to and from large ships, lifeboats have rescue and safety functions. Boats can be powered by power, wind power and motor power. Dugouts are the oldest type of boats found by archaeologists, the earliest boats are thought to have been logboats, and the oldest boats found by archaeological excavation date from around 7, 000–10,000 years ago. The oldest recovered boat in the world is the Pesse canoe and this canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands. Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered, rafts have operated for at least 8,000 years. A7, 000-year-old seagoing reed boat has been found in Kuwait, boats were used between 4000 and 3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean. Boats played an important role in the commerce between the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia, evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered at various Indus Valley archaeological sites. Uru craft originate in Beypore, a village in south Calicut, Kerala and this type of mammoth wooden ship was constructed using teak, without any iron, and had a transport capacity of 400 tonnes
14.
Buoyancy aid
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Buoyancy aids are a specialist form of personal flotation device used most commonly by kayakers, canoeists and dinghy sailors. They are designed as an aid, rather than a life-saving device and have several key differences to other PFDs. Regardless of the specification of buoyancy aids, it is important to remember that they do not provide the high level of protection as lifejackets. Therefore, they should not be used as a substitute for a life-jacket, canoeing and kayaking buoyancy aids are designed with mobility in mind. A buoyancy aid that doesnt fit properly can restrict a range of movement. They typically have front and back foam buoyancy, with none or very little around the sides to allow for better arm movements, all canoeing/kayaking buoyanith a foam core, instead of being inflatable like some life jackets. This removes the possibility of them bursting or not being activated in the case of an incapacitated paddler, the foam used is typically closed cell PVC, although some manufacturers are now starting to use less toxic and more recyclable materials. Most buoyancy aids are one of three designs, Over the head vest, where the one-piece vest is pulled on over the head. Front zip jacket, where the aid is worn like a regular jacket. This design limits the front-buoyancy as it requires two separate blocks of foam and a gap for the zip, side zip is a combination of the other two, with a zip on the side rather than along the front. The added gap in one side makes it easier to get the vest on, all buoyancy aids include some form of strap for tightening the buoyancy aid, preventing it from coming off in the water. Many white water designs feature multiple straps on the shoulders and waist to ensure the aid can not be swept off in fast water. They may also include pockets for storing equipment and a range of safety, some lower quality ones only offer a belt, and these are often poor fitting and may be designed for generic water sports rather than specifically canoeing/kayaking. There is a variety of designs to fit every figure. It is important to have a buoyancy aid that fits comfortably and it is also important that it is suitable for the chosen discipline and the grade of water being paddled. Each discipline has different requirements and although one buoyancy aid can be used for multiple disciplines and these are designed with high maneuverability as a key feature, often at the expense of buoyancy. Minimalistic designs which tend to hug the body tightly and are cut around the arms aim to allow the wearer complete freedom of motion. These vests may not be suitable for other purposes, such as whitewater paddling where additional buoyancy is required due to the higher flow of water
15.
Helmet
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A helmet is a form of protective gear worn to protect the head from injuries. More specifically, a helmet aids the skull in protecting the human brain, ceremonial or symbolic helmets without protective function are sometimes used. The oldest known use of helmets was by Assyrian soldiers in 900 BC, soldiers still wear helmets, now often made from lightweight plastic materials. In civilian life, helmets are used for activities and sports, dangerous work activities. Since the 1990s, most helmets are made from resin or plastic, the word helmet is diminutive from helm, a medieval word for protective combat headgear. The Medieval great helm covers the head and often is accompanied with camail protecting throat. Originally a helmet was a helm which covered the head only partly, all helmets attempt to protect the users head by absorbing mechanical energy and protecting against penetration. Their structure and protective capacity are altered in high-energy impacts, beside their energy-absorption capability, their volume and weight are also important issues, since higher volume and weight increase the injury risk for the users head and neck. Anatomical helmets adapted to the head structure were invented by neurosurgeons at the end of the 20th century. Helmets used for different purposes have different designs, for example, a bicycle helmet must protect against blunt impact forces from the wearers head striking the road. A helmet designed for rock climbing must protect against heavy impact, sports helmets may have an integrated metal face protector. Baseball batting helmets have an expanded protection over the ear, which protects the jaw from injury, motorcycle helmets often have flip-down face screens for rain and wind protection, and they may also have projecting visors to protect the eyes from glare. Hard hats for construction workers are mainly to protect the wearer from falling objects such as tools. Helmets for riot police often have flip-down clear visors and thick padding to protect the back of the neck, Modern firefighters helmets protect the face and back of the head against impact, fires and electricity, and can include masks, communication systems, and other accessories. Welding helmets protect the eyes and face and neck from flash burn, ultraviolet light, sparks and heat. They have a window, called a lens shade, through which the welder looks at the weld. People with some medical conditions must wear a helmet to protect the brain, due to a gap in the braincase, mixed martial arts helmets have ear pads to prevent serious injuries to the athletes, who do not usually endure such force to the ears. Crash helmets for F1 racing drivers, their design and construction have evolved enormously, nevertheless, head and neck trauma remains the greatest single injury risk to drivers
16.
White water kayaking
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Whitewater kayaking is the sport of paddling a kayak on a moving body of water, typically a whitewater river. Whitewater kayaking can range from active, moving water, to demanding, paddling on rivers, lakes and oceans is as old as the Stone Age. The raft, the catamaran, the canoe and the kayak evolved depending on the needs and environment of the indigenous peoples in different parts of the world. The modern day kayak most likely originated about 8,000 years ago along the Siberian coast line by the Yupik and then transformed from the canoe, via the Aleut and Inuit. The first boats made were hard to sink because they contained inflated seal bladders, the Greek, Herodotus, 484-425 BC, wrote in his travel diaries about boats with which merchandise was brought from Armenia to Babylon. The boats were made of a framework that was covered with animal skins. Mules hauled the precious skins back to Armenia, the Russian, Grigori Ivanovitch Langsdorff, reported from his trip around the world on the ease and elegance of paddling Eskimo kayaks/canoes. In 1866 he published the book A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe, the timing was right and the book became a resounding success. 1905, Alfred Heurich, a student from Leipzig, Germany, invented the Faltboot. Heurich went on to paddle over 100,000 km on rivers,1907, Alfred Klepper, a master seamster from Rosenheim, bought the patent, improved the rigidity with a lever system and started production. The design made it not only suitable for whitewater but also easy to travel with, World War I stopped any progress. 1920s, boating on WW with Folboats developed, boaters flocked to rivers and lakes by train or bus. During that time, the Austrian, Edi Hans Pawlata reinvented the Eskimo roll,1927, Franz von Alber, and then, Klaus and Arndt von Rautenfeld, claimed to have independently developed a roll with their sea kayaks. Early 1930s, Walter Frentz, Herbert Rittlinger and a handful of others became pioneers and advocates of WW kayaking with documentaries,1933, Adolf Hitler started to dissolve kayak clubs. They did not serve his plan and the impact on the sport was devastating, World War II brought the paddle sport to a total halt. 1946/48, Depending on the region, the Allies gradually lifted the ban on travel in Germany. Paddle clubs were allowed to form. 1952, Walter Frentz, published an inspiring book In den Schluchten Europas that gained popularity, the book was based on his river trips prior to World War II
17.
Spray deck
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A spraydeck is a flexible cover for a boat, in particular for a kayak or a canoe. It is used in whitewater, inclement weather or sport to prevent water entering the boat while allowing one or more passengers to sit in the boat. A spraydeck is a made out of water-tight cloth sized to fit over the opening, or cockpit. A spraydeck has an opening for each passenger, each opening likewise is encircled by a line or elastic string running in a hollow seam on the edge of the hole. This makes it possible to tighten the spraydeck around the body of the passenger, spraydecks are worn by kayakers in most conditions, but especially on rough water and in inclement weather, to prevent water entering the kayaks cockpit. On a kayak, the spraydeck is secured to a rim surrounding the cockpit with a line or elastic string called a rand. The fastening may be pulled tight or held so by its elasticity, to aid easy release during a capsize a grab loop is attached at the front of the spraydeck which the kayaker can use to pull the spraydeck free. A properly sealed spraydeck will allow a kayaker to perform an eskimo roll, a kayakers spraydeck is also known as a sprayskirt, because it is donned like a skirt before entering the boat. Sprayskirt is the common term in the US. Spraydecks are commonly made from neoprene, nylon or a combination of both materials, the most appropriate material depends on the temperature/time of year and on the type of water being paddled. Whitewater spraydecks are made totally from neoprene, whereas flatwater touring/sea kayak spraydecks may be made from either material and these spraydecks are snug, tight, thick to keep in the warmth, and very tight fitting on the cockpit. They can usually withstand rolling, bracing and high wind and waves and they sometimes get uncomfortably warm during hot weather, but will keep the paddler very warm during colder conditions. On modern neoprene spraydecks, the rand is usually elastic cord attached directly to the rim of the spraydeck. Nylon spraydecks are easy to attach, easy to remove, offer adequate seal to keep out, comfortable, sometimes breathable. They will either have neoprene or nylon for the torso, nylon spraydecks are less commonly used during rough conditions as they are not as tighly fitted so are more likely to accidentally become free. Whitewater spraydecks often have features to ensure the best seal. Latex may be coated on the underside of the deck to grip the cockpit better and/or a protective material added to the surface of the deck to provide abrasion resistance. On a canoe, the spraydeck is secured to the outside of the hull with string or cords to a webbing specifically installed for this purpose, modern designs have many features for safety and convenience such as map and paddle pockets, access openings, and tie-down straps
18.
Sea kayak
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A sea kayak or touring kayak is a kayak developed for the sport of paddling on open waters of lakes, bays, and the ocean. Sea kayaks are small boats with a covered deck and the ability to incorporate a spray deck. They trade off the maneuverability of whitewater kayaks for higher cruising speed, cargo capacity, ease of straight-line paddling, a sea kayak usually ranges anywhere from 10–18 feet for solo craft, and up to 26 feet for tandem craft. Width may be as little as 21 in, and may be up to 36 in, contemporary sea kayaks trace their origin to the native boats of Alaska, northern Canada, and Southwest Greenland. Eskimo hunters developed a fast seagoing craft to hunt seals and walrus, the ancient Aleut name for a sea kayak is Iqyak, and earliest models were constructed from a light wooden frame and covered with sea mammal hides. Archaeologists have found evidence indicating that kayaks are at least 4000 years old, wooden kayaks and fabric kayaks on wooden frames dominated the market up until the 1950s, when fiberglass boats were introduced. Rotomolded plastic kayaks first appeared in 1984, modern sea kayaks come in a wide array of materials, designs, and sizes to suit a variety of intended uses. In sea kayaking, where the designs continue along primarily traditional lines, folding kayaks are in some ways more traditional boats, being similar in design to skin-on-frame kayaks used by native people. Modern folding kayaks use ash and birch or contemporary materials such as aluminum for the frame, unlike native kayaks, folding kayaks can be easily disassembled and packed for transport. Many folding kayaks include inflatable sponsons that improve the stability of the vessel. More recently, a class of inflatable folding kayaks has emerged, in recent years, there has been an increase in production of sit on top kayaks suitable for sea use. This has resulted in a new market for paddlers looking for the versatility of a sit on top, sit on top kayaks are a common choice for sea kayakers who prefer the sit on top versatility, but do not want to sacrifice performance. Modern skin-on-frame sea kayaks constructed with nylon skins represent an ultralight niche within the rigid sea kayak spectrum. A different class of vessel emerged in the 1960s, the Surf ski, most production sea kayaks are between 12 and 24 feet in length, the larger kayaks often built for two paddlers. The width of typical kayaks varies from 18 to 32 inches, the length of a kayak affects not only its cargo capacity but may also affect its tracking ability—the ease with which the boat travels in a straight line. While other design features also impact tracking, very long kayaks are easier to paddle straight, the width of a kayak affects the cargo capacity, the maximum size of the cockpit, and the stability. Most rigid production kayaks are now out of fiberglass, rotomolded polyethylene, thermoformed plastic. More exotic materials include carbon fiber and foam core, some kayaks are hand-built from plywood or wood strips covered with fiberglass
19.
Wilsons Promontory
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The Wilsons Promontory is a peninsula that forms the southernmost part of the Australian mainland and is located in the state of Victoria. South Point at 39°08′06″S 146°22′32″E is the southernmost tip of Wilsons Promontory, located at nearby South East Point, is the Wilsons Promontory Lighthouse. Most of the peninsula is protected by the Wilsons Promontory National Park, evidence of Aboriginal occupation at Wilsons Promontory dates back at least 6,500 years and the park is highly significant to the Gunai/Kurnai and the Boonerwrung Clans. The first European to see the promontory was George Bass in January 1798 and he initially referred to it as Furneauxs Land in his diary, believing it to be what Captain Furneaux had previously seen. But on returning to Port Jackson and consulting Matthew Flinders he was convinced that the location was so different it could not be that land, Bass and Flinders recommended the name Wilsons Promontory to Governor Hunter, honouring Flinderss friend from London Thomas Wilson. Little is known of Wilson except that he was a merchant engaged in trade with Australia, the promontory has been a national park, to one degree or another, since 1898. Wilsons Promontory National Park, also known locally as the Prom, the site was closed to the public during World War II, as it was used as a commando training ground. The only settlement within Wilsons Promontory is Tidal River which lies 30 kilometres south of the boundary and is the focus for tourism. This park is managed by Parks Victoria, in 2005 a burn started by staff got out of control and burnt 13% of the park, causing the evacuation of campers. In 2009, a strike near Sealers Cove started a fire that burned over 25,000 hectares. Much of the area had not been burned since 1951, although the fire burned to within 1 kilometre, the Tidal River camping area and park headquarters were unaffected. The park reopened to the one month after the incident. Despite the damage, the beauty of the area remained largely intact. In March 2011 a significant rainfall event led to flooding of the Tidal River camping area. In September 2011 public access to Tidal River was reopened following repair of the access road. All sections of the south of Tidal River were closed while further repairs of tracks. The park was fully re-opened by Easter of 2012, tourists may choose basic or glam, cabins or camping if they wish to stay inside Wilsons Promontory National Park. Many however choose to stay in accommodation just outside the Park in Yanakie, there are overnight hiking tracks with two key circuits, one in the north and one in the south
20.
Victoria (Australia)
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Victoria is a state in southeast Australia. Victoria is Australias most densely populated state and its second-most populous state overall, most of its population is concentrated in the area surrounding Port Phillip Bay, which includes the metropolitan area of its state capital and largest city, Melbourne, Australias second-largest city. Prior to British European settlement, the area now constituting Victoria was inhabited by a number of Aboriginal peoples. With Great Britain having claimed the entire Australian continent east of the 135th meridian east in 1788, Victoria was included in the wider colony of New South Wales. The first settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay, and much of what is now Victoria was included in the Port Phillip District in 1836, Victoria was officially created as a separate colony in 1851, and achieved self-government in 1855. Politically, Victoria has 37 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate, at state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. Victoria is currently governed by the Labor Party, with Daniel Andrews the current Premier, the personal representative of the Queen of Australia in the state is the Governor of Victoria, currently Linda Dessau. Local government is concentrated in 79 municipal districts, including 33 cities, although a number of unincorporated areas still exist, Victorias total gross state product is ranked second in Australia, although Victoria is ranked fourth in terms of GSP per capita because of its limited mining activity. Culturally, Melbourne is home to a number of museums, art galleries and theatres and is described as the sporting capital of Australia. The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in Australia, and the host of the 1956 Summer Olympics, Victoria has eight public universities, with the oldest, the University of Melbourne, having been founded in 1853. Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851. The first British settlement in the later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. In the year 1826 Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, fly and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. Victorias next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria, edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, from settlement the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after the now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe. And in 1838 Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier white settlements dating back to 1826, days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at sites across Victoria
21.
Outdoor recreation
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Outdoor recreation or outdoor activity refers to leisure pursuits engaged in the outdoors, often in natural or semi-natural settings out of town. Outdoor recreation may also refer to a sport game or practice held in an outdoor setting. When the recreation involves excitement, physical challenge, or risk, such as in rafting or climbing, the two primary purposes for outdoor recreation are beneficial use and pleasurable appreciation. Beneficial use is related to the physical and social rewards that goal-directed activity instills in individuals or groups, some outdoor goal-directed activities are, backpacking, canoeing, canyoning, caving, climbing, hiking, hill walking, hunting, kayaking, and rafting. Arguably broader groupings of goal-directed outdoor activities would include water sports, snow sports, goal-directed outdoor activities are predominantly physical, though they may also be mentally, emotionally, and spiritually rewarding. The outdoors as a physical or social setting may meet the needs of health, self-sufficiency, risk-taking, the building of social ties. The outdoors can be an environment in which show what they can do. Pleasurable appreciation encourages experiences of being let in on natures show and these activities may also be physically rewarding. Many people in modern civilizations believe that the value of nature is only in its utilitarian value. They would discount the inner perceptual and/or spiritual benefits of the value of nature that may be experienced during pleasurable appreciation. Outdoor activities may also be pursued for the purposes of finding peace in nature, enjoying life and they are alternatives to expensive forms of tourism. Outdoor activities are frequently used as a medium in education. Trekking is about enjoying a great walking holiday, treks can be day hikes, overnight or extended hikes. An example of a day trek is hiking during the day and returning at night to a lodge for a hot meal, trekking can be more enjoyable when undertaken while being generally physically fit. Physical preparation for trekking includes cycling, swimming, jogging and long walks and its also expected that backpackers leave no trace while enjoying the outdoors. The activity of mountain biking involves steering a mountain cycle over rocky tracks, to tackle the trails, the requirements are physical strength, stamina and a strong mountain cycle. Mountain bikes or ATBs feature a rugged frame and fork and their frames are often built of aluminum so they are lightweight and stiff, making them efficient to ride. Many styles of mountain biking are practiced, including all mountain, downhill, trials, dirt jumping, trail riding, the latter two are the most common
22.
Canoe and Kayak diving
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Canoe diving and Kayak diving are recreational diving where the divers paddle to a diving site in a canoe or kayak carrying all their gear in or on the boat to the place they want to dive. Canoe or kayak diving gives the diver independence from dive operators, while allowing dives at sites which are too far to comfortably swim. The range can be up to several kilometres along the coastline from the point to a place where access would be difficult from the shore. It is a cheaper alternative to using a powered boat. Canoes can hold more weight than a kayak, and they have more room for gear. They also offer paddlers a better view of the area around them, due to various economic constraints, canoe diving has recently gained popularity along the Gold Coast of Florida where many dive sites are less than three kilometers from shore. It is appealing to many individuals because it is relatively inexpensive, traditionally, a charter service is used to access offshore dive sites which can be very costly. Canoe diving is best suited for calm seas and fair weather, large waves, rough water, and strong winds make canoe diving unfavorable at best and extremely dangerous at worst. Kayak diving has been done in southern California since at least the mid-1990s, more recently it is known from other countries, such as New Zealand, and to a very limited extent the United Kingdom. One couple has been Kayak diving in Sabah, North Borneo, several dives have been made in and around the islands of the Tunku Abdul Rahman marine park. It was found that a dive-yak was perfect for diving and snorkelling, especially since as an inflatable it could be deflated, carried out to the further islands on a powerboat and then inflated and the divers left to dive and paddle their way back home. Typically, the canoe or kayak is launched from a beach or jetty as close as possible to the intended scuba diving location. Scuba equipment is assembled ready for diving before it is loaded, the divers then carefully board the canoe or kayak, and paddle to the dive site. Navigation to the site may be facilitated by use of a hand-held global positioning system. On reaching a site the lead boat drops an anchor. The divers inflate their buoyancy compensators attached to their diving cylinders, then they put on their masks, fins, and weight belts, slide overboard, and put on their scuba sets while floating. Once the divers are ready, they descend and proceed with the dive. The boat may be tethered to the divers via their surface marker buoy system if they are drift diving, after the dive, the divers must board the canoe or kayak without capsizing it
23.
Recreational diving
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Recreational diving or sport diving is diving for the purpose of leisure and enjoyment, usually when using scuba equipment. Risk is managed by training the diver in a range of standardised procedures and skills appropriate to the equipment the diver chooses to use, further experience and development of skills by practice will increase the divers ability to dive safely. Specialty training is available by the recreational diver training industry and diving clubs to increase the range of environments. Recreational scuba diving out of related activities such as Snorkeling. For a long time, recreational underwater excursions were limited by breath-hold time, as the sport became more popular, manufacturers became aware of the potential market, and equipment began to appear that was easy to use, affordable and reliable. The first scuba diving school was opened in France to train the owners of the Cousteau, the first school to teach single hose scuba was started in 1953, in Melbourne, Australia, at the Melbourne City Baths. RAN Commander Batterham organized the school to assist the inventor of the single hose regulator, however, neither of these schools was international in nature. There were no training courses available to civilians who bought the early scuba equipment. Professional instruction started in 1959 when the non-profit NAUI was formed, the National Association of Scuba Diving Schools started with their dive center based training programs in 1962 followed by SSI in 1970. Professional Diving Instructors College was formed in 1965, changing its name in 1984 to Professional Diving Instructors Corporation, in 2009 PADI alone issued approximately 950,000 diving certifications. Approximately 550,000 of these PADI certifications were entry level certifications, scuba-diving has become a popular leisure activity, and many diving destinations have some form of dive shop presence that can offer air fills, equipment, and training. In tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world, there is a market for holiday divers, people who train and dive while on holiday. Technical diving and the use of rebreathers are increasing, particularly in areas of the world where deeper wreck diving is the underwater attraction. It has been observed that leisure divers are often inexperienced, either under-trained or over-certified, divers are instructed and assessed on these skills during basic and advanced training, and are expected to remain competent at their level of certification, either by practice or refresher courses. This allows divers trained by the various certifying organisations to dive together with a minimum of confusion, diver communications is a particular aspect where most of the basic hand signals are common to most recreational diver training agencies. This does not mean there is no variation. Length of regulator hose and position of the second stage depend on the donation technique. There are also variations in procedures for rescue in an out of air situation
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Scuba set
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A scuba set is any breathing apparatus that is carried entirely by an underwater diver and provides the diver with breathing gas at the ambient pressure. Rebreather scuba recycles the exhaled gas, removes carbon dioxide, the amount of gas lost from the circuit during each breathing cycle depends on the design of the rebreather and depth change during the breathing cycle. Gas in the circuit is at ambient pressure, and stored gas is provided through regulators or injectors. The most immediate risk associated with scuba diving is drowning due to a failure of the gas supply. This may be managed by diligent monitoring of remaining gas, adequate planning, the word SCUBA was coined in 1952 by Major Christian Lambertsen who served in the U. S. Army Medical Corps from 1944 to 1946 as a physician. Lambertsen first called the closed circuit rebreather apparatus he had invented Laru, as with radar, the acronym scuba has become so familiar that it is generally not capitalized and is treated as an ordinary noun. For example, it has been translated into the Welsh language as sgwba, a diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus to breathe underwater. Scuba provides the diver with the advantages of mobility and horizontal range far beyond the reach of a hose attached to surface-supplied diving equipment. Surface supplied divers may be required to carry scuba as a breathing gas supply to get them to safety in the event of a failure of surface gas supply. There are divers who work, full or part-time, in the diving community as instructors, assistant instructors, divemasters. Other specialist areas of diving include military diving, with a long history of military frogmen in various roles. Their roles include direct combat, infiltration behind enemy lines, placing mines or using a manned torpedo, in some cases diver rescue teams may also be part of a fire department, paramedical service or lifeguard unit, and may be classed as public service diving. The choice between scuba and surface supplied diving equipment is based on legal and logistical constraints. Where the diver requires mobility and a range of movement, scuba is usually the choice if safety. Higher risk work, particularly in commercial diving, may be restricted to surface supplied equipment by legislation, there are alternative methods that a person can use to survive and function while underwater, currently including, free-diving - swimming underwater on a single breath of air. Snorkeling - a form of free-diving where the mouth and nose can remain underwater when breathing. Some tourist resorts now offer a surface-supplied diving arrangement, trademarked as Snuba, atmospheric diving suit - an armored suit which protects the diver from the surrounding water pressure. A scuba set is characterized by full independence from the surface during use, early attempts to reach this autonomy from the surface were made in the 18th century by the Englishman John Lethbridge, who invented and successfully built his own underwater diving machine in 1715
25.
Kayak fishing
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Kayak fishing is fishing from a kayak. The kayak has long been a means of transportation and a means of approaching easily spooked fish, such as cobia. These first kayaks were constructed from stitched animal skins such as seal stretched over a frame made from collected driftwood. Archaeologists have found evidence indicating that kayaks are at least 4000 years old, the oldest still existing kayaks are exhibited in the North America department of the State Museum of Ethnology in Munich. Kayaks can be purchased inexpensively and have little maintenance cost, kayaks can be stored in small spaces and launched quickly. Kayak wheels and trailers can be purchased to assist in the transportation of kayaks, many kayak anglers have started customizing their kayaks for fishing. Other accessories include live wells, anchor trolleys and running lights, specially designed fishing kayaks usually have designs similar to those of recreational sit-in and sit-on-top kayaks characterized by very wide beams that increase lateral stability. The increases stability allows for the angler to stand up and fish on the kayak, the cutouts molded into the top of the kayaks are well-suited to hold milk crates with additional supplies. Some anglers equip their fishing kayaks with outriggers to further increase stability, in recent years people have begun using kayaks for fly fishing, most models suited for upright fly casting include upright braces that allow you to safely stand up. The most popular kayaks for fishing are rotationally molded from polyethylene due to their durability, hard shell kayaks kayaks are preferred over inflatable kayaks, since they are not susceptible to lure punctures. Generally, kayak fishermen look for stable, durable and comfortable designs, the new generation of twinhull kayaks that was recently introduced into the market is stable enough to enable both paddling and fishing in the standing position. There are also kayaks propelled by flippers or propellers and a foot mechanism and these kayaks offer hands free fishing and all the benefits associated. Kayak Fishing has taken off dramatically in South Africa, game fish are caught along the coastline North and South of Durban. Large fish such as Marlin and Sailfish can be caught, on the east coast of the United States, the kayak is quickly becoming a favorite method for accessing fishing spots in the Chesapeake Bay and the Intercoastal Waterway. Many of the used in kayak fishing are essentially the same as those used on other fishing boats. The difference is in the set-up, how each piece of equipment is fitted to the kayak, contemporary kayaks can be equipped with after-market fishing accessories such as anchor trolleys, rod holders, electronic fish-finders and live-bait containers. Kayak anglers target highly prized gamefish like snook, red drum, seatrout, tarpon, halibut and cod and also pelagics like amberjacks, tuna, sailfish, wahoo, king mackerel, and even marlin. While bottom fishing or jigging can be done from boats, it was long thought that effective trolling required speeds of five to ten knots
26.
Fishing
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Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild, techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. Fishing may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, the term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate. According to United Nations FAO statistics, the number of commercial fishermen. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries, in 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational pastime, Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back to at least the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man, a 40. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones, and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The British dogger was a type of sailing trawler from the 17th century. The Brixham trawler that evolved there was of a build and had a tall gaff rig. They were also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water, the great trawling fleet that built up at Brixham, earned the village the title of Mother of Deep-Sea Fisheries. The small village of Grimsby grew to become the largest fishing port in the world by the mid 19th century, an Act of Parliament was first obtained in 1796, which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make it deeper. It was only in the 1846, with the expansion in the fishing industry. The foundation stone for the Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849, the dock covered 25 acres and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as the first modern fishing port. The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets everywhere, by the end of the 19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishermen around Europe, including from the Netherlands, twelve trawlers went on to form the nucleus of the German fishing fleet
27.
Cobia
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The cobia is a species of perciform marine fish, the only representative of the genus Rachycentron and the family Rachycentridae. Other common names include black kingfish, black salmon, ling, lemonfish, crabeater, prodigal son, attaining a maximum length of 2 m and maximum weight of 78 kg, the cobia has an elongated fusiform body and a broad, flattened head. The eyes are small and the lower jaw projects slightly past the upper, fibrous villiform teeth line the jaws, the tongue, and the roof of the mouth. The body of the fish is smooth with small scales and it is dark brown in color, grading to white on the belly with two darker brown horizontal bands on the flanks. The stripes are more prominent during spawning, when they darken, the large pectoral fins are normally carried horizontally, perhaps helping the fish attain the profile of a shark. The first dorsal fin has six to 9 independent, short, stout, the family name Rachycentridae, from the Greek words rhachis and kentron, was inspired by these dorsal spines. The mature cobia has a forked, slightly lunated tail, which is dark brown. The fish lacks a swim bladder, the juvenile cobia is patterned with conspicuous bands of black and white and has a rounded tail. The largest cobia taken on rod and reel came from Shark Bay, Australia, the cobia resembles its close relatives, the remoras of the family Echeneidae. It lacks the dorsal sucker and has a stouter body. The cobia is normally solitary except for annual spawning aggregations, and sometimes it will congregate at reefs, wrecks, harbours, buoys and it is pelagic, but it may enter estuaries and mangroves in search of prey. It is found in warm-temperate to tropical waters of the West and East Atlantic Ocean, throughout the Caribbean and it is eurythermal, tolerating a wide range of temperatures, from 1.6 to 32.2 °C. It is also euryhaline, living at salinities of 5 to 44.5 ppt, the cobia feeds primarily on crabs, squid, and fish. It will follow larger animals such as sharks, turtles, and it is a very curious fish, showing little fear of boats. The predators of the cobia are not well documented, but the mahi-mahi is known to feed on juveniles, the cobia is frequently parasitized by nematodes, trematodes, cestodes, copepods, and acanthocephalans. The cobia is a pelagic spawner, releasing many tiny, buoyant eggs into the water, the eggs float freely with the currents until hatching. The larvae are planktonic, being more or less helpless during their first week until the eyes. The male matures at two years and the female at three years, both sexes lead moderately long lives of 15 years or more
28.
Flounder
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Flounders are a group of flatfish species. They are demersal fish found at the bottom of oceans around the world, the name flounder is used for several only distantly related species, though all are in the suborder Pleuronectidae. One eye migrates to the side of the body as a process of metamorphosis as it grows from larval to juvenile stage. As an adult, a flounder changes its habits and camouflages itself by lying on the bottom of the floor as protection against predators. As a result, the eyes are then on the side faces up. The side to which the eyes migrate is dependent on the species type, flounders ambush their prey, feeding at soft muddy areas of the sea bottom, near bridge piles, docks and coral reefs. A flounders diet consists mainly of fish spawn, crustaceans, polychaetes, Flounder typically grow to a length of 22–60 centimeters, and as large as 95 centimeters. Their width is half their length. Male Platichthys are known to display a spirit, and have been found up to 80 miles off the coast of northern Sardinia. World stocks of large fish and large ground fish, including sole and flounder, were estimated in 2003 to be only about 10% of pre-industrial levels. Most overfishing is due to the activities of the fishing industry. Current estimates suggest that approximately 30 million flounder are alive in the world today. pollution, in the Gulf of Mexico, along the coast of Texas, research indicates the flounder population could be as low as 15 million due to heavy overfishing and industrial pollution. According to Seafood Watch, Atlantic flounders and soles are currently on the list of seafood that consumers should avoid. Common names containing flounder at FishBase Video of a Fresh Water Flounder on YouTube
29.
Ecotourism
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It means responsible travel to natural areas conserving the environment and improving the well being of the local people. Since the 1980s, ecotourism has been considered a critical endeavor by environmentalists, several university programs use this description as the working definition of ecotourism. Generally, ecotourism deals with interaction with components of the natural environments. Ecotourism focuses on responsible travel, personal growth, and environmental sustainability. Ecotourism typically involves travel to destinations where flora, fauna, Ecotourism is intended to offer tourists insight into the impact of human beings on the environment, and to foster a greater appreciation of our natural habitats. Responsible ecotourism programs include those that minimize the negative aspects of tourism on the environment. For these reasons, ecotourism often appeals to advocates of environmental and social responsibility, the term ecotourism, like sustainable tourism, is considered by many to be an oxymoron. Like most forms of tourism, ecotourism generally depends on air transportation, additionally, the overall effect of sustainable tourism is negative, where, like ecotourism, philanthropic aspirations mask hard-nosed immediate self-interest. An ecotourist is different from a tourist in the sense that, he or she is mindful of his environment, Ecotourism is a responsible tourism which conserves the environment and sustains the well being of local people. For many countries, ecotourism is not simply a marginal activity to finance protection of the environment, for example, in Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nepal, Kenya, Madagascar and territories such as Antarctica, ecotourism represents a significant portion of the gross domestic product and economic activity. Ecotourism is often misinterpreted as any form of tourism that involves nature, self-proclaimed practitioners and hosts of ecotourism experiences assume it is achieved by simply creating destinations in natural areas. According to critics of this commonplace and assumptive practice, true ecotourism must, above all, sensitize people to the beauty and these critics condemn some operators as greenwashing their operations, using the labels of green and eco-friendly”, while behaving in environmentally irresponsible ways. Currently, there are moves to create national and international ecotourism accreditation programs. National ecotourism certification programs have been put in place in such as Costa Rica, Australia, Kenya, Estonia. Ecotourism is a late 20th-century neologism compounded from eco- and tourism, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, ecotour was first recorded in 1973 and ecotourism, probably after ecotour, in 1982. One source claims the terms were used earlier, claus-Dieter Hetzer, an academic and adventurer from Forum International in Berkeley, CA, supposedly coined ecotourism in 1965 and ran the first ecotours in the Yucatán during the early 1970s. The failure to acknowledge responsible, low-impact ecotourism puts legitimate ecotourism companies at a competitive disadvantage, many environmentalists have argued for a global standard of accreditation, differentiating ecotourism companies based on their level of environmental commitment, creating a standard to follow. The decisions of the board would be sanctioned by governments, so that non-compliant companies would be required to disassociate themselves from the use of the ecotourism brand
30.
Lido Key
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Lido Key is a barrier island off the coast of Sarasota, Florida, in the United States. It is part of the city of Sarasota and is connected to mainland Sarasota by John Ringling Causeway, to its north is Longboat Key, to its east are Bird Key and St. Armands Key, and to its south is Siesta Key. The island features numerous sandy beaches facing the Gulf of Mexico, as well as a park called South Lido Park, which has a beach and a woodland trail. As of February 2,2016, Lido Beach ranked No.3 in Outdoor activity in Sarasota on TripAdvisor and has a Certificate of Excellence from the website. The island is developed with a wide variety of luxury hotels and beach houses. While not as popular as Siesta Key Beach, Lido Key Beach is reviewed as a private beach that is more relaxing for the tourists who come from around the world to visit it. Weddings and other parties will often book a section of the beach for their guests. However, by the 1950s, poor management resulted in the deterioration of the casino and it was demolished in 1969, and remodeled and modernized by 1970
31.
Sarasota, Florida
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Sarasota is a city located in Sarasota County on the southwestern coast of the U. S. state of Florida. The area is renowned for its cultural and environmental amenities, beaches, resorts, connections to the Ringling family, Amish community, the city is located at the southern end of the Tampa Bay Area, north of Fort Myers and Punta Gorda. Its current official limits include Sarasota Bay and several islands between the bay and the Gulf of Mexico. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, in 2013 Sarasota had a population of 53,326, in 1986 it became designated as a certified local government. Sarasota is a city of the Sarasota metropolitan area, and is the seat of Sarasota County. The islands separating Sarasota Bay from the gulf near the city, known as keys, include Lido Key and Siesta Key, which are famous worldwide for the quality of their sandy beaches. The keys that are included in the boundary of Sarasota are Lido Key, St. Armands Key, Otter Key, Coon Key, Bird Key, previously, Siesta Key was named Sarasota Key. At one time, it and all of Longboat Key were considered part of Sarasota, Longboat Key is the largest key separating the bay from the gulf, but it is now evenly divided by the new county line of 1921. The city limits had expanded significantly with the real estate rush of the twentieth century. The wild speculation boom began to crash in 1926 and following that, the city limits began to contract, shrinking to less than a quarter of that area. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city currently has an area of 25.9 square miles. Sarasota has a subtropical climate closely bordering a tropical savanna climate, with hot, humid summers. There are distinct rainy and dry seasons in Sarasota, with the season lasting from June to September. As of the census of 2000, there were 52,715 people,23,427 households, the population density was 3,539.8 per square mile. There were 26,898 housing units at a density of 1,806.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 76. 91% White,16. 02% African American,0. 35% Native American,1. 02% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,3. 74% from other races, and 1. 91% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11. 92% of the population,38. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the family size was 2.81
32.
Dolphin
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Dolphins are a widely distributed and diverse group of aquatic mammals. They are a grouping within the order Cetacea, excluding whales and porpoises. The dolphins comprise the extant families Delphinidae, Platanistidae, Iniidae, and Pontoporiidae, there are 40 extant species of dolphins. Dolphins, alongside other cetaceans, belong to the clade Cetartiodactyla with even-toed ungulates and their closest living relatives are the hippopotamuses, having diverged about 40 million years ago. Dolphins range in size from the 1.7 m long and 50 kg Mauis dolphin to the 9.5 m and 10 t killer whale, several species exhibit sexual dimorphism, in that the males are larger than females. They have streamlined bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers, though not quite as flexible as seals, some dolphins can travel at 55.5 km/h. Dolphins use their conical shaped teeth to capture fast moving prey and they have well-developed hearing which is adapted for both air and water and is so well developed that some can survive even if they are blind. Some species are adapted for diving to great depths. They have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin to keep warm in the cold water, although dolphins are widespread, most species prefer the warmer waters of the tropic zones, but some, like the right whale dolphin, prefer colder climates. Dolphins feed largely on fish and squid, but a few, like the killer whale, feed on large mammals, male dolphins typically mate with multiple females every year, but females only mate every two to three years. Calves are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear all the responsibility for raising them, mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for a relatively long period of time. Dolphins produce a variety of vocalizations, usually in the form of clicks, Dolphins are sometimes hunted in places like Japan, in an activity known as dolphin drive hunting. Besides drive hunting, they face threats from bycatch, habitat loss. Dolphins have been depicted in cultures worldwide. Dolphins occasionally feature in literature and film, as in the film series Free Willy, Dolphins are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to perform tricks, but breeding success has been poor and the animals often die within a few months of capture. The most common dolphins kept are killer whales and bottlenose dolphins, the name is originally from Greek δελφίς, dolphin, which was related to the Greek δελφύς, womb. The animals name can therefore be interpreted as meaning a fish with a womb, the name was transmitted via the Latin delphinus, which in Medieval Latin became dolfinus and in Old French daulphin, which reintroduced the ph into the word. The term mereswine has also historically been used, the term dolphin can be used to refer to, under the parvorder Odontoceti, all the species in the family Delphinidae and the river dolphin families Iniidae, Pontoporiidae, Lipotidae and Platanistidae
33.
Manatee
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Manatees are large, fully aquatic, mostly herbivorous marine mammals sometimes known as sea cows. They measure up to 4.0 metres long, weigh as much as 590 kilograms, the name manatí comes from the Spanish manatí, derived from the Caribbean word sometimes cited as manattouï. The etymology is dubious, with connections having been made to Latin manus, and to a used by the Taíno. Manatees are occasionally called sea cows, as they are slow plant-eaters, peaceful and they often graze on water plants in tropical seas. Manatees comprise three of the four living species in the order Sirenia, the fourth is the Eastern Hemispheres dugong. The Sirenia are thought to have evolved from four-legged land mammals over 60 million years ago, the Amazonians hair color is brownish gray, and they have thick wrinkled skin often with coarse hair, or whiskers. Photos are rare, although little is known about this species. Manatees have a mass of 400 to 550 kilograms, and mean length of 2.8 to 3.0 metres, when born, baby manatees have an average mass of 30 kilograms. They have a large, flexible, prehensile upper lip and they use the lip to gather food and eat, as well as using it for social interactions and communications. Manatees have shorter snouts than their fellow sirenians, the dugongs and their small, widely spaced eyes have eyelids that close in a circular manner. The adults have no incisor or canine teeth, just a set of cheek teeth and these teeth are continuously replaced throughout life, with new teeth growing at the rear as older teeth fall out from farther forward in the mouth. This process is known as polyphyodonty and amongst the mammals, only occurs in the kangaroo. At any given time, a manatee typically has no more than six teeth in each jaw of its mouth. Its tail is paddle-shaped, and is the clearest visible difference between manatees and dugongs, a tail is fluked, similar in shape to a that of a whale. Females have two teats, one under each flipper, a characteristic that was used to make links between the manatee and elephants. Manatees are unusual amongst mammals in possessing just six cervical vertebrae, all other mammals have seven cervical vertebrae, other than the two-toed and three-toed sloths. Like horses, they have a stomach, but a large cecum. In general, their intestines have a length of about 45 meters
34.
Outline of canoeing and kayaking
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Kayaking – use of a kayak for moving across water. It is distinguished from canoeing by the position of the paddler. A kayak is a boat where the paddler faces forward, legs in front, exercise – bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health or wellness. Aerobic exercise – physical exercise that intends to improve the oxygen system, aerobic means with oxygen, and refers to the use of oxygen in the bodys energy-generating process. Extreme Sport - Extreme sports is a term for certain activities perceived as having a high level of inherent danger. These activities often involve speed, height, a level of physical exertion. Transport – movement of people and goods from one location to another, boating – travel or transport by boat, or the recreational use of a boat focused on the travel itself or on sports activities, such as fishing. Watercraft paddling – act of manually propelling and steering a boat in the water using a blade that is joined to a shaft. Not to be confused with watercraft rowing, travel – movement of people between relatively distant geographical locations for any purpose and any duration, with or without any additional means of transport. Tourism – travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes, the rivers are typically class V and involve waterfalls and dangerous rapids. The term usually applies to a trip or run, which has at least some stretches of whitewater included. Canoe or Canadian canoe – small boat, pointed at ends, propelled by paddlers who kneel or sit on a raised seat and use paddles which usually have a blade at one end only. A canoe is normally used by two people, a canoe is usually open on top, but can be decked over. A canoe is typically human-powered, though it may also be powered by sails or an electric or gas motor. Paddles may be single-bladed or double-bladed, Kayak – slim boat, normally pointed at both ends and usually propelled by one kayaker who sits in a low seat and uses paddles with a blade at each end. Kayaks usually have a deck, with a cockpit covered by a spray deck to keep the inside of the boat dry. Differences between a canoe and a kayak, Sitting position, In a canoe the paddler kneels on the bottom of the boat or sits on a raised seat. In a kayak the paddler sits on a low seat with their legs extended in front, number of blades on the paddle, A canoe paddle has a blade on one end, while a kayak paddle is bladed at both ends
35.
Canoe polo
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Canoe polo, also known as Kayak polo, is one of the competitive disciplines of canoeing, known simply as polo by its aficionados. Polo combines canoeing and ball handling skills with a contact team game. The game requires excellent teamwork and promotes both general canoeing skills and a range of techniques unique to the sport. Each team has five players on the pitch, who compete to score in their opponents goal which is suspended two metres above the water, the ball can be thrown by hand, or flicked with the paddle to pass between players and shoot at the goal. Pitches can be set up in swimming pools or any stretch of flat water, the canoes are specifically designed for polo and are faster and lighter than typical kayaks which give them fantastic maneuverability. The blades of a polo paddle have thick rounded edges to prevent injury, paddles are also very lightweight and designed with both pulling power and ball control in mind. Nose and tail boat bumpers, body protection, helmets and face-guards are all compulsory, the birth of the modern sport could be considered to be the demonstration event held at the National Canoe Exhibition at the Crystal Palace National Sports Centre, London, in 1970. The National Championships were held every year at the National Canoe Exhibition, the game is now played in many countries throughout all inhabited continents, for recreation and serious sport. The sport has World Championships every two years and European, Asian, African, and PanAmerican Continental Championships held every year in between World Championship years. Internationally the sport is organized by the Canoe Polo committee of the International Canoe Federation, the game is often described as a combination of water polo, basketball and kayaking. There are two referees and they are on rather than in boats. The score is kept by the scorekeeper and the timekeeper monitors the playing time, the goal lines are monitored by two line judges. Before play commences scrutineers check all kit for compliance with regulations, Canoe polo is played either indoors in swimming pools or outdoors on a pitch which should measure 35 meters by 23 meters. The boundaries of the pitch are marked using floating ropes. The area approximately 6 meters in front of each the goal can be defined as the Zone and this area is where defending players create formations to defend the goal from attackers. The game is played as a 14- to 20-minute game consisting of two 7- to 10-minute halves. The teams change ends at the period, which is 1 to 3 minutes long. Each half begins with a sprint where each team lines up against its goal-line, one player from each team sprints to win possession of the ball
36.
Canoe slalom
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Whitewater slalom is a competitive sport with the aim to navigate a decked canoe or kayak through a course of hanging downstream or upstream gates on river rapids in the fastest time possible. It is one of the two kayak and canoeing disciplines at the Summer Olympics, and is referred to by the International Olympic Committee as Canoe/Kayak Slalom, the other Olympic canoeing discipline is canoe sprint. Wildwater canoeing is a non-Olympic paddlesport, whitewater slalom racing started in Europe and in the 1940s, the International Canoe Federation was formed to govern the sport. The first World Championships were held in 1949 in Switzerland, from 1949 to 1999, the championships were held every odd-numbered year and have been held annually in non-Summer Olympic years since 2002. Folding kayaks were used from 1949 to 1963, and in the early 1960s, boats were made of fiberglass, Boats were heavy, usually over 65 pounds. From 1949 to 1977, all World Championships were held in Europe, the first World Championship held in North America was held at Jonquière, in Québec, Canada in 1979. It has been a regular Olympic sport since 1992, each gate consists of two poles hanging from a wire strung across the river. There are 18-25 numbered gates in a course, of which 6-7 must be upstream gates, upstream gates are always placed in eddies, where the water is flat or moving slightly upstream, the paddler enters an eddy from the main current and paddles upstream through the gate. Most slalom courses take 80 to 120 seconds to complete for the fastest paddlers, depending on the level of competition, difficulty of course, degree of water turbulence and ability of the other paddlers, times can go up to 200 seconds. In international competitions each competitor does two runs in the round, called the heats, the time of the faster run gives the qualification result. Depending on the number of participants in the event,10 to 40 boats make it through to the semi-final, the fastest semi-final boats, the number determined by the number of participants, make it through to the final, where they navigate the semi-final course once more. Their ranking within the group is based on the time of that last run alone. If the competitors boat, paddle or body touches either pole of the gate, if the competitor misses a gate completely, displaces it by more than 45 degrees, goes through the gate upside-down, or goes through it in the wrong order, a 50-second penalty is given. Only one penalty can be incurred on each gate, and this will be taken as the highest one. There are currently 4 Olympic Medal events, C-1 Men C-2 Men C-1 Women K-1 Men K-1 Women In the 1960s and early 1970s, boats were made of heavy fiberglass, the boats were high volume and weighed over 65 pounds. In the early 1970s Kevlar was used and the boats became lighter as well as the volume of the boats was being reduced almost every year as new designs were made, a minimum boat weight was introduced to equalize competition when super light materials began to affect race results. The I. C. F also reduced the width of the boats in the early 1970s, the gates were hung about 10 cm above the water. When racers began making lower volume boats, the gates were raised in response to fears that new boats would be of low volume as to create a hazard to the paddler
37.
Surf kayaking
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Surf kayaking is the sport, technique, and equipment, used in surfing ocean waves with kayaks. Surf kayaking has many similarities to surf board surfing, but with boats designed for use in surf zones, a number of kayak designs are used, but all are aimed at better using the waves to propel the craft. Surf kayaking is popular in areas frequented by surf board surfers. The sport has grown in popularity over the last decades, in pace with the rise of sea kayaking, there are a number of speciality surf kayak designs available. They are often equipped with up to four fins with a three fin thruster set up being the most common, speciality surf kayaks typically have flat bottoms, and hard rails, similar to surf boards. The design of a surf kayak promotes the use of a surf wave as opposed to a river or feature wave. They are typically made from glass composites or rotomolded plastic, many kayaks, such as those used in whitewater kayaking on rivers or tidal rapids, are used. Many whitewater designs can be fitted with fins, to assist in control on moving surf waves, sea kayaks, generally used for day-trip, to expedition kayaking, are used in surf kayaking. Due to their length, sea kayaks are difficult to manoeuvre in surf, the techniques and strategies utilized in landing kayaks, even when heavily loaded, safely through large open ocean surf, could be considered a sub-discipline of surf kayaking. Length is generally proportional to dimensions of boat and paddler, kayak blades are often feathered, allowing the paddle to pass smoothly through the lip of a wave when paddling into breaking waves. It is not unusual for un-feathered paddles to be used as personal preference, occasionally single-sided canoe paddles are used. This is perhaps attributed to whitewater canoe influence, Surf kayak paddles are generally made from robust materials to last the rigours of the surf zone. Fiberglass, plastic, and carbon fiber are most common, when paddling in following seas in open ocean swell, it is possible to surf a kayak, thereby increasing ones speed. Ocean swell, having a distance between crests than wind waves, allows sea kayaks and other longer boats to surf down the front of the wave. This technique, especially used on extended expedition trips, can add miles to a day trip. As with all sports, surf kayaking carries inherent risks. Participants should gain experience in various heights, and wear suitable safety equipment. One should wear a helmet, and suitable PFD, the dangers of cold water immersion, leading to hypothermia should be addressed by wearing a wetsuit, drysuit, or other suitable insulation
38.
Whitewater kayaking
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Whitewater kayaking is the sport of paddling a kayak on a moving body of water, typically a whitewater river. Whitewater kayaking can range from active, moving water, to demanding, paddling on rivers, lakes and oceans is as old as the Stone Age. The raft, the catamaran, the canoe and the kayak evolved depending on the needs and environment of the indigenous peoples in different parts of the world. The modern day kayak most likely originated about 8,000 years ago along the Siberian coast line by the Yupik and then transformed from the canoe, via the Aleut and Inuit. The first boats made were hard to sink because they contained inflated seal bladders, the Greek, Herodotus, 484-425 BC, wrote in his travel diaries about boats with which merchandise was brought from Armenia to Babylon. The boats were made of a framework that was covered with animal skins. Mules hauled the precious skins back to Armenia, the Russian, Grigori Ivanovitch Langsdorff, reported from his trip around the world on the ease and elegance of paddling Eskimo kayaks/canoes. In 1866 he published the book A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe, the timing was right and the book became a resounding success. 1905, Alfred Heurich, a student from Leipzig, Germany, invented the Faltboot. Heurich went on to paddle over 100,000 km on rivers,1907, Alfred Klepper, a master seamster from Rosenheim, bought the patent, improved the rigidity with a lever system and started production. The design made it not only suitable for whitewater but also easy to travel with, World War I stopped any progress. 1920s, boating on WW with Folboats developed, boaters flocked to rivers and lakes by train or bus. During that time, the Austrian, Edi Hans Pawlata reinvented the Eskimo roll,1927, Franz von Alber, and then, Klaus and Arndt von Rautenfeld, claimed to have independently developed a roll with their sea kayaks. Early 1930s, Walter Frentz, Herbert Rittlinger and a handful of others became pioneers and advocates of WW kayaking with documentaries,1933, Adolf Hitler started to dissolve kayak clubs. They did not serve his plan and the impact on the sport was devastating, World War II brought the paddle sport to a total halt. 1946/48, Depending on the region, the Allies gradually lifted the ban on travel in Germany. Paddle clubs were allowed to form. 1952, Walter Frentz, published an inspiring book In den Schluchten Europas that gained popularity, the book was based on his river trips prior to World War II
39.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
40.
Canoe sprint
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Canoe sprint is a sport in which athletes race canoes or kayaks on calm water. Race categories vary by the number of athletes in the boat, the length of the course, Canoe sprints are sometimes referred to as flat water racing. The distances recognized by the ICF for international canoe sprint races are 200m, 500m and these races take place on straight courses with each boat paddling in its own designated lane. Longer marathon races do exist, notably the 5000m - these usually have athletes starting in a pack at a start line before paddling around a set course with marked turning points. For each race a number of heats, semi-finals and a final may be necessary, the sport is governed by the International Canoe Federation. The International Canoe Federation is the worldwide canoeing organization and creates the rules for the different disciplines of canoe/kayak competition. The ICF recognizes several competitive and non-competitive disciplines of canoeing, of which Sprint, on the whole, Europe has dominated the sport, winning over 90 per cent of all available medals. The official boats recognized by the ICF as International Boats are, K1, K2, K4, C1, C2 and C4, originally, width restrictions were also enforced, these were revoked in 2000, spurring a flurry of innovations in boat designs. Modern boats are made of carbon fiber, aramid fiber with epoxy resin. In a kayak, the paddler is seated in the direction of travel, kayaks have a rudder for steering and course adjustment, which is operated by the feet of the paddler in the front. The paddle used is usually a wing paddle - wing paddles have blades which are shaped to resemble a wing or spoon, creating lift and increasing the power and stability of the stroke. In Canada, a racing class exists for the C-15 or WC or War Canoe, an antiquated boat class is the C-7, resembling a large C4 which was debuted by the ICF with little success. For racing canoes, the blade is short and broad. The shaft will typically be longer than a canoe paddle. More recent designs of canoe racing paddles often have a bent shaft
41.
Canoe marathon
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A canoe marathon is a paddling competition in which athletes paddle over a long distance to the finish line. Although the International Canoe Federation states that kayak marathon standard distances are upto 30km, many events are raced down sections of river, including currents or portages around obstacles. Some events attract thousands of competitors and are staged over several days, racers are generally divided into five main classes, though they can be split into futher sub-classes, K1 K2 K4 C1 C2 K refers to the boat being a kayak, and C a canoe. The number refers to the number of paddlers in the boat, though K4 has been included on this list, they are very infrequently raced at the marathon discipline. The MR340 is an annual 340 Mile continuous race on the Missouri River from Kansas City to St. Charles, participants have 88 hours to complete the race. Devizes to Westminster International Canoe Marathon, A race over 125 miles of canals and rivers from Devizes to Westminster, the course includes portages around 77 locks. There are no rules about the boat specifications but most competitors use ICF kayaks, the Dusi Canoe Marathon in South Africa, a three-day race over 120 km. Classes include K1, K2, white water, touring kayak, the Fish River Canoe Marathon, a two-day river race over in South Africa in ICF-style K1s and K2s. The YMCA Massive Murray Paddle,404 kilometres down the Murray River in Australia, classes include ICF canoes and kayaks, as well as touring craft as defined in Australian Canoeing regulations, surf skis, outrigger canoes and recreational paddle-craft such as sea kayaks. 111km down the Hawkesbury River in NSW Australia from Windsor to Brooklyn, the event is run at night. Classes include canoes, kayaks and skis, as well as limited dragon boats, the Texas Water Safari a race over 262 miles from the interior Texas south to the Gulf of Mexico. It must be completed in 100 hours, classes include, Solo, USCA C-1, unlimited Tandem, USCA aluminum, standard, USCA C-2, unlimited Up to six crew, unlimited. The record time of 30 hours was done in a six-man canoe, the Triple Crown of Canoe Racing, consists of the General Clinton Canoe Regatta, the Au Sable River Canoe Marathon, and the Classique international de canots de la Mauricie. The Adirondack Canoe Classic, also known as The 90 Miler, is a three-day, 90-mile canoe race from Old Forge to Saranac Lake in the Adirondacks of New York, classes range from C1 Stock to war canoes and traditional guide boats. La Ruta Maya, a river race in Belize The Muskoka River X. Paddlers must carry expedition gear such as shelters and emergency rations, classes include canoe, kayak, and stand up paddle board. The Yukon River Quest, a 715 kilometres wilderness paddling race from Whitehorse to Dawson City in The Yukon, classes include canoes and kayaks, and voyageur canoes. The Yukon 1000, a biennial wilderness race over 1,000 miles of the Yukon River lasting 7–12 days, classes include K1, K2, C1, C2 and voyageur canoes
42.
Wildwater canoeing
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Wildwater canoeing is a competitive discipline of canoeing in which kayaks or canoes are used to negotiate a stretch of river speedily. It is also called Whitewater racing or Downriver racing to distinguish it from whitewater slalom racing, the objective of the sport is to go from the starting point of the course on a river to the end point as quickly as possible. Typical wildwater venues consist of Class II - IV whitewater, in contrast to extreme racing, match competitions generally consist of a classic and a sprint race. A classic course is 4 to 6 miles in length or 10 to 35 minutes in duration, although there is some specialization, the vast majority of racers compete in both classic and sprint. Competitors are placed in classes based on gender and boat type as follows, K1 – solo kayak, male K1W – solo kayak, female C1 – solo canoe, male C1W – solo canoe, female C2 – tandem canoe. The competitors are numbered within their class based on results from races and compete in reverse order. To race successfully, paddlers must possess refined technical skill, as well as strength, endurance, aerobic capacity, Whitewater racing is also practiced by competing teams, each team is made by a group of three competitors belonging to the same class. Whitewater racing started in Europe with the International Canoe Federation being formed, since then, there has been a World Championships every two years. Since 2011 there is a sprint only world championships, with sprint and classic being contested every other year. Wildwater solo kayaks are 4.5 m long and 60 cm wide, Wildwater solo canoes are 4.3 m long and 70 cm wide, the boats all have a rounded hull profile, making them fast but unstable and hard to turn. Rather than using wide sweep strokes to turn the boat, the paddler tilts the boat to one side, two wings meet the minimum width required by racing rules and add secondary stability, as well as enhancing the effect of carving a turn. When the boat is under way, most of each wing will be above the waterline so as to minimize drag, the use of kevlar, carbon fiber, and glass-reinforced plastic construction has substantially reduced the weight of wildwater boats, while improving stiffness. The top part and the bottom are molded separately and then bonded together using kevlar or glass cloth strips, a boat can be made in 2 to 3 days, but without an oven can take weeks to cure fully. Before glass-reinforced plastic boats, the common racing craft was the folding kayak, competitors are also required to wear an appropriate whitewater helmet and PFD and River shoes or booties and floatation bags for their boats. Racers paddle down a course along the fastest jets of water, in order to go fast, they follow the edges of wave trains and hold as straight a line as possible down the river. If it is unclear which line is fastest, two paddlers simultaneously float the different options and see which boat moves ahead, because of the high speeds, racers frequently run a river two or three times a day when training for a race. Some racers practice on rivers if they are lucky to live near one, usually they will paddle 5–10 miles a day, five to six days a week. Others practice on lakes or flatwater rivers, in northern areas rivers and lakes freeze, so racers sometimes train in an indoor pool, lift weights, run or do Cross-country skiing
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Canoe sailing
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Canoe sailing refers to the practice of fitting a Polynesian outrigger or Western canoe with sails. See also log canoe, a type of sailboat used in the Chesapeake Bay region, the first sailing canoes emerged in ancient Polynesia over 1,000 years ago. The canoes were built from materials such as plaited leaf sails, island woods. The manned paddled sailing canoes explored the vast Pacific Ocean, the Polynesian voyaging canoes are to ancient Polynesian culture as the invention of the wheel in Asia and Europe. Today there is a revival of sailing in Polynesia and racing is very much alive in the Hawaiian Islands in particular. Hawaiian sailing canoes have evolved, Wood has been replaced by glass-reinforced and carbon fiber-reinforced polymer, sails are now made from Dacron, the Hōkūleʻa is a modern interpretation of a Polynesian voyaging canoe. It is made from materials such as fibreglass, plywood, resin glue, terylene sails and ropes with modern fittings. No authentic Polynesian voyaging canoe has ever been seen although numerous catamaran types were seen by Europeans from the 18th century, voyaging canoes have crossed the Pacific many times. In most voyages they have been escorted, or towed, by a mother ship. John MacGregor of Scotland is generally believed to have developed the first modern sailing canoes, during the 1860s, he had at least seven boats built that he called Rob Roys and sailed and paddled them in Europe, the Baltic and the Middle East. MacGregor founded the British Royal Canoe Club in 1866, the New York Canoe Club followed about six years later. The American Canoe Association was founded in 1880, in 1883, ACA Secretary Charles Neide and retired sea captain “Barnacle” Kendall paddled and sailed over three thousand miles from Lake George, New York to Pensacola, Florida. In 1886 the ACA and the RCC held the first international canoe sailing regatta, in 1991 American Howard Rice sailed and paddled a sailing canoe solo around Cape Horn, Chile considered historically to be the Mount Everest of sailing challenges. He was awarded a Certificate of Merit by the Chilean Navy, there are several racing classes of sailing canoes, Cruising Class or 4 Meter, C Class or 5 Meter, International Decked Sailing Canoe, and the American Canoe Association Class. Canoe Sailing Resources 2005 International Canoe Sailing - International Website Open Canoe Sailing Group SailboatsToGo. com A supplier of canoe sail rigs
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Playboating
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Specialised canoes or kayaks known as playboats are often used, but any boat can be used for playing. The moves and tricks are similar to those performed by snowboarders, surfers or skaters. With modern playboats it is possible to get the kayak and the paddler completely airborne while performing tricks, the competitive side of playboating is known as freestyle kayaking. Playspots are typically stationary features on rivers, in standing waves, hydraulic jumps, holes and stoppers. Basic moves consist of front- and back-surfing, spins through any of the three axes, air screws, cartwheels and air loops, stalls with the vertical on either end. The playboater usually aims to stay surfing the feature after performing each move, more complex moves are made up of combinations of these moves. These moves are scored by the International Canoe Federation, and are used in official competitions worldwide and these moves were more popular before short playboats were invented, but remain the foundation of several current moves. Ender An ender is performed by sinking the bow of the boat deep into swift moving water, popup A popup is an ender, followed by quickly leaning back to cause the boat to pop up out of the water like a cork. Pirouette A pirouette is when the boater turns during an ender, squirt A basic squirt is performed when crossing a strong eddyline. As soon as the crosses the eddyline, a back sweep is performed while dropping the upstream edge of the stern. The stern of the boat should sink, and the boat will rotate in the direction of the currents and you can then develop this into a cartwheel. Double pump This is the move at the beginning of a making the boat go up on its side. Mystery Move The paddler completely submerges the kayak and themself, front Surf A front surf involves remaining on a feature of the river without being washed downstream. From this position, many moves can be initiated, Back Surf A back surf is identical to the front surf, but with the boat facing downstream. This is most often accomplished by transitioning through a move such as a spin, cartwheel, Back surfing is slightly harder than front surfing. Side Surf A side surf is done with the boat oriented perpendicular to the current, the paddler must lean downstream and raise their upstream edge to maintain this position. This move is easier to learn because it is the position a kayak will move. Carving Carving involves moving back and forth across the face of a feature and this is accomplished by tilting the boat at an angle while using the paddle to press against the water near the downstream end of the boat
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Canoeing at the Summer Olympics
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Canoeing and kayaking have been featured as competition sports in the Summer Olympic Games since the 1936 Games in Berlin, although they were demonstration sports at the 1924 Games in Paris. There are two disciplines of canoeing in Olympic competition, slalom and sprint, two styles of boats are used in this sport, canoes with 1 or 2 canoers and kayaks with 1,2 or 4 kayakers. This leads to the designation of each event. For example, C-1 is a singles event and K-2 is a kayak doubles event. Races are usually 500 metres or 1000 metres long, although there were also 10 km events from 1936 to 1956, the other events for men at 200 m will be C-1, K-1, and K-2. This was confirmed at their 2009 Board of Directors meeting in Windsor, Berkshire, the following tables shows which events were contested at each Games. Updated after the 2016 Summer Olympics List of Olympic venues in canoeing
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Creeking
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Creeking is a branch of canoeing and kayaking that involves descending very steep low-volume whitewater. It is usually performed in specialized canoes and kayaks specifically designed to withstand the extreme whitewater environment in which the activity occurs, in addition, the canoes and kayaks give the paddler improved performance and maneuverability needed to avoid river obstacles. Creeking usually involves the descent of waterfalls and slides, but equally applies to any steep low volume river, Creeking tends to be more dangerous and extreme then other varieties of kayaking such as freestyle or sea-kayaking. As such the sport of creeking usually requires extra gear that is not necessary in regular canoeing and kayaking. This equipment includes, throw bags, elbow pads, float bags, pin kits, first aid kits, repair kits, Creeking is also local slang, in the Appalachian region of the United States, as a phrase to define walking or hiking in a creek or stream. This is an activity for many children that grow up in rural areas. A paddling trip usually done by a group where they descend a technical creek over a period of days. The group will survive on supplies they begin the trip with stored in their creek boats. The placement of the gear within the kayak also impacts the performance of the boat as the center of gravity moves, essential gear for multi-day trips includes fire starting gear, food and/or fishing line, and warm gear or a sleeping bag for the nights. Tents, sleeping pads, and cooking equipment are optional based on weight and this activity is comparable to mountaineering in scale and exposure, and mountaineering grade equipment is favored for its weight characteristics. In eastern North America creeks usually only run in the spring as the rivers are fed by snow melt, and in the fall as this is generally the rainy season. In parts of the world there are glaciers creeks may run in the spring. Arid parts of the such as Australia need a period of rain in order to run their creeks. When whitewater kayaking reaches the difficult levels of creek boating an interesting social phenomena can occur and this is primarily due to the level of safety required on a demanding river and the non-verbal communication demands. A paddler who is not prepared to handle the whitewater is both a danger to themselves and the group and it has been observed that this overall attitude is strikingly polar to the very social play boating and slalom scenes, but as with any social dynamic this is not universal. Part of this selectivity is that these individuals regularly place themselves in high risk situations for the benefit of their crew to ensure a crew members safety. Many of the creeks have yet to be explored in canoes or kayaks. The act of paddling a previously un-run stretch of whitewater is known as a first descent, searching for hidden whitewater gems is an exciting and difficult endeavor many expedition boaters undertake
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