1.
National Museum of Indonesia
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Popularly known as Elephant Building after the elephant statue in its forecourt. Its broad collections cover all of Indonesias territory and almost all of its history, the museum has endeavoured to preserve Indonesias heritage for two centuries. On April 24,1778, a group of Dutch intellectuals established an institution under the name Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen. This private body had the aim of promoting research in the field of arts and sciences, especially in history, archaeology, ethnography and physics, and publish the various findings. One of the founders – JCM Radermacher – donated a building and a collection of objects and books. Due to the collections, General Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles built a new premises on Jalan Majapahit No.3 at the beginning of the 19th century. In the 1862 the Dutch East Indies government decided to build a new museum that would not only serve as an office but also could be used to house, preserve, the Museum was officially opened in 1868 and popularly known as Gedung Gajah or sometimes called Gedung Arca. It was called Gedung Gajah on account of the elephant statue in the front yard – a gift to Batavia from King Chulalongkorn of Siam in 1871. It was also called Gedung Arca because a variety of statues from different periods are on display in the house. In 1931, the collections were shown in a world cultural exhibition in Paris. Unfortunately, a fire in the hall demolished the Dutch East Indies exhibition pavilion. The museum received some money as compensation and the following year these funds were used to build the old ceramics room, the bronze room. In February,1950 the institution became the Lembaga Kebudayaan Indonesia, on September 17,1962 it was handed over to the Indonesian government and became known as Museum Pusat. By decree of the Minister of Education and Culture No, 092/0/1979 May 28,1979 it was renamed the Museum Nasional. In 2007, a new building to the side of existing building was opened. This new building, called Gedung Arca, provides a new exhibition wing, the old building is named as Gedung Gajah. In September 11,2013, four precious golden artifacts from the 10th-century Eastern Medang kingdom period was stolen from the museum. The items were first discovered in the ruins of the Jalatunda ancient royal bathing place and in the temples on the slopes of Mount Penanggungan in Mojokerto Regency, East Java
2.
South Sumatra
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South Sumatra Province is a province of Indonesia. It is located in the part of Sumatra Island, east of the Bukit Barisan Mountains. It spans 91,592.43 km2 and had a population of 7,450,394 at the 2010 Census, the capital of the province is Palembang. South Sumatra has been settled by humans since the Palaeolithic era, the evidence of those settlements is proven by some discoveries of Palaeolithic tools in the riverbed of Saling and Kikim rivers in Bungamas Village, Lahat Regency. Relics of seven stone chambers believed to be about 2,500 years old were found near a plantation in Kotaraya Lembak. Around 300 BC, the Deutero-Malay people arrived in this region, around 7th century AD, an ancient Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was established in an area known today as Palembang. It once controlled a part of what is now Indonesia, Malaysia and Southern Thailand, effectively ruled the Malacca Strait. In 1025, it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India, srivijayas capital eventually moved northward to Jambi. After its eventual fall in 14th century AD, some kingdoms were established in South Sumatra. However, there was virtually a power vacuum in the region there was no prominent power to hold the region except for the waning Majapahit Empire. The vacuum allowed pirates to flourish in the region, in the 16th century AD, the Palembang Sultanate was established by Ki Gede Ing Suro, a politician who fled from Demak Sultanate. Clashes with the Dutch had occurred since the 17th century until the sultanate was abolished in 1825 when the Dutch gave a blow to the final Sultan of Palembang. Southern Sumatra was occupied by the Japanese in January 15,1942 after the Battle of Palembang in World War II, after the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, South Sumatra became a part of Sumatra Province as a residency with Adnan Kapau Gani as the resident. On January 1,1947, the Dutch tried to gain its sovereignty over South Sumatra by invading Palembang, since then, fighting ensued across South Sumatra until Indonesias independence was recognized by the Dutch on December 27,1949. The province is located in the portion of the island of Sumatra. The majority of its area consists of low-lying plains filled with plantations, forest, the natural environment of South Sumatra is hot and humid tropical rain forest. However, most of these forest has been cleared out to make way for oil palm plantation for palm oil production, the Bukit Barisan mountain range is located on the western edge of the province and forms the border with the neighbouring Bengkulu province. The mountains are the source of systems that drain eastward to the Bangka Strait
3.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
4.
Musi River (Indonesia)
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The Musi River is located in southern Sumatra, Indonesia. It is about 750 kilometers long, and drains most of South Sumatra province, after flowing through Palembang, the provincial capital, it joins with the several other rivers, including the Banyuasin River, to form a delta near the city of Sungsang. The river, dredged to a depth of about 6, the river mouth was the site of the SilkAir Flight 185 plane crash which killed all 104 passengers and crew on board in 1997. Media related to Musi River at Wikimedia Commons Banyuasin Musi River Delta conservation information from the ARCBC
5.
Malay language
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Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It has a status in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia. As the Bahasa Kebangsaan or Bahasa Nasional of several states, Standard Malay has various official names, in Singapore and Brunei it is called Bahasa Melayu, in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia, and in Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia and is designated the Bahasa Persatuan/Pemersatu. However, in areas of central to southern Sumatra where the language is indigenous, Indonesians refer to it as Bahasa Melayu and consider it one of their regional languages. There are also several Malay trade and creole languages which are based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay, as well as Macassar Malay, Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages. The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods, Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Malacca Period, Late Modern Malay and it is not clear that Old Malay was actually the ancestor of Classical Malay, but this is thought to be quite possible. Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit literary language of Classical India, Sanskrit loanwords can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. Batenburg on November 29,1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South Sumatra, on the banks of the Tatang and it is a small stone of 45 by 80 centimetres. The earliest surviving manuscript in Malay is the Tanjong Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters and this 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text produced in the Adityawarman era of Dharmasraya, a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra. The laws were for the Minangkabau people, who still live in the highlands of Sumatra. The Malay language came into use as the lingua franca of the Malacca Sultanate. During this period, the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature, the development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic, Malayalam and Sanskrit vocabularies, called Classical Malay. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay, however, there is no connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular. One of the oldest surviving letters written in Malay is a letter from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate, Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia, the letter is addressed to the king of Portugal, following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão. The letters show sign of non-native usage, the Ternateans used the unrelated Ternate language, Malay was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia, malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking, many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language
6.
Old Malay
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Malay is a major language of the Austronesian language family. The oldest form of Malay is descended from the Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by the earliest Austronesian settlers in Southeast Asia and this form would later evolved into Old Malay when Indian cultures and religions began penetrating the region. Old Malay contained some terms that exist today, but are unintelligible to modern speakers, Malay evolved extensively into Classical Malay through the gradual influx of numerous Arabic and Persian vocabulary, when Islam made its way to the region. Initially, Classical Malay was a group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Malay kingdoms of Southeast Asia. One of these dialects that was developed in the tradition of Melaka in the 15th century. Ancient Malay, or Proto-Malay, is the believed to exist in prehistoric times. Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the beginning of the common era saw the growing influence of Indian civilisation in the archipelago. With the penetration and proliferation of Dravidian vocabulary and the influence of major Indian religions, all these Old Malay inscriptions used either scripts of Indian origin such as Pallava, Nagari or the Indian-influenced Old Sumatran characters. It is popularly claimed that the Old Malay of the Srivijayan inscriptions from South Sumatra is the ancestor of the Classical Malay, however, as noted by some linguists, the precise relationship between these two, whether ancestral or not, is problematical and remained uncertain. It may be the case that the language of the Srivijayan inscriptions is a close rather than an ancestor of Classical Malay. The period of Classical Malay started when Islam gained its foothold in the region, earliest instances of Arabic lexicons incorporated in the pre-classical Malay written in Kawi was found in the Minyetujoh inscription dated 1380 from Aceh. Pre-Classical Malay took on a radical form as attested in the 1303 CE Terengganu Inscription Stone. Both inscriptions not only serve as the evidence of Islam as a religion, but also as the oldest surviving specimen of the dominant classical orthographic form. Similar inscriptions containing various adopted Arabic terms with some of them still written the scripts were also discovered in Sumatra. The Pre-Classical Malay evolved and reached its refined form during the age of the Malay empire of Melaka. As a bustling city with a diverse population of 200,000 from different nations. Some prominent manuscripts of this category are Undang-Undang Melaka, Undang-Undang Laut Melaka, melakas success as a centre of commerce, religion, and literary output has made it an important point of cultural reference to the many influential Malay sultanates in the later centuries. This has resulted the growing importance of Classical Malay as the lingua franca of the region
7.
Vatteluttu alphabet
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The Vaṭṭeḻuttu alphabet, also spelled Vattezhutthu is an abugida writing system originating from the ancient Tamil people of South India. The syllabic alphabet is attested from the 6th century CE to the 14th century in present-day Tamil Nadu and it was later supplanted by modern Tamil script and Malayalam script. Vaṭṭeḻuttu replaced Tamil-Brahmi for writing Tamil after the 2nd century CE and this rounded form of writing was also used in Kerala to write in Tamil as well as in proto-Malayalam and Malayalam language. Currently, Malayalam uses the Malayalam script, inhabitants of Kuccaveli, located north of Trincomalee, used the Vaṭṭeḻuttu script between the 5th and 8th centuries, attested to on rock inscriptions found there. Inscriptional records in Tamil date from 300 BCE to 1800, grantha was an alphabet in which extra letters were created specifically for Sanskrit words. It was also a form of Tamil script to write Sanskrit granthas or books. In Tamil, many of the letters which are found in Sanskrit do not exist, the following image shows the divergent evolution of the Tamil script and the Vatteluttu script. The Vatteluttu script is shown on the left, while the Tamil script is shown on the right, the following image shows the characters used in Vatteluttu. Tamil copper-plate inscriptions Indian copper plate inscriptions Laguna Copperplate Inscription Pallava script Tamil script Sivaramamurti, C, Indian Epigraphy, bulletin of the Madras Government Museum
8.
Grantha alphabet
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It is a Brahmic script, having evolved from the Brahmi script in Tamil Nadu. The Malayalam script is a descendant of Grantha as are the Tigalari. Grantha script still lives in Tamil Nadu, albeit in reduced state, in Sanskrit, grantha is literally a knot. It is a word that was used for books, and the used to write them. This stems from the practice of binding inscribed palm leaves using a length of thread held by knots, although Sanskrit is now mostly written with Devanagari, Grantha was widely used to write Sanskrit in the Tamil-speaking parts of South Asia until the 19th century. Scholars believe that the Grantha script was used when the Vedas were first put into writing around the 5th century CE, in the early 20th century, it began to be replaced by Devanagari in religious and scholarly texts and the Tamil script in popular texts. The Grantha script was historically used for writing Manipravalam, a blend of Tamil. This evolved into a complex writing system which required that Tamil words be written in the Tamil script. In modern times, the Grantha script is used in religious contexts by orthodox Tamil-speaking Hindus. It is also used in many religious almanacs to print traditional formulaic summaries of the coming year, Grantha script may be classified as follows, An archaic and ornamental variety of Grantha is sometimes referred to as Pallava Grantha. They were used by the Pallava in some inscriptions, mamallapuram Tiruchirapalli Rock Cut Cave Inscriptions, Kailasantha Inscription come under this type. The Pallavas also produced a distinctive script separate from the Grantha family, the Tigalari-Malayalam script is called Western Grantha. Currently two varieties are used, Brahmanic, or square, and Jain, or round, the Tigalari-Malayalam script was a variety of Grantha dating from the 8th or 9th century CE. It later split into two distinct scripts – Tigalari and Malayalam and this type of Grantha was used by Cholas approximately from 650 CE to 950 CE. Inscription of later Pallavas and Pandiyan Nedunchezhiyan are also examples for this variety of Grantha Script, Inscriptions of the Imperial Thanjavur Cholas are an example for Medieval Grantha. This variety was in vogue from 950 CE to 1250 CE, Grantha in the present form descended from later Pandyas and the Vijayanagara rulers. The Modern form of Grantha is very similar to Malayalam alphabet, the font used in the following tables is e-Grantamil taken from INDOLIPI. The glyphs below denote the form of Grantha Script, which can be noticed by its similarity with the Modern Tamil Script
9.
Pallava alphabet
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The Pallava script, a Brahmic script, was developed under the Pallava dynasty of Southern India around the 6th century AD. The form shown here is based on examples from the 7th century AD, letters labeled * have uncertain sound value, as they have little occurrence in Southeast Asia. Each consonant has an inherent /a/, which will be sounded if no vowel sign is attached, if two consonants follow one another without intervening vowel, the second consonant is made into a subscript form, and attached below the first. Sivaramamurti, C, Indian Epigraphy and South Indian Scripts, bulletin of the Madras Government Museum. Chennai 1999 Media related to Pallava script at Wikimedia Commons Examples of Pallava at SkyKnowledge. com
10.
Tamil language
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Tamil is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken by the Tamil people of India and Sri Lanka, and also by the Tamil diaspora, Sri Lankan Moors, Burghers, Douglas, and Chindians. Tamil is a language of two countries, Singapore and Sri Lanka. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and it is also used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia, along with English, Malay and Mandarin. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and it is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. Tamil is one of the classical languages in the world. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from 500 BC have been found on Adichanallur and 2 and it has been described as the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past. The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as one of the classical traditions. A recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years, the earliest period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from ca.300 BC – AD300. It has the oldest extant literature among other Dravidian languages, the earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC. More than 55% of the inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka, the two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil. In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, the Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in the Indian languages. According to a 2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, Tamil belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages, a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent. It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family, the closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam, the two began diverging around the 9th century CE. According to linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Tamil, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India. The next phase in the reconstructed proto-history of Tamil is Proto-South Dravidian, the linguistic evidence suggests that Proto-South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the second millennium BC, and that proto-Tamil emerged around the 3rd century BC. The earliest epigraphic attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been shortly thereafter
11.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
12.
Talang Tuwo inscription
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Talang Tuwo inscription is a 7th-century Srivijaya inscription discovered by Louis Constant Westenenk on 17 November 1920, on the foot of Bukit Seguntang near Palembang. This inscription tells about the establishment of the bountiful Śrīksetra park awarded by Sri Jayanasa the king of Srivijaya, the inscription was discovered in good condition with clearly inscribed scripts. Its size is 50 cm ×80 cm and it is a stone block and it is dated from 606 Saka, written Pallava script in Old Malay. The inscription consists of 14 lines, van Ronkel and Bosch are the first scholars who translated the inscription. Their work was published in Acta Orientalia, since 1920, the inscription has been stored in National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta, under inventory number D.145. Karmmavacita clecavacita avasana tmu ya anuttarabhisamyaksam vodhi The translation according to George Cœdès, the inscription is among the earliest evidence of written archaic Old Malay language. Many words are recognizable and intelligible with modern Malay language. The most significant differences are found in verbal affixes, while modern Malay language and Indonesian language use the prefix di- to mark passive, in Old Malay we find ni-. The same holds for the active prefix men- corresponding to Old Malay mar- or ma-, the modern possessive and object suffix -nya corresponds to the Old Malay -na. Old Malay words and their modern Malay and Indonesian counterparts are listed below, followed by their English gloss
13.
Firth
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Firth is a word in the Scots and English languages used to denote various coastal waters in Scotland and England. In mainland Scotland, it is used to refer to a sea bay. In the Northern Isles, it usually refers to a smaller inlet. It is linguistically cognate to fjord which has a more constrained sense in English, bodies of water named firths tend to be more common on the east coast, or in the southwest of the country, although the Firth of Lorn is an exception to this. The Highland coast contains numerous estuaries, straits, and inlets of a kind, but not called firth, instead. The Pentland Firth is a rather than a bay or an inlet. Firth of Lorn (northernmost, connects with the Moray Firth via the Great Glen lochs, lochs adjoining the Firth, Loch Lochy, Loch Linnhe, Loch Leven, Loch Oich. Islands, Isle of Mull, Lismore and Kerrera, Firth of Clyde Sea lochs adjoining the Firth of Clyde, Gare Loch, Loch Long, Holy Loch, Loch Striven, Loch Riddon off the Kyles of Bute, Loch Fyne and Campbeltown Loch. Places, Helensburgh, Port Glasgow, Greenock, Gourock, Dunoon, Rothesay, Wemyss Bay, Largs, Brodick, Ardrossan, Troon, Ayr, Girvan and Campbeltown. Note that Glasgow is at the limit of the River Clyde, and Clydebank. The Firth is off the Solway Coast, rough Firth Places, Carlisle, England on the River Eden, Annan and Gretna, both in Scotland. Luce Bay, Wigtown, St Bees, Aspatria These are connected to, or form part of, Dornoch Firth Places, Dornoch, Dornoch Bridge, Bonar Bridge, Kyle of Sutherland, Tain, Portmahomack on Tarbat Ness. Rivers, Oykel, Cassley, Shin and Carron Headland, Tarbat Ness, the Firth runs out into the Moray Firth. Rivers, Conon, Orrin, Rusdale, Glass, Alness, Moray Firth and Beauly Firth connected with the Firth of Inverness. Places on the Moray Firth, Inverness, Nairn, Fortrose, headlands, Whiteness Head, Chanonry Point, Alturlie Point. Places on the Beauly Firth, Beauly, Places, Perth, Dundee, Monifieth, Tayport, Newport on Tay, Newburgh, Fife. It is spanned by the Forth Road Bridge,2,512 m long, and this is a strait between the Scottish mainland and the Orkney Islands, and forms a link between the Atlantic Ocean and North Sea. In Shetland in particular, firth can refer to smaller inlets, although geo, voe, bluemull Sound for example, is very similar to some of the firths in the Shetland Islands
14.
Shaka era
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This is about the historical calendar era. For the Śaka calendar of 1957, see Indian national calendar, the Shaka era is a historical calendar era, corresponding to Julian year 78. It is also known as Shalivahana Śaka era or rtgs, Mahasakkarat Greater Era), the origin of the Shaka era is highly controversial. The other is called Saka Era of 78 AD, or simply Saka Era, a parallel northern India system is the Vikrama Era, which is related to the Bikrami calendar linked to Vikramaditya. The beginning of the Shaka era is now equated to the ascension of king Chashtana in 78 CE. His inscriptions, dated to the years 11 and 52, have found at Andhau in Kutch region. These years are interpreted as Shaka years 11 and 52, a previously more common view was that the beginning of the Shaka era corresponds to the ascension of Kanishka I in 78 CE. However, the latest research by Henry Falk indicates that Kanishka ascended the throne in 127 CE, moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a Kushana ruler. Other historical candidates have included such as Vima Kadphises, Vonones. Sircar also suggests that the association of the northern king Vikramaditya with Vikrama era might have led the southern scholars to fabricate a similar legend of their own. Another similar account claims that the legendary emperor Vikramaditya defeated the Shakas in 78 CE, and this legend has been mentioned in the writings of Brahmagupta, Al-Biruni, and others. However, this is an obvious fabrication, over time, the word Shaka became generic, and came to be mean an era, the era thus came to be known as Shalivahana Shaka. The earliest known users of the era are the Western Satraps, from the reign of Rudrasimha I, they recorded the date of minting of their coins in the Shaka era, usually written on the obverse behind the kings head in Brahmi numerals. The use of the era survived into the Gupta period. It was in use by the 6th to 7th centuries, e. g. in the works of Varāhamihira and Brahmagupta. The calendar era remained in use in India and Southeast Asia throughout the medieval period and it was used by Javanese courts until 1633, when it was replaced by Anno Javanico, a hybrid Javanese-Islamic system. It was adopted as the era of the Indian national calendar in 1957, the Shaka era is the vernal equinox of the year AD78. The year of the modern Shaka Calendar is tied to the Gregorian date of 22 March every year, except in Gregorian leap years when it starts on 21 March
15.
Srivijaya
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Srivijaya was a dominant thalassocratic city-state based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 8th to the 12th century, Srivijaya was the first unified kingdom to dominate much of Malay archipelago. In Sanskrit, śrī means fortunate, prosperous, or happy, the earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A Tang Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 CE for six months, the earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the Kedukan Bukit inscription found near Palembang, Sumatra, dated 16 June 682 CE. Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a hegemon in Southeast Asia and it was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring Java, Kambuja and Champa. Srivijayas main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with China which lasted from the Tang to the Song dynasty, Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist Pala of Bengal, as well as with the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East. The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century by various factors, including the expansion of the rival Javanese Singhasari, after Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that French historian George Cœdès, of École française dExtrême-Orient, little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains. There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia, Cœdès noted that the Chinese references to Sanfoqi, previously read as Sribhoja, and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijings account is important on describing Srivijaya. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka island are also vital primary historical sources, also, regional accounts that some might be almost tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Javaka and the Khmer King also provides a glimpse of the kingdom. Besides, some Indian and Arabic accounts also describes vaguely about the riches, Srivijaya had become a symbol of early Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Javas Majapahit in the east. Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples, the Chinese called it Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che, and there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya. Sanskrit and Pali texts referred to it as Yavades and Javadeh, the Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu. While the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa or Malayu and this is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult. While some of names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java. According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 605 Saka, Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of todays Palembang and it mentions that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion, the Palembang theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin
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Telaga Batu inscription
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Telaga Batu inscription is a 7th-century Srivijayan inscription discovered in Sabokingking,3 Ilir, Ilir Timur II, Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia around the 1950s. The inscription is now displayed in National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta, today all of these Siddhayatra inscriptions are stored in the National Museum of Indonesia. The inscription was carved on an andesite stone measuring 118 cm tall and 148 cm wide, the inscription was written with Pallava letters in the Old Malay language. The text content of the inscription is quite long, and is arranged in a number of lines. However, many of the letters have been eroded and are difficult to read, some lines of the inscription can still be read. Kāyastha, sthāpaka, puhāvam, vaniyāga, pratisara, kamu marsī hāji, hulun hāji, wanyakmamu urang and you all, the son of kings, ministers, regents, commanders, lords, nobles, viceroys, judges. Murddhaka, chairman of the workers, supervisors, commoners, weapons experts, ministers, soldiers, construction workers, karmma. Clerk, architect, skippers, merchants, captains, ye kings servants, kings slaves, all people, in order to prevent possible uprisings, the ruler of Srivijaya thought it is important for them to be sworn to pledge their loyalty under the threat of curse. This curse inscription contains one of the most complete surviving lists of state officials, kedukan Bukit Inscription Kota Kapur Inscription Talang Tuwo inscription
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Kota Kapur inscription
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Kota Kapur Inscription is an inscription discovered in western coast of Bangka Island, offcoast South Sumatra, Indonesia, by J. K. van der Meulen in December 1892. It was named after Kotakapur village, the location where this archaeological findings were discovered and this inscription is using old Malay language written in Pallava letters. It was one of the oldest surviving evidence of ancient Malay language. The inscription was first examined and dated by H. Kern, at first he thought that Srivijaya was the name of a king. Kota Kapur inscriptions is one of the five inscriptions edicted by Dapunta Hyang, most of this inscriptions contains curse for crime, trespassing and treasons against Srivijaya. Unai tunai kita savanakta devata mahardika sannidhana, kita tuvi tandrun luah vanakta devata mulana yan parsumpahan. Kadadhi yan uran didalanna bhami paravis hanun, samavuddhi lavan drohaka, manujari drohaka, niujari drohaka talu din drohaka. Tida yan tatvarjjawa diy aku. dngan diiyan nigalarku sanyasa datua, dhava vuathana uran inan nivunuh ya sumpah nisuruh tapik ya mulan parvvanda datu çriwi- jaya. Pulan ka iya muah yan dosana vuatna jahat inan tathapi nivunuh yan sumpah talu muah ya mulam yam manu- ruh marjjahati, Yan vatu nipratishta ini tuvi nivunuh ya sumpah talu, muah ya mulan. Saranbhana uran drohaka tida bhakti tatvarjjava diy aku, dhava vua- tna niwunuh ya sumpah ini gran kadachi iya bhakti tatvjjava diy aku. dngan di yam nigalarku sanyasa dattua, samrddha svasthi niroga nirupadrava subhiksa muah vanuana paravis chakravarsatita 608 din pratipada çuklapaksa vulan vaichaka. Tatkalana Yan manman sumpah ini. nipahat di velana yan vala çrivijaya kalivat manapik yan bhumi java tida bhakti ka çrivijaya, all oh thou gods almighty, all that gathered to protect Kadatuan Srivijaya, all of thou gods that starts the beginning of the swear of all swear. Also those whom spread evil rumors to sway people, may those whom destroy the stone placed in this place also die because of the curse and directly punished. May all murderer, rebel, all of those ungrateful and unfaithful to me, the inscriptions was carved on a pinnacle stone with several sides, with 177 cm height,32 cm width on base and 19 cm width on top. The Kota Kapur inscription, together with archaeological findings in the region, was the testament of Srivijaya era. It has opened a new horizon and revealed the history of Hindu-Buddhist era in that area and this inscription also uncovered the ancient society inhabiting the region during 6th and 7th century that clearly shows Hindu-Buddhist influence. Kedukan Bukit Inscription Telaga Batu inscription Talang Tuwo inscription
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Prehistoric Malaysia
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The earliest anatomically modern humans skeleton in Peninsular Malaysia, Perak Man, dates back 11,000 years and Perak Woman dating back 8,000 years, were both discovered in Lenggong. The site has a stone tool production area, created using equipment such as anvils. The Tambun Cave paintings are situated in Perak. From East Malaysia, Sarawaks Niah Caves, there is evidence of the oldest human remains in Malaysia, Niah Caves in Sarawak is an important prehistoric site where human remains dating to ca.40,000 years ago have been found. Archeologists have claimed a much earlier date for stone tools found in the Mansuli valley, near Lahad Datu in Sabah, archaeological finds from the Lenggong valley in Perak show that people were making stone tools and using jewellery. The archaeological data from this come from cave and rock shelter sites. It is believed that Neolithic farmers made their entrance in this region between 3–4000 years ago, more people arrived, including new tribes and seafarers. The Malay Peninsula became the crossroads in maritime trades of the ancient age, seafarers who came to Malaysias shores included Indians, Egyptians, peoples of the Middle East, Javanese and Chinese. Ptolemy named the Malay Peninsula the Golden Chersonese, the population migrations were most likely to have been driven by climate change – the effects of the drowning of an ancient continent. A2009 genetic study published by the 2009 Human Genome Organization Pan-Asian SNP Consortium found that Asia was originally settled by humans via a southern route. The migration came from Africa via India, into Southeast Asia and what are now islands in the Pacific, genetic similarities were found between populations throughout Asia and an increase in genetic diversity from northern to southern latitudes. Oppenheimer locates the origin of the Austronesians in Sundaland and its upper regions. The theory of the Proto Malay people originating from Yunnan is supported by R. H Geldern, J. H. C Kern, J. R Foster, J. R Logen, Slametmuljana and Asmah Haji Omar. The Proto Malay who first arrived had agricultural skills while the second wave Deutero Malay who arrived around 1500 BC to dwell along the coastlines had advanced fishery skills. During the migration, both groups intermarried with peoples of the islands, such as those from Java, and also with aboriginal peoples of Australoid, Negrito. Other evidences that support this include, Stone tools found in the Malay archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools. Similarities between Malay customs and Assamese customs, the Malay language and the Cambodian language are kindred languages because the ancestral home of Cambodians was near the source of the Mekong River. According to Kedah Annals, Kadaram was founded by Maharaja Derbar Raja of Gemeron, Persia around 630 CE, the other Malay literature, Sejarah Melayu too alleged that they were the descendants of Alexander The Great
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History of Indonesia
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The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, its natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is a country of 17,000 to 18000 islands stretching along the equator in South East Asia. The countrys strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history, the area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelagos landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, the boundaries of the state of Indonesia represent the 20th century borders of the Dutch East Indies. Fossilised remains of Homo erectus and his tools, popularly known as the Java Man, austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, are thought to have originally been from Taiwan and arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE. From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished bringing Hindu, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties subsequently thrived and declined in inland Java. The last significant non-Muslim kingdom, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, for the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences. Europeans such as the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, in 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company and became the dominant European power by 1610. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, by the early 20th century, Dutch dominance extended to the current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation in 1942–45 during WWII ended Dutch rule, two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader, Sukarno, declared independence and became president. An attempted coup in 1965 led to a violent army-led anti-communist purge in which half a million people were killed. General Suharto politically outmanoeuvred President Sukarno, and became president in March 1968 and his New Order administration garnered the favour of the West whose investment in Indonesia was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. In the late 1990s, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis which led to popular protests, political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, natural disasters, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent, in 2007 analysis of cut marks on two bovid bones found in Sangiran, showed them to have been made 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago by clamshell tools. This is the oldest evidence for the presence of man in Indonesia. In 1977 another H. erectus skull was discovered at Sambungmacan. In 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a new small hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old and named Flores Man were discovered much to the surprise of the scientific community. This 3 foot tall hominid is thought to be a descended from Homo erectus
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder
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Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder S. J. was a Dutch expert in the Old Javanese language. He came from Utrecht and was associated with the Society of Jesus by 1925 and he worked at Leiden University in the 1930s. His first work appeared in 1930 and he continued to write into the 1990s and he lived in Yogyakarta and was interred in the Jesuit necropolis at Muntilan, Java. His work was important in the understanding of linguistic studies of Java and he also did works on Monism and Muhammad. Merle Ricklefs translated his thesis in the 1990s, Zoetmulder was born in Utrecht, Netherlands. From his early childhood, Piet—as he was able to read. At school he was known to be a conscientious, talented, Piet was raised in a Roman Catholic family, and while attending the Canisius College Mater Dei gymnasium he became interested in becoming a priest, specifically as a member of the Society of Jesus. Two of his uncles were priests, and an aunt had been a nun in Africa and Suriname. His father had to move to the town of Heerlen for his work as a public health engineer, so Piet attended a gymnasium at Rolduc instead and he graduated in the A and B academic tracks. In 1925 he was admitted to the Society of Jesus Novitiate School to begin his training as a priest, Father J. Willekens, S. J. his mentor at the novitiate, advised Zoetmulder to consider working for the mission on the island of Java. Following his mentors advise, Zoetmulder departed for the Dutch East Indies as a 19-year novice and he was placed at the Intermediate Seminary in Yogyakarta, Central Java. Surprisingly, three years later his former mentor Willekens himself joined him in Java as a Visiting Apostolic, upon meeting his former student, Willekens commented that, In addition to studying philosophy, you must also learn old Javanese. He was introduced to Prof. C. C, Berg, who was an instructor in Surakarta, to help him study the language. In 1931 Zoetmulder graduated cum laude and was made a candidate priest in Girisonta, Ungaran, upon his graduation from his study with Berg, Zoetmulder went to the University of Leiden in the Netherlands. He graduated with a degree in one year, contrary to the usual three years. He earned his bachelors degree also in one year, contrary again to the three years customarily taken, with a degree in the history of Java and archeology. In October 1935 he successfully defended his doctoral thesis Pantheïsme en Monisme in de Javaansche Soeloek Literatuur, Father Zoet, as he is affectionately called, had to finish his studies in theology before he returned to Java. For four years he studied in Maastricht, before returning to the East Indies, he had to first undergo intermediate study of religion for year in Belgium
