1.
Cumbria
–
Cumbria is a non-metropolitan county in North West England. The county and Cumbria County Council, its government, came into existence in 1974 after the passage of the Local Government Act 1972. Cumbrias county town is Carlisle, in the north of the county, the county of Cumbria consists of six districts, and in 2008 had a population of just under half a million. Cumbria is one of the most sparsely populated counties in the United Kingdom, a large area of the south east of the county is within the Yorkshire Dales National Park while the east of the county fringes the North Pennines AONB. Much of Cumbria is mountainous, and it contains every peak in England over 3,000 feet above sea level, with Scafell Pike at 3,209 feet being the highest point of England. An upland, coastal, and rural area, Cumbrias history is characterised by invasions, migration, notable historic sites in Cumbria include Carlisle Castle, Furness Abbey, Hardknott Roman Fort, Brough Castle and Hadrians Wall, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. D. Based on inscriptional evidence from the area, the Roman civitas of the Carvetii seems to have covered portions of Cumbria, the names Cumbria, Cymru, Cambria, and Cumberland are derived from the name these people gave themselves, *kombroges in Common Brittonic, which originally meant compatriots. In the Early Middle Ages, Cumberland formed the core of the Brittonic kingdom of Rheged, for the rest of the first millennium, Cumbria was contested by several entities who warred over the area, including the Brythonic Kingdom of Strathclyde and the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria. Most of modern-day Cumbria was a principality in the Kingdom of Scotland at the time of the Norman conquest of England in 1066, in 1092 Cumberland was invaded by William II and incorporated into England. There were at least three sieges of Carlisle fought between England and Scotland, and two sieges during the Jacobite risings. In particular, the west-coast towns of Workington, Millom and Barrow-in-Furness saw large iron and steel mills develop, Kendal, Keswick and Carlisle all became mill towns, with textiles, pencils and biscuits among the products manufactured in the region. Later, the childrens writer Beatrix Potter also wrote in the region and became a major landowner and its strategic authority is Cumbria County Council. Local papers The Westmorland Gazette and Cumberland and Westmorland Herald continue to use the name of their historic county, other publications, such as local government promotional material, describe the area as Cumbria, as do the Lake District National Park Authority and most visitors. Cumbria is the most northwesterly county of England, the northernmost and southernmost points in Cumbria are just west of Deadwater, Northumberland and South Walney respectively. Kirkby Stephen and St Bees Head are the most easterly and westerly points of the county, at 978 metres Scafell Pike is the highest point in Cumbria and in England. Windermere is the largest natural lake in England, the Lancaster Canal runs from Preston into South Cumbria and is partly in use. The Ulverston Canal which once reached to Morecambe Bay is maintained although it was closed in 1945, the Solway Coast and Arnside and Silverdale AONBs lie in the lowland areas of the county, to the north and south respectively. Cumbria is bordered by the English counties of Northumberland, County Durham, North Yorkshire, Lancashire, the boundaries are along the Irish Sea to Morecambe Bay in the west, and along the Pennines to the east
Cumbria
Cumbria
–
Cumbria shown within England
Cumbria
–
The
Castlerigg stone circle dates from the late
Neolithic age and was constructed by some of the earliest inhabitants of Cumbria
Cumbria
–
The
Sellafield nuclear processing site near
Seascale employs around 10,000 people.
2.
Ordnance Survey National Grid
–
The Ordnance Survey National Grid reference system is a system of geographic grid references used in Great Britain, different from using Latitude and Longitude. It is often called British National Grid, the Ordnance Survey devised the national grid reference system, and it is heavily used in their survey data, and in maps based on those surveys. Grid references are commonly quoted in other publications and data sources. The Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system is used to provide references for worldwide locations. European-wide agencies also use UTM when mapping locations, or may use the Military Grid Reference System system, the grid is based on the OSGB36 datum, and was introduced after the retriangulation of 1936–1962. It replaced the previously used Cassini Grid which, up to the end of World War Two, had issued only to the military. The Airy ellipsoid is a regional best fit for Britain, more modern mapping tends to use the GRS80 ellipsoid used by the GPS, the British maps adopt a Transverse Mercator projection with an origin at 49° N, 2° W. Over the Airy ellipsoid a straight grid, the National Grid, is placed with a new false origin. This false origin is located south-west of the Isles of Scilly, the distortion created between the OS grid and the projection is countered by a scale factor in the longitude to create two lines of longitude with zero distortion rather than one. Grid north and true north are aligned on the 400 km easting of the grid which is 2° W. 2° 0′ 5″ W. OSGB36 was also used by Admiralty nautical charts until 2000 after which WGS84 has been used, a geodetic transformation between OSGB36 and other terrestrial reference systems can become quite tedious if attempted manually. The most common transformation is called the Helmert datum transformation, which results in a typical 7 m error from true, the definitive transformation from ETRS89 that is published by the OSGB is called the National Grid Transformation OSTN02. This models the detailed distortions in the 1936–1962 retriangulation, and achieves backwards compatibility in grid coordinates to sub-metre accuracy, the difference between the coordinates on different datums varies from place to place. The longitude and latitude positions on OSGB36 are the same as for WGS84 at a point in the Atlantic Ocean well to the west of Great Britain. In Cornwall, the WGS84 longitude lines are about 70 metres east of their OSGB36 equivalents, the smallest datum shift is on the west coast of Scotland and the greatest in Kent. But Great Britain has not shrunk by 100+ metres, a point near Lands End now computes to be 27.6 metres closer to a point near Duncansby Head than it did under OSGB36. For the first letter, the grid is divided into squares of size 500 km by 500 km, there are four of these which contain significant land area within Great Britain, S, T, N and H. The O square contains an area of North Yorkshire, almost all of which lies below mean high tide
Ordnance Survey National Grid
–
Grid square TF. The map shows
The Wash and the
North Sea, as well as places within the counties of
Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire and
Norfolk.
Ordnance Survey National Grid
–
Geodesy
3.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
4.
Boxing the compass
–
The points of the compass, specifically on the compass rose, mark divisions of a compass, such divisions may be referred to as winds or directions. A compass point allows reference to a heading in a general or colloquial fashion. A compass is primarily divided into the four cardinal points—north, south, east and these are often further subdivided by the addition of the four intercardinal directions—northeast between north and east, southeast, southwest, and northwest —to indicate the eight principal winds. In meteorological usage, further intermediate points between cardinal and ordinal points, such as north-northeast between north and northeast, are added to give the sixteen points of a wind compass, for most applications, the fractional points have been superseded by degrees measured clockwise from North. In ancient China 24 points of the compass were used, measuring fifteen degrees between points. The names of the compass directions follow the 32-point wind compass rose follow these rules, The cardinal directions are north, east, south, west, the ordinal directions are northeast, southeast, southwest and northwest, formed by bisecting the angle of the cardinal winds. The name is merely a combination of the cardinals it bisects, the eight principal winds are the cardinals and ordinals considered together, that is N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW. Each principal wind is 45° from its neighbour, the principal winds form the basic eight-wind compass rose. The eight half-winds are the points obtained by bisecting the angles between the principal winds, the half-winds are north-northeast, east-northeast, east-southeast, south-southeast, south-southwest, west-southwest, west-northwest and north-northwest. Notice that the name is constructed simply by combining the names of the winds to either side, with the cardinal wind coming first. The eight principal winds and the eight half-winds together yield a 16-wind compass rose, all of the above named points plus the sixteen quarter winds listed in the next paragraph define the 32 points of the wind compass rose. The sixteen quarter winds are the points obtained by bisecting the angles between the points on a 16-wind compass rose. The name of a quarter-wind is X by Y, where X is a principal wind, so northeast by east means one quarter from NE towards E, southwest by south means one quarter from SW towards S. The eight principal winds, eight half-winds and sixteen quarter winds together yield a 32-wind compass rose, in the mariners exercise of boxing the compass, all thirty-two points of the compass are named in clockwise order. The title of the Alfred Hitchcock 1959 movie, North by Northwest, is not a direction point on the 32-wind compass. The traditional compass rose of eight winds was invented by seafarers in the Mediterranean Sea during the Middle Ages. This Italianate patois was used to designate the names of the winds on the compass rose found in mariner compasses. Tramutana, Gregale, Grecho, Sirocco, Xaloc, Lebeg, Libezo, Leveche, Mezzodi, Migjorn, Magistro, Mestre, etc
Boxing the compass
–
A 32-wind compass card, with English names
Boxing the compass
–
A 32-point
compass rose
5.
Civil parishes in England
–
In England, a civil parish is a territorial designation which is the lowest tier of local government below districts and counties, or their combined form, the unitary authority. It is a parish, in contrast to an ecclesiastical parish. A civil parish can range in size from a town with a population of around 80,000 to a single village with fewer than a hundred inhabitants. In a limited number of cases a parish might include a city where city status has been granted by the Monarch. Reflecting this diverse nature, a parish may be known as a town, village. Approximately 35% of the English population live in a civil parish, as of 31 December 2015 there were 10,449 parishes in England. On 1 April 2014, Queens Park became the first civil parish in Greater London, before 2008 their creation was not permitted within a London borough. The division of land into ancient parishes was linked to the system, parishes. The manor was the unit of local administration and justice in the early rural economy. Later the church replaced the court as the rural administrative centre. After the dissolution of the monasteries, the power to levy a rate to fund relief of the poor was conferred on the authorities by the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1601. Both before and after this optional social change, local charities are well-documented, the parish authorities were known as vestries and consisted of all the ratepayers of the parish. As the number of ratepayers of some parishes grew, it increasingly difficult to convene meetings as an open vestry. In some, mostly built up, areas the select vestry took over responsibility from the body of ratepayers. This innovation improved efficiency, but allowed governance by a self-perpetuating elite, by the 18th century, religious membership was becoming more fractured in some places, due for instance to the progress of Methodism. The legitimacy of the parish came into question and the perceived inefficiency. Sanitary districts covered England in 1875 and Ireland three years later, the replacement boards were each entitled to levy their own rate in the parish. The church rate ceased to be levied in many parishes and became voluntary from 1868, the ancient parishes diverged into two distinct systems of parishes during the 19th century
Civil parishes in England
–
Map of English parishes and Welsh communities
6.
Districts of England
–
The districts of England are a level of subnational division of England used for the purposes of local government. As the structure of government in England is not uniform. Some districts are styled as boroughs, cities, or royal boroughs, these are purely honorific titles, prior to the establishment of districts in the 1890s, the basic unit of local government in England was the parish overseen by the parish church vestry committee. Vestries dealt with the administraction of both parochial and secular governmental matters, parishes were the successors of the manorial system and historically had been grouped into hundreds. Hundreds once exercised some supervising administrative function, however, these powers ebbed away as more and more civic and judicial powers were centred on county towns. From 1834 these parishes were grouped into Poor Law Unions, creating areas for administration of the Poor Law and these areas were later used for census registration and as the basis for sanitary provision. In 1894, based on these earlier subdivisions, the Local Government Act 1894 created urban districts and rural districts as sub-divisions of administrative counties, another reform in 1900 created 28 metropolitan boroughs as sub-divisions of the County of London. Meanwhile, from this date parish-level local government administration was transferred to civil parishes, the setting-down of the current structure of districts in England began in 1965, when Greater London and its 32 London boroughs were created. They are the oldest type of still in use. In 1974, metropolitan counties and non-metropolitan counties were created across the rest of England and were split into metropolitan districts, in London power is now shared again, albeit on a different basis, with the Greater London Authority. During the 1990s a further kind of district was created, the unitary authority, metropolitan boroughs are a subdivision of a metropolitan county. These are similar to unitary authorities, as the county councils were abolished in 1986. Most of the powers of the county councils were devolved to the districts but some services are run by joint boards, the districts typically have populations of 174,000 to 1.1 million. Non-metropolitan districts are second-tier authorities, which share power with county councils and they are subdivisions of shire counties and the most common type of district. These districts typically have populations of 25,000 to 200,000, the number of non-metropolitan districts has varied over time. Initially there were 296, after the creation of unitary authorities in the 1990s and late 2000s and these are single-tier districts which are responsible for running all local services in their areas, combining both county and district functions. They were created in the out of non-metropolitan districts, and often cover large towns. In addition, some of the smaller such as Rutland, Herefordshire
Districts of England
–
Districts (England)
7.
South Lakeland
–
South Lakeland is a local government district in Cumbria, England. The population of the Non-metropolitan district at the 2011 Census was 103,658 and its council is based in Kendal. It includes much of the Lake District as well as parts of the Yorkshire Dales. The district was created on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, elections to the district council are held in three out of every four years, with one third of the 51 seats on the council being elected at each election. No political party held a majority on the council from the first election in 1973 to 2006, however, since winning a majority at the 2006 election the Liberal Democrats have controlled the council. An investigation by the Health and Safety Executive found they had failed to tackle the risks from reversing vehicles, South Lakeland District Councillors Lakeland Walks Explore South Lakeland
South Lakeland
–
Shown within
Cumbria
8.
Regions of England
–
The regions are the highest tier of sub-national division in England. Between 1994 and 2011, nine regions had officially devolved functions within Government, while they no longer fulfil this role, they continue to be used for statistical and some administrative purposes. They define areas for the purposes of elections to the European Parliament, Eurostat also uses them to demarcate first level Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics regions within the European Union. The regions generally follow the boundaries of the former standard regions, the London region has a directly elected Mayor and Assembly. Six regions have local authority leaders boards to assist with correlating the headline policies of local authorities, the remaining two regions no longer have any administrative functions, having abolished their regional local authority leaders boards. In 1998, regional chambers were established in the eight regions outside of London, the regions also had an associated Government Office with some responsibility for coordinating policy, and, from 2007, a part-time regional minister within the Government. House of Commons regional Select Committees were established in 2009, Regional ministers were not reappointed by the incoming Coalition Government, and the Government Offices were abolished in 2011. Regional development agencies were public bodies established in all nine regions in 1998 to promote economic development and they had certain delegated functions, including administering European Union regional development funds, and received funding the central government as well. After about 500 AD, England comprised seven Anglo-Saxon territories – Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, the boundaries of some of these, which later unified as the Kingdom of England, roughly coincide with those of modern regions. During Oliver Cromwells Protectorate in the 1650s, the rule of the Major-Generals created 10 regions in England, proposals for administrative regions within England were mooted by the British government prior to the First World War. In 1912 the Third Home Rule Bill was passing through parliament, the Bill was expected to introduce a devolved parliament for Ireland, and as a consequence calls were made for similar structures to be introduced in Great Britain or Home Rule All Round. On 12 September the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, within England, he suggested that London, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and the Midlands would make natural regions. While the creation of regional parliaments never became official policy, it was for a widely anticipated. In 1946 nine standard regions were set up, in central government bodies, statutory undertakings. However, these had declined in importance by the late 1950s, creation of some form of provinces or regions for England was an intermittent theme of post-Second World War British governments. The Redcliffe-Maud Report proposed the creation of eight provinces in England, one-fifth of the advisory councils would be nominees from central government. The boundaries suggested were the eight now existing for economic planning purposes, a minority report by Lord Crowther-Hunt and Alan T. Peacock suggested instead seven regional assemblies and governments within Great Britain, some elements of regional development and economic planning began to be established in England from the mid-1960s onwards
Regions of England
–
Regions of England English regions
9.
North West England
–
North West England, one of nine official regions of England, consists of the five counties of Cheshire, Cumbria, Greater Manchester, Lancashire and Merseyside. The North West had a population of 7,052,000 in 2011 and it is the third most populated region in the United Kingdom after the South East and Greater London. North West England is bounded to the east by the Peak District, the region extends from the Scottish Borders in the north to the West Midlands region in the south. To its southwest is North Wales, amongst the better known of the North Wests physiographical features are the Lake District and the Cheshire Plain. The highest point in North West England is Scafell Pike, Cumbria, Windermere is the largest natural lake in England. Broad Crag Tarn on Broad Crag is Englands highest lake, wast Water is Englands deepest lake, being 74m deep. A mix of rural and urban landscape, two large conurbations, centred on Liverpool and Manchester, occupy much of the south of the region. The north of the region, comprising Cumbria and northern Lancashire, is rural, as is the far south which encompasses parts of the Cheshire Plain. The region includes parts of three National parks and three areas of Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, source, Office for National Statistics Mid Year Population Estimates North West Englands population accounts for just over 13% of Englands overall population. 37. 86% of the North Wests population resides in Greater Manchester,21. 39% in Lancashire,20. 30% in Merseyside,14. 76% in Cheshire and 7. 41% live in the largest county by area, Cumbria. According to 2009 Office for National Statistics estimates,91. 6% of people in the region describe themselves as White,88. 4% White British,1. 0% White Irish and 2. 2% White Other. The Mixed Race population makes up 1. 3% of the regions population, there are 323,800 South Asians, making up 4. 7% of the population, and 1. 1% Black Britons. 0. 6% of the population are Chinese and 0. 5% of people belong to ethnic group. North West England is a diverse region, with Manchester. 19. 4% of Blackburn with Darwens population are Muslim, the third highest among all local authorities in the United Kingdom, Areas such as Moss Side in Greater Manchester are home to a 30%+ Black British population. In contrast, the town of St. Helens in Merseyside, one in five of the population in the North West is Catholic, a result of large-scale Irish emigration in the nineteenth century as well as the high number of English recusants in Lancashire. For top-tier authorities, Manchester has the highest teenage pregnancy rate in the region, for council districts, Burnley has the highest rate, closely followed by Hyndburn, both in Lancashire. For top-tier authorities, Cheshire has the lowest teenage pregnancy rate, for council districts, Eden has the lowest rate closely followed by South Lakeland, both in Cumbria
North West England
–
The
Jodrell Bank Lovell 76-m
radio telescope in
Lower Withington, built in August 1957, is the world's third largest steerable telescope, and was the largest until 1971
North West England
–
North West England region in England
North West England
–
Liverpool City Centre
North West England
–
Manchester City Centre
10.
Countries of the United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom comprises four countries, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Within the United Kingdom, a sovereign state, Northern Ireland, Scotland. England, comprising the majority of the population and area of the United Kingdom, England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales are not themselves listed in the International Organization for Standardization list of countries. However the ISO list of the subdivisions of the UK, compiled by British Standards, Northern Ireland, in contrast, is described as a province in the same lists. Each has separate governing bodies for sports and compete separately in many international sporting competitions. Northern Ireland also forms joint All-Island sporting bodies with the Republic of Ireland for most sports, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are dependencies of the Crown and are not part of the UK. Similarly, the British overseas territories, remnants of the British Empire, are not part of the UK, southern Ireland left the United Kingdom under the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922. * Figures for GVA do not include oil and gas revenues generated beyond the UKs territorial waters, various terms have been used to describe England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Wales was described as the country, principality, and dominion of Wales, outside Wales, England was not given a specific name or term. The Laws in Wales Acts have subsequently been repealed, the Acts of Union 1707 refer to both England and Scotland as a part of a united kingdom of Great Britain The Acts of Union 1800 use part in the same way to refer to England and Scotland. The Northern Ireland Act 1998, which repealed the Government of Ireland Act 1920, the Interpretation Act 1978 provides statutory definitions of the terms England, Wales and the United Kingdom, but neither that Act nor any other current statute defines Scotland or Northern Ireland. Use of the first three terms in other legislation is interpreted following the definitions in the 1978 Act and this definition applies from 1 April 1974. United Kingdom means Great Britain and Northern Ireland and this definition applies from 12 April 1927. In 1996 these 8 new counties were redistributed into the current 22 unitary authorities, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are regions in their own right while England has been divided into nine regions. The official term rest of the UK is used in Scotland, for example in export statistics and this term is also used in the context of potential Scottish independence to mean the UK without Scotland. The alternative term Home Nations is sometimes used in sporting contexts, the second, or civic group, contained the items about feeling British, respecting laws and institutions, speaking English, and having British citizenship. Contrariwise, in Scotland and Wales there was a much stronger identification with each country than with Britain, studies and surveys have reported that the majority of the Scots and Welsh see themselves as both Scottish/Welsh and British though with some differences in emphasis. The propensity for nationalistic feeling varies greatly across the UK, and can rise and it reported that 37% of people identified as British, whilst 29% identified as Irish and 24% identified as Northern Irish
Countries of the United Kingdom
11.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
–
Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
–
Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
12.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
13.
Postcodes in the United Kingdom
–
Postal codes used in the United Kingdom are known as postcodes. They are alphanumeric and were adopted nationally between 11 October 1959 and 1974, having been devised by the GPO, a full postcode is known as a postcode unit and designates an area with a number of addresses or a single major delivery point. For example, the postcode of the University of Roehampton in London is SW15 5PU, the postcode of GCHQ is GL51 0EX, where GL signifies the postal town of Gloucester. The postal town refers to an area and does not relate to a specific town. GL51 is one of the postcodes for the town of Cheltenham which is where GCHQ is located, the London post town covers 40% of Greater London. On inception it was divided into ten districts, EC, WC, N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W. The S and NE sectors were later abolished and these divisions changed little, usually only changed for operational efficiency. Some older road signs in Hackney still indicate the North East sector/district, following the successful introduction of postal districts in London, the system was extended to other large towns and cities. Liverpool was divided into Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western districts in 1864/65, in 1917 Dublin – then still part of the United Kingdom – was divided into numbered postal districts. These continue in use in a form by An Post. In 1923 Glasgow was divided in a way to London. In January 1932 the Postmaster General approved the designation of some urban areas into numbered districts. In November 1934 the Post Office announced the introduction of numbered districts in every town in the United Kingdom large enough to justify it. Pamphlets were issued to each householder and business in ten areas notifying them of the number of the district in which their premises lay, the pamphlets included a map of the districts, and copies were made available at local head post offices. The public were invited to include the district number in the address at the head of letters. A publicity campaign in the following year encouraged the use of the district numbers, the slogan for the campaign was For speed and certainty always use a postal district number on your letters and notepaper. A poster was fixed to every box in the affected areas bearing the number of the district. Every post office in the district was also to display this information
Postcodes in the United Kingdom
–
Street name signs on Birdbrook Road, Great Barr, Birmingham, showing old "Birmingham 22" (top) and modern "B44" postcodes.
Postcodes in the United Kingdom
14.
Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom
–
Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom are administered by the UK governments Office of Communications. For this purpose Ofcom established a telephone numbering plan, known as the National Telephone Numbering Plan, since 28 April 2001, almost all geographic numbers and most non-geographic numbers have 9 or 10 national numbers after the 0 trunk code. All mobile telephone numbers have 10 national numbers after the 0 trunk code, regions with shorter area codes, typically large cities, permit the allocation of more telephone numbers as the local number portion has more digits. Local customer numbers are four to eight figures long, the total number of digits is ten, but in a very few areas the total may be nine digits. The area code is referred to as an STD or a dialling code in the UK. The code allocated to the largest population is for London, the code allocated to the largest area is for all of Northern Ireland. The UK Numbering Plan also applies to three British Crown dependencies—Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man—even though they are not part of the UK itself. Possible number formats for UK telephone numbers are as follows, Number ranges starting 01 can have NSN length as 10 or 9 digits, the 0800 range can have NSN length as 10,9 or 7 digits. The 0845 range can have NSN length as 10 or 7 digits, the 0500 range has NSN length as 9 digits only. There are no numbers in the UK with an NSN length of 8 digits. Geographic telephone numbers in the UK always have nine or ten digits, four-digit area codes have either six-digit subscriber numbers or a mix of five- and six-digit subscriber numbers. Xxxxxx This is the used by most areas. It has an area code and a six digit subscriber number. These area codes were changed by adding a 1 directly after the zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995. Just short of 581 areas use this format, and the area range from 01200 to 01998. A small number of areas also have a few subscriber numbers that have only five digits. That is, almost all area codes now have only six digit local numbers, six of the four-digit area codes are known as mixed areas as they share those four digits with the twelve five-digit area codes. The numbers therefore have only nine digits after the initial zero trunk code and these area codes were changed by adding a 1 directly after the initial zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995
Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom
–
Location of the United Kingdom (dark green)
15.
Cumbria Constabulary
–
Cumbria Constabulary is the territorial police force in England covering Cumbria. It covers the fifth-largest area in England and Wales but is among the forces with the fewest officers, the force areas size and its population of just under 500,000 people makes it sparsely populated. The only major areas are Carlisle and Barrow-in-Furness. There are significant areas of isolated and rural community, and the county has one of the smallest visible minority populations in the country at under 3. 0%. Each year Cumbria, which incorporates the Lake District National Park, the county has 67 miles of motorway and some 700 miles of trunk and primary roads. The force has over 1,100 police officers,94 special constables and 800 police staff, the Chief Constable is Jerry Graham. The headquarters of the force are at Carleton Hall, Penrith, the Home Secretary proposed on 6 February 2006 to merge it with Lancashire Constabulary. These proposals were accepted by both forces on 25 February and the merger would have taken place on 1 April 2007. However, in July 2006, the Cumbria and Lancashire forces decided not to proceed with the merger because the Government could not remedy issues with the council tax precepts. The force is divided into three Basic Command Units which provide the majority of policing services to the county, each BCU is commanded by a Superintendent and is further divided into local policing teams each headed by an inspector. There are 19 NPTs throughout the force and these provide the 24-hour patrol officers, dedicated local community beat officers. The group has 75 officers located at Carlisle and Kendal, collision Investigation Unit, formed in 1998, it is responsible for dealing with all road deaths throughout the Constabulary area working in conjunction with officers from the Roads Policing Unit. Dog Unit, made up of 18 constables who are handlers for 18 general purpose dogs, six of these officers also have specialist dogs, such as firearms, drugs and explosive dogs. Cumbria Constabulary is a partner in the collaboration, North West Police Underwater Search & Marine Unit Cumberland and Westmorland Constabulary was formed in 1856. In 1947 this force absorbed Kendal Borough Police, less than 20 years later this amalgamated force absorbed Carlisle City Police to form a force broadly the same as todays force called the Cumberland, Westmorland and Carlisle Constabulary. In 1965, it had an establishment of 652 and a strength of 617. In 1967 the force name was changed to Cumbria Constabulary, the forces first, and to date only, murder of an officer occurred on 10 February 1965. Russell was posthumously awarded the Queens Police Medal for gallantry and a plaque has been unveiled on a wall at Carlisle Cathedral
Cumbria Constabulary
–
Patrol cars
Cumbria Constabulary
–
Cumbria Constabulary
Cumbria Constabulary
Cumbria Constabulary
16.
Fire services in the United Kingdom
–
The fire services in the United Kingdom operate under separate legislative and administrative arrangements in England and Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. Emergency cover is provided by over fifty fire and rescue services, many FRS were previously known as brigades or county fire services, but almost all now use the standard terminology. They are distinct from and governed by an authority, which is the legislative, public and administrative body. Fire authorities in England and Wales, and therefore fire and rescue services, Scotland and Northern Ireland have centralised fire and rescue services, and so their authorities are effectively committees of the devolved parliaments. The total budget for services in 2014-15 was £2.9 billion. The devolved government in Scotland has an agency, HMFSI Scotland. This Act provided for centralised co-ordination of fire brigades in Great Britain,1947, Fire Services Act 1947 This Act transferred the functions of the National Fire Service to local authorities. Now repealed entirely in England and Wales by Schedule 2 of the Fire,1959, Fire Services Act 1959 This Act amended the 1947 Act, it dealt with pensions, staffing arrangements and provision of services by other authorities. It was repealed in England and Wales along with the 1947 Act,1999, Greater London Authority Act 1999 This act was necessary to allow for the formation of the Greater London Authority and in turn the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. In 2002, there was a series of fire strikes. In December 2002, the Independent Review of the Fire Service was published with the action still ongoing. Bains report ultimately led to a change in the relating to firefighting. 2002, Independent Review of the Fire Service published 2004, Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004, generally only applying to England and it came into force on 1 October 2006. The DfCLG has published a set of guides for non-domestic premises,2006, The Government of Wales Act 2006 gave the National Assembly for Wales powers to pass laws on Fire, promotion of fire safety otherwise than by prohibition or regulation. But does not prevent future legislation being passed by the UK government which applies to two or more constituent countries, There are further plans to modernise the fire service according to the Local Government Association. The fire service in England and Wales is scrutinised by a House of Commons select committee, in June 2006, the fire and rescue service select committee, under the auspices of the Communities and Local Government Committee, published its latest report. For example, where FRSs were historically inspected by HMFSI, much of this work is now carried out by the National Audit Office, Fire Control On 8 February 2010 the House of Commons Communities and Local Government Select Committee heard evidence on the Fire Control project. Called to give evidence were Cllr Brian Coleman and Cllr James Pearson from the Local Government Association, also giving evidence Matt Wrack from the Fire Brigades Union and John Bonney Chief Fire Officers Association
Fire services in the United Kingdom
–
A fire engine of the
London Fire Brigade, the second-largest service in the country after the
Scottish Fire and Rescue Service
Fire services in the United Kingdom
–
Merseyside Fire and Rescue Service in action
Fire services in the United Kingdom
–
A 1951 Dennis P12 fire appliance belonging to the
Wiltshire Fire Brigade
Fire services in the United Kingdom
–
Fire on
West Pier in
Brighton, England
17.
Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom
–
Emergency care including ambulance and emergency department treatment is free to everyone, regardless of immigration or visitor status. The NHS commissions most emergency services through the 14 NHS organisations with ambulance responsibility across the UK. As with other services, the public normally access emergency medical services through one of the valid emergency telephone numbers. This led to the formation of predominantly county based ambulance services, which gradually merged up and changed responsibilities until 2006, when there were 31 NHS ambulance trusts in England. Following further changes as part of the NHS foundation trust pathway, the commissioners in each region are responsible for contracting with a suitable organisation to provide ambulance services within their geographical territory. The primary contract for each area is held by a public NHS body, of which there are 11 in England. The service was operated before reorganisation in 1974 by the St Andrews’ Ambulance Association under contract to the Secretary of State for Scotland, the Northern Ireland Ambulance Service was established in 1995 by parliamentary order, and serves the whole of Northern Ireland. The Welsh Ambulance Service NHS Trust was established on 1 April 1998, there is a large market for private and voluntary ambulance services, with the sector being worth £800m to the UK economy in 2012. This places the voluntary providers in direct competition with private services, expenditure on private ambulances in England increased from £37m in 2011−12 to £67. 5m in 2013/4, rising in London from £796,000 to more than £8. 8m. In 2014−15, these 10 ambulance services spent £57.6 million on 333,329 callouts of private or voluntary services - an increase of 156% since 2010−11, in 2013, the CQC found 97% of private ambulance services to be providing good care. These private, registered services are represented by the Independent Ambulance Association, there are also a number of unregistered services operating, who do not provide ambulance transport, but only provide response on an event site. These firms are not regulated, and are not subject to the checks as the registered providers, although they may operate similar vehicles. There are a number of ambulance providers, sometimes known as Voluntary Aid Services or Voluntary Aid Societies, with the main ones being the British Red Cross. The history of the ambulance services pre-dates any government organised service. As they are in competition for work with the private ambulance providers. Voluntary organisations have also provided cover for the public when unionised NHS ambulance trust staff have taken industrial action, there are a number of smaller voluntary ambulance organisations, fulfilling specific purposes, such as Hatzola who provide emergency medical services to the orthodox Jewish community in some cities. These have however run into difficulties due to use of vehicles not legally recognised as ambulances, all emergency medical services in the UK are subject to a range of legal and regulatory requirements, and in many cases are also monitored for performance. This framework is largely statutory in nature, being mandated by government through a range of primary and secondary legislation and this requires all providers to register, to meet certain standards of quality, and to submit to inspection of those standards
Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom
–
A
Mercedes Sprinter ambulance of the
South Western Ambulance Service responds to an emergency call
Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom
–
The
London Air Ambulance in action
Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom
–
A paramedic's motorcycle in Birmingham
Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom
–
Device of the
Scottish Ambulance Service
18.
North West Ambulance Service
–
There is no charge to patients for use of the service, and under the Patients charter, every person in the United Kingdom has the right to the attendance of an ambulance in an emergency. The trust lost the contract for non-emergency patient transport services in Cheshire, Warrington and it will transfer to the West Midlands Ambulance Service in July 2016. NWAS use Mercedes-Benz Sprinters or Fiat Ducatos as their standard emergency ambulance, Skoda Scouts as the main Rapid response car, the Trust currently operates from 114 ambulance stations and employs around 4,900 staff. NWAS was the first ambulance trust to be inspected by the Care Quality Commission, emergency medical services in the United Kingdom Healthcare in Greater Manchester North West Air Ambulance List of NHS trusts NWAS Website
North West Ambulance Service
–
NWAS ambulance on an emergency call
North West Ambulance Service
–
Map of North West Ambulance Service's coverage
North West Ambulance Service
–
Response car on
Market Street,
Manchester
19.
List of United Kingdom Parliament constituencies
–
There are 650 constituencies in the United Kingdom, each electing a single Member of Parliament to the House of Commons every five years. Voting last took place in all 650 of those constituencies at the United Kingdom general election on 7 May 2015, in addition there is the constituency of the Speaker, which by tradition does not belong to any party. The number of seats rose from 646 at the 2005 general election after proposals made by the commissions for England, Wales. Constituencies in Scotland remained unchanged, as the Boundary Commission for Scotland had completed a review just before the 2005 general election, for the 2013 review this was primarily the Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011. The Sainte-Laguë formula method is used to form groups of seats split between the four parts of the United Kingdom and the English Regions, the electorate figures given in the second column of the tables below are those used by the commissions during their reviews. These electorate figures date from the start of the review in each country, England, February 2000, Scotland, June 2001, Wales, December 2002, and Northern Ireland, May 2003. Of the 650 seats listed below,533 are in England,59 in Scotland,40 in Wales and 18 in Northern Ireland, Scotland – No changes from 2005 election. Wales – Number of seats unchanged, three seats were abolished and three were created, Aberconwy, Arfon, and Dwyfor Meirionnydd, Northern Ireland – No extra or fewer seats allocated. England, North Yorkshire, Hampshire, Warwickshire, Derbyshire, Norfolk, Essex, Lancashire, Northamptonshire, isle of Wight maintained its status as one constituency, the largest by electorate. The City of York was divided into two seats, neither overlapping part of North Yorkshire, North London, Birmingham and the metropolitan counties of Greater Manchester, Merseyside, Tyne and Wear and South Yorkshire lost a seat each. Herefordshire and Worcestershire, to reflect their full reinstatement as separate counties, were considered in separate reviews, bath, Bristol and Somerset underwent arguably the most significant changes to reflect the abolition of Avon. Updated electorate figures from December 2010 have been added for the English, lists of electoral districts by nation Boundary Commission for N. I. Fifth Periodical Report – Parliamentary Constituencies of Northern Ireland
List of United Kingdom Parliament constituencies
–
United Kingdom
20.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
21.
Historic counties of England
–
The historic counties of England were established for administration by the Normans, in most cases based on earlier kingdoms and shires established by the Anglo-Saxons and others. They ceased to be used for administration with the creation of the counties in 1889. They are alternatively known as ancient counties or traditional counties, where they are not included among the modern counties of England they are also known as former counties. Counties were used initially for the administration of justice, collection of taxes and organisation of the military and they continue to form the basis of modern local government in many parts of the country away from the main urban areas, although sometimes with considerably altered boundaries. The name of a county often gives a clue to how it was formed, either as a division took its name from a centre of administration. The majority of English counties are in the first category, with the name formed by combining the central town with the suffix -shire, for example Yorkshire. Former kingdoms, which became earldoms in the united England did not feature this formulation, so for Kent, Counties ending in the suffix -sex are also in this category and are former Saxon kingdoms. Many of these names are formed from compass directions, the third category includes counties such as Cornwall and Devon where the name corresponds to the tribes who inhabited the area. County Durham is anomalous in terms of naming and origin, not falling into any of the three categories, instead it was a diocese that was turned into the County Palatine of Durham, ruled by the Bishop of Durham. The expected form would otherwise be Durhamshire, but it was rarely used, there are customary abbreviations for many of the counties. In most cases these consist of simple truncation, usually with an s at the end signifying shire, some abbreviations are not obvious, such as Salop for Shropshire, Oxon for Oxfordshire, Hants for Hampshire and Northants for Northamptonshire. Counties were often prefixed with County of in official contexts, such as County of Kent and those counties named after central towns lost the -shire suffix, for example Yorkshire would be known as County of York. This usage was sometimes followed even where there was no town by that name, the -shire suffix was also appended for some counties, such as Devonshire, Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, despite their origin. There is still a Duke of Devonshire, Great Britain was first divided into administrative areas by the Romans, most likely following major geographical features such as rivers. Before their arrival there were distinct tribal areas, but they were in a constant state of flux as territory was gained, the areas that would later form the English counties started to take shape soon afterwards, with the Kingdom of Kent founded by settlers around 445. Once the Kingdom of England was united as a whole in 927 it became necessary to subdivide it for convenience and to this end. The whole kingdom was divided into shires by the time of the Norman conquest, robert of Gloucester accounts for thirty-five shires and William of Malmesbury thirty-two, Henry of Huntingdon, thirty-seven. In most cases the counties or shires in medieval times were administered by a sheriff on behalf of the monarch, after the Norman conquest the sheriff was replaced and the shires became counties, or areas under the control of a count, in the French manner
Historic counties of England
–
Map of the English and Welsh counties in 1824
Historic counties of England
–
Counties of England in 1851 with major rivers, the
ridings of Yorkshire, and the
remaining exclaves shown
Historic counties of England
–
This (rather inaccurate) 1814 map shows
Dudley in a
detached part of
Worcestershire surrounded by
Staffordshire. Note the detached portion of
Shropshire (the parish of
Halesowen), just to the south-east and part of Staffordshire (
Broome and
Clent) to the south-west as well.
Historic counties of England
–
The ancient county boundaries of
Warwickshire covered a larger area than the county in 1974 (in green).
22.
Westmorland
–
Westmorland is an area of North West England and one of the 39 historic counties of England. It formed a county from 1889 to 1974, after which the whole county was administered by the new administrative county of Cumbria. At the time of Domesday Book in 1086, parts of the county were considered either to part of Yorkshire or to be within the separate Kingdom of Strathclyde. The Normans conquered the area that is now Cumbria in 1092 during the reign of William II and created the baronies of Kendal and these were originally distinct jurisdictions with separate sheriffs, but were formed into a single county of Westmorland in 1226/7. Before 1226 the Barony of Kendal was connected to the Earldom or Honour of Lancaster while that of Westmorland was part of the Earldom of Carlisle. The historic county boundaries are with Cumberland to the north, County Durham and Yorkshire to the east, windermere forms part of the western border with Lancashire north of the sands, and Ullswater part of the border with Cumberland. The highest point of the county is Helvellyn at 950m, according to the 1831 census the county covered an area of 485,990 acres. Appleby, the county town, formed a historic borough and was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. Kendal was reformed as a borough in 1835. Rather than being divided into hundreds, Westmorland was subdivided into the two baronies of Westmorland and Kendal, Westmorland had no county boroughs throughout its history, so the administrative county, the area under the control of the county council, was coterminous with the geographic county. The county council was based at Kendal, rather than the county town of Appleby-in-Westmorland. Despite their title, many of Westmorlands urban districts, such as Lakes, Grasmere, according to the 1971 census, Westmorland was the second least populated administrative county in England, after Rutland. The area now forms parts of the districts of South Lakeland, Westmorland County Council was granted a coat of arms by the College of Arms in 1926. The design of the referred to the two components of the county, on two red bars was placed a gold apple tree. The crest above the shield was the head of a ram of the local Herdwick breed, on the rams forehead was a shearmans hook, a tool used in the handling of wool. The hook was part of the insignia of the borough of Kendal, in 1974 the successor parish council formed for the former borough of Appleby adopted the name Appleby-in-Westmorland. The final recommendations, published in October 1994, did not include such recommendations, in September 2011, the Westmorland Association, a local society which promotes the countys identity, successfully registered the Flag of Westmorland with the Flag Institute. Sir Thomas Strickland carried the Flag of St. George at the battle of Agincourt, the Parrs ancestral castle, Kendal Castle, is located in Kendal
Westmorland
–
Map of Westmorland, 1824
Westmorland
–
Flag
23.
Lancaster, Lancashire
–
Lancaster /ˈlæŋkəstər/, or /ˈlæŋˌkæstər/ is a city and the county town of Lancashire, England. It is situated on the River Lune and has a population of 45,952, long existing as a commercial, cultural and educational centre, Lancaster is the settlement that gives Lancashire its name. Lancaster was granted city status in 1937 for its association with the crown. With its history based on its port and canal, Lancaster is an ancient settlement, dominated by Lancaster Castle, Lancaster Priory Church and it is also home to the campus-based Lancaster University and a campus of the University of Cumbria. The coin evidence also suggests that the fort was not continuously inhabited in early years. The fort was rebuilt in stone around 102 AD, the fort underwent a few more extensions, and at its largest area it was 9–10 acres. The evidence suggests that the fort remained active into the early 5th century, little is known about Lancaster between the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century and the Norman Conquest in the late 11th century. Despite a lack of documentation from this period, it is likely that Lancaster was still inhabited, Lancaster was on the fringes of the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria, and over time control may have changed from one to the other. Archaeological evidence suggests there was a monastery on or near the site of todays Lancaster Priory by the 700s or 800s. For example, an Anglo-Saxon runic cross found at the Priory in 1807, Lancaster was probably one of the numerous monasteries founded under Wilfrid. The founding charter of the Priory, dated 1094, is the first known document which is specific to Lancaster, by this time William had given Lancaster and its surrounding region to Roger de Poitou. This document also suggests that the monastery had been refounded as a church at some point prior to 1066. Lancaster became a borough in 1193 under King Richard I and its first charter, dated 12 June 1193, was from John, Count of Mortain, who later became King of England. Lancaster Castle, partly built in the 13th century and enlarged by Elizabeth I, Lancaster Castle is well known as the site of the Pendle witch trials in 1612. It was said that the court based in the castle sentenced more people to be hanged than any other in the country outside London, earning Lancaster the nickname, Lancaster also figured prominently in the suppression of Catholicism during the reformation with the execution of at least eleven Catholic priests. A memorial to the Lancaster Martyrs is located close to the city centre, the traditional emblem for the House of Lancaster is a red rose, the red rose of Lancaster, similar to that of the House of York, which is a white rose. These names derive from the emblems of the Royal Duchies of Lancaster and this erupted into a civil war over rival claims to the throne during the Wars of the Roses. In more recent times, the term Wars of the Roses has been applied to rivalry in sports teams representing Lancashire and Yorkshire, not just the cities of Lancaster and York
Lancaster, Lancashire
–
View over Lancaster, with the
Ashton Memorial and
Lancaster Cathedral
Lancaster, Lancashire
–
Roman bath house on Castle Hill
Lancaster, Lancashire
–
Lancaster in the 19th century
Lancaster, Lancashire
–
Lancaster in 1728
24.
Barrow-in-Furness
–
Barrow-in-Furness is a town and borough in Cumbria, North West England. Historically part of Lancashire, it was incorporated as a borough in 1867. At the tip of the Furness peninsula, close to the Lake District, it is bordered by Morecambe Bay, the Duddon Estuary, in 2011, Barrows population was 57,000, the second largest urban area in Cumbria after Carlisle. Natives of Barrow, as well as the dialect, are known as Barrovian. In the Middle Ages, Barrow was a hamlet with Furness Abbey, on the outskirts of the modern-day town. The iron prospector Henry Schneider arrived in Furness in 1839 and, with investors, opened the Furness Railway in 1846 to transport iron ore. Further hematite deposits were discovered, of sufficient size to develop factories for smelting and exporting steel, by the late 19th century, the Barrow Hematite Steel Company-owned steelworks was the worlds largest. The original iron- and steel-making enterprises closed down after World War II, leaving Vickers shipyard as Barrows main industry and employer. Several Royal Navy flagships, the vast majority of its nuclear submarines as well as numerous other vessels, ocean liners. Today Barrow is a hub for energy generation and handling, Offshore wind farms form one of the highest concentrations of turbines in the world. The name was originally that of an island, Barrai, which can be traced back to 1190 and this was later renamed Old Barrow, recorded as Oldebarrey in 1537, and Old Barrow Insula and Barrohead in 1577. The island was joined to the mainland and the town took its name. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Barrow was nicknamed the English Chicago because of the sudden and rapid growth in its industry, economic stature, more recently the town has been dubbed the capital of blue-collar Britain by the Daily Telegraph, reflecting its strong working-class identity. Barrow is also jokingly referred to as being at the end of the longest cul-de-sac in the country because of its isolated location at the tip of the Furness peninsula. Barrow and the area has been settled non-continuously for several millennia. Several areas of Barrow including Yarlside and Ormsgill, as well as Barrow, the Domesday Book of 1086 recorded the settlements of Hietun, Rosse and Hougenai, which are now the districts of Hawcoat, Roose and Walney respectively. In the Middle Ages the Furness peninsula was controlled by the Cistercian monks of the Abbey of St Mary of Furness and this was located in the Vale of Nightshade, now on the outskirts of the town. Founded for the Savigniac order, it was built on the orders of King Stephen in 1123, soon after the abbeys foundation the monks discovered iron ore deposits, later to provide the basis for the Furness economy
Barrow-in-Furness
–
Clockwise from the upper left:
Central Barrow with the skyline of
Blackpool also visible,
Barrow Island,
Walney Bridge and
Furness College,
Furness Abbey,
Ramsden Square,
Dock Museum and
DDH,
Barrow Town Hall and
St. Mary's Church Coat of arms of Barrow in Furness
Barrow-in-Furness
Barrow-in-Furness
–
Furness Abbey, one of England's most powerful monasteries in the Middle Ages
Barrow-in-Furness
–
Barrow Steelworks circa. 1877
25.
Skipton
–
Skipton is a market town and civil parish in the Craven district of North Yorkshire, England. Historically in the West Riding of Yorkshire, it is on the River Aire, at the 2011 Census, Skipton had a population of 14,623. Skipton is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 and it was important during the English Civil War and was the site of a prisoner of war camp during the First World War. The mill as it today is only half of what used to exist when two mills were in operation to produce corn for the whole of Skipton. The mill has been redesigned, from the mill grounds to the buildings themselves. Skipton Castle was built in 1090 as a wooden motte-and-bailey by Robert de Romille, the protection offered by Skipton Castle during the Middle Ages encouraged the urbanisation of the surrounding area, and during times of war and disorder the town attracted an influx of families. It is now one of the most complete and best preserved castles in England and is open to the public. Skipton became a market town, trading sheep and woollen goods, its name derives from the Old English sceap. A market stemming from its formative years still survives, since 1974, Skipton has been the seat of Craven District Council. The Skipton Building Society was founded in the town, Skipton is part of the parliamentary constituency of Skipton and Ripon, which was created in 1983. The constituency has returned a Conservative MP since its inception, the seat is currently held by Julian Smith MP. Before 1983 Skipton had its own eponymous constituency, Skipton forms part of Craven District, a Non-metropolitan district, and is home of the offices of Craven District Council. In 2007, proposals to make North Yorkshire County Council a unitary authority, Skipton has its own town council consisting of 16 Councillors, formed by 4 members from each of the four wards within the parish boundaries. Skipton Town Councillors elect a Town Mayor each year at its Annual General Meeting and this year, the Town Mayor is Councillor Gordon Bell. The Town Council Offices are based on the High Street, above Barclays Bank, the towns major local employer is Skipton Building Society, with its subsidiary companies. The town is home to several companies, including Blue Water Holidays. It is a centre for recruitment, with several hundred people employed in this sector, Recruitment firms include Medacs, JCJ, Templars, Holt and Medic International, and Justteachers. Tourism and retail sales are also significant, there is also a recruitment software company called LMS Recruitment Systems Ltd
Skipton
–
Skipton from Skipton Moor
Skipton
–
Craven Museum & Gallery
Skipton
–
Skipton Waterway Festival
Skipton
–
Skipton railway station
26.
River Kent
–
The River Kent is a short river in the county of Cumbria in England. The river originates in hills surrounding Kentmere, and flows for around 20 miles into the north of Morecambe Bay, the Lake District National Park includes the upper reaches of the river within its boundaries. The river passes through Kentmere, Staveley, Burneside, Kendal, near Sedgwick, the river passes through a rock gorge which produces a number of low waterfalls. This section is popular with kayakers as it offers high quality whitewater for several days after rain, the village of Arnside lies alongside the Kent estuary. On high spring tides, a tidal bore known as the Arnside Bore forms in the estuary opposite Arnside, the wave is often about 0. 5m high. The rivers Mint, Sprint and Gowan join the Kent to the north of Kendal, with the river also joined by the River Gilpin and River Winster as it nears its estuary. The river was used to power mills in the past. One of the weirs at Staveley produces electricity for Staveley Mill Yard via a hydro scheme. There is also scope for micro hydro upstream at Kentmere, the river is a designated Special Area of Conservation, primarily as an important habitat for the endangered White-clawed Crayfish. Fish species include salmon and trout, in the twentieth century fish ladders were constructed alongside the dams of mill-ponds to allow migratory fish to swim up to Kentmere. In 2013 DEFRA funding was announced for eel passes at Stramongate weir in Kendal, south Cumbria Rivers Trust a photographic river journey of the Kent
River Kent
–
River Kent in Kendal
River Kent
–
River Kent near its source in Kentmere
River Kent
–
Arnside, on the Kent estuary
27.
Carlisle, Cumbria
–
Carlisle is a city and the county town of Cumbria. Historically in Cumberland, it is also the centre of the City of Carlisle district in North West England. Carlisle is located at the confluence of the rivers Eden, Caldew and it is the largest settlement in the county of Cumbria, and serves as the administrative centre for both Carlisle City Council and Cumbria County Council. At the time of the 2001 census, the population of Carlisle was 71,773, ten years later, at the 2011 census, the citys population had risen to 75,306, with 107,524 in the wider city. The early history of Carlisle is marked by its status as a Roman settlement, the castle now houses the Duke of Lancasters Regiment and the Border Regiment Museum. In the early 12th century, Henry I allowed the foundation of a priory in Carlisle, the town gained the status of a city when its diocese was formed in 1133, and the priory became Carlisle Cathedral. The introduction of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution began a process of transformation in Carlisle. This, combined with its position, allowed for the development of Carlisle as an important railway town. Nicknamed the Great Border City, Carlisle today is the cultural, commercial and industrial centre for north Cumbria. It is home to the campuses of the University of Cumbria. The former County Borough of Carlisle had held city status until the Local Government Act 1972 was enacted in 1974, what is known of the ancient history of Carlisle is derived mainly from archaeological evidence and the works of the Roman historian Tacitus. The earliest recorded inhabitants were the Carvetii tribe of Britons who made up the population of ancient Cumbria. According to Boethius and John of Fordun, Carlisle existed before the arrival of the Romans in Britain and was one of the strongest British towns at the time, in the time of the emperor Nero, it was said to have burned down. The Roman settlement was named Luguvalium, based on a name that has been reconstructed as Brittonic *Luguwaljon, of Luguwalos. This walled civitas, possibly the one in northwest Britain. In the year 79, the two Roman generals Cn, petillius Cerealis advanced through Solway as they continued their campaign further north. As a result, it is likely that control was achieved at Carlisle over anti-imperial groups. This is possibly indicated from the reconstruction of the fort at Carlisle in 83 using oak timbers from further afield, at this time the Roman fort was garrisoned by a 500-strong cavalry regiment, the Ala Gallorum Sebosiana
Carlisle, Cumbria
–
Aerial view of Carlisle City Centre
Carlisle, Cumbria
–
General
Gnaeus Julius Agricola advances through Carlisle in AD 79.
Carlisle, Cumbria
–
Carlisle Castle was built in the reign of
William the Second.
Carlisle, Cumbria
–
Historic view of Carlisle
28.
Kendal mint cake
–
Kendal Mint Cake is a glucose-based confection flavoured with peppermint. It originates from Kendal in Cumbria, England, Kendal Mint Cake is popular among climbers and mountaineers, especially those from the United Kingdom, as a source of energy. Kendal Mint Cake is based on a traditional recipe known as mint cake, peppermint tablet and it is well-known mountaineers and explorers for its high energy content. There are currently two companies still produce Kendal Mint Cake in Kendal. The origin of the cake is allegedly the result of a batch of Peppermint creams that went wrong, supposedly, the mixture was left overnight and the solidified mint cake was discovered in the morning. Romneys was founded in 1918 and used an old recipe to create Mint Cake and this Mint Cake was sold in Kendal and sent by train to other areas of the north west for sale. In 1987, Romneys bought Wipers Mint Cake from Harry Wiper, in 2016 Romneys collaborated with fashion site Lyst to create a limited run of Kendall Mint Cakes to celebrate Kendall Jenners 21st Birthday on November 3. 200 limited edition cakes were given away on social media, Quiggins Mint Cake is the oldest surviving mint cake company. The Quiggin family had been making confectionery since 1840 in the Isle of Man and when one of the four moved to Kendal in 1880. In the BBC TV programme Great British Menu, series 5, Lisa Allen visited Quiggins factory, in the BBC TV programme Great British Railway Journeys, Michael Portillo visited Quiggins factory. Wilsons Mint Cake was founded in 1913, when James Wilson purchased a factory in the Stricklandgate area of the town and he had previously made and distributed types of toffee, but he decided to concentrate on mint cake. In 1966, the moved to a location in the Cross Lane area of Kendal. Wilsons was licensed to sell a Beatrix Potter range of sweets, as of 2007 the factory was run by the grandson of James, Andrew Wilson, and Mint Cake was no longer the major product of the company as chocolate confectionery took up 90% of orders. After moving from Kendal to Holme in 2013 it was reported in 2016 that the company had closed down, Kendal Mint Cake is made from sugar, glucose, water and peppermint oil. The mixture is poured into moulds and allowed to set. There are numerous types of Mint Cake that are now available, Mint Cake made with white sugar, Mint Cake made with brown sugar, and Mint Cake enrobed in chocolate are the three most popular varieties. The packaging currently includes the following, “We sat on the snow and looked at the country far below us … we nibbled Kendal Mint Cake. A member of the successful Everest expedition wrote – It was easily the most popular item on our high altitude ration – our only criticism was that we did not have enough of it. ”Mint Cake was provided to the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–1917, which was led by Sir Ernest Shackleton
Kendal mint cake
–
Kendal mint cake with a chocolate coating
Kendal mint cake
–
Romney's Kendal Mint Cake
Kendal mint cake
–
Quiggin's factory on Low Fellside, in Kendal, England.
29.
Snuff (tobacco)
–
Snuff is a smokeless tobacco made from ground or pulverised tobacco leaves. It is inhaled or snuffed into the cavity, delivering a swift hit of nicotine. It originated in the Americas and was in use in Europe by the 17th century. Traditional snuff production consists of a lengthy, multi-step process, in tobacco snuff mills, Snuff is usually scented or flavoured, with many blends of snuff requiring months to years of special storage to reach the required maturity. Typical traditional flavours are varieties of carefully blended tobacco leaves considered original fine snuff without any addition of scents or essences, varieties of spice, piquant, fruit, floral, and mentholated soon followed, either pure or in blends. Each snuff manufacturer usually has a variety of recipes and blends. Common flavours also include coffee, chocolate, bordeaux, honey, vanilla, cherry, orange, apricot, plum, camphor, cinnamon, rose, modern flavours include Bourbon, Cola and whisky. Traditional classic German snuff blends are the piquant Schmalzler and Brasil, Snuff comes in a range of texture and moistness, from very fine to coarse, and from toast to very moist. Often drier snuffs are more finely. There is also a range of tobacco-free snuffs, such as Pöschls Weiss, while strictly speaking these are not snuffs because they contain no tobacco, they are an alternative for those who wish to avoid nicotine, or for cutting a strong snuff to an acceptable strength. The indigenous populations of Brazil were the first people known to have used ground tobacco as snuff and they would grind the tobacco leaves using a mortar and pestle made of rosewood, where the tobacco would also acquire a delicate aroma of the wood. The resulting snuff was then stored airtight in ornate bone bottles or tubes to preserve its flavour for later consumption, snuff-taking by the Taino and Carib people of the Lesser Antilles was observed by the Franciscan monk Ramón Pané on Columbus second voyage to the New World in 1493. Friar Panés return to Spain with snuff signalled its arrival in Europe that would last for centuries, the Spanish called snuff polvo or rapé. At first they were independent production mills dispersed within the city, the Dutch, who named the ground powdered tobacco snuff, were using the product by 1560. By the early 1600s, snuff had become a luxury commodity. In 1611, commercially manufactured snuff made its way to North America by way of John Rolfe, the husband of Pocahontas, though most of the colonists in America never fully accepted the English style of snuff use, American aristocrats used snuff. Snuff use in England increased in popularity after the Great Plague of London as people believed snuff had valuable antiseptic properties, which added a powerful impetus to its consumption. By 1650, snuff use had spread from France to England, Scotland, and Ireland, and throughout Europe, as well as Japan, China, by the 17th century some prominent objectors to snuff-taking arose
Snuff (tobacco)
–
Assorted tins of nasal snuff tobacco
Snuff (tobacco)
–
Several types and consistencies of snuff tobacco
Snuff (tobacco)
–
Painting of a man taking snuff using the thumb and index finger method
Snuff (tobacco)
–
Spring-loaded novelty device used to shoot snuff directly into one's
nostrils
30.
Limestone
–
Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
Limestone
–
Limestone outcrop in the
Torcal de Antequera nature reserve of
Málaga, Spain
Limestone
–
Limestone quarry at
Cedar Creek, Virginia, USA
Limestone
–
Cutting the limestone blocks at a quarry in
Gozo,
Malta
Limestone
–
Limestone as building material
31.
Domesday Book
–
Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about this land, how it was occupied and it was written in Medieval Latin, was highly abbreviated, and included some vernacular native terms without Latin equivalents. The assessors reckoning of a mans holdings and their values, as recorded in Domesday Book, was dispositive, the name Domesday Book came into use in the 12th century. As Richard FitzNeal wrote in the Dialogus de Scaccario, for as the sentence of that strict and terrible last account cannot be evaded by any skilful subterfuge and its sentence cannot be quashed or set aside with impunity. That is why we have called the book the Book of Judgement, because its decisions, like those of the Last Judgement, are unalterable. The manuscript is held at The National Archives at Kew, London, in 2011, the Open Domesday site made the manuscript available online. The book is a primary source for modern historians and historical economists. Domesday Book encompasses two independent works, Little Domesday and Great Domesday, no surveys were made of the City of London, Winchester, or some other towns, probably due to their tax-exempt status. Most of Cumberland and Westmorland are missing, the omission of the other counties and towns is not fully explained, although in particular Cumberland and Westmorland had yet to be fully conquered. Little Domesday – so named because its format is smaller than its companions – is the more detailed survey. It may have represented the first attempt, resulting in a decision to avoid such level of detail in Great Domesday, some of the largest such magnates held several hundred fees, in a few cases in more than one county. For example, the chapter of the Domesday Book Devonshire section concerning Baldwin the Sheriff lists 176 holdings held in-chief by him, as a review of taxes owed, it was highly unpopular. Each countys list opened with the demesne lands. It should be borne in mind that under the system the king was the only true owner of land in England. He was thus the ultimate overlord and even the greatest magnate could do no more than hold land from him as a tenant under one of the contracts of feudal land tenure. In some counties, one or more principal towns formed the subject of a separate section and this principle applies more specially to the larger volume, in the smaller one, the system is more confused, the execution less perfect. Domesday names a total of 13,418 places and these include fragments of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets, mints, and so forth
Domesday Book
–
Domesday Book: an engraving published in 1900. Great Domesday (the larger volume) and Little Domesday (the smaller volume), in their 1869 bindings, lying on their older "
Tudor " bindings.
Domesday Book
–
Great Domesday in its "
Tudor " binding: a wood-engraving of the 1860s
Domesday Book
–
Domesday chest, the German-style iron-bound chest of c.1500 in which Domesday Book was kept in the 17th and 18th centuries
Domesday Book
–
Entries for
Croydon and
Cheam,
Surrey, in the 1783 edition of Domesday Book
32.
Yorkshire
–
Yorkshire, formally known as the County of York, is a historic county of Northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Due to its size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been undertaken over time by its subdivisions. Throughout these changes, Yorkshire has continued to be recognised as a geographical territory, Yorkshire has sometimes been nicknamed Gods Own County or Gods Own Country. Yorkshire Day, held on 1 August, is a celebration of the culture of Yorkshire. Yorkshire is now divided between different official regions, most of the county falls within Yorkshire and the Humber. The extreme northern part of the county falls within North East England, Small areas in the west of the historic county now form part of North West England, following boundary changes in 1974. Yorkshire or the County of York was so named as it is the shire of the city of York local /ˈjɔːk/ or Yorks Shire, York comes from the Viking name for the city, Jórvík. Shire is from Old English, scir meaning care or official charge, the shire suffix is locally pronounced /-ʃə/ shuh, or occasionally /-ʃiə/, a homophone of sheer. Early inhabitants of Yorkshire were Celts, who formed two tribes, the Brigantes and the Parisi. The Brigantes controlled territory which later became all of the North Riding of Yorkshire, the tribe controlled most of Northern England and more territory than any other Celtic tribe in England. That they had the Yorkshire area as their heartland is evident in that Isurium Brigantum was the town of their civitas under Roman rule. Six of the nine Brigantian poleis described by Claudius Ptolemaeus in the Geographia fall within the historic county, the Parisi, who controlled the area that would become the East Riding of Yorkshire, might have been related to the Parisii of Lutetia Parisiorum, Gaul. Their capital was at Petuaria, close to the Humber estuary, initially, this situation suited both the Romans and the Brigantes, who were known as the most militant tribe in Britain. Queen Cartimandua left her husband Venutius for his bearer, Vellocatus. Cartimandua, due to her relationship with the Romans, was able to keep control of the kingdom. At the second attempt, Venutius seized the kingdom, but the Romans, under general Petillius Cerialis, the fortified city of Eboracum was named as capital of Britannia Inferior and joint-capital of all Roman Britain. During the two years before the death of Emperor Septimius Severus, the Roman Empire was run from Eboracum by him, another emperor, Constantius Chlorus, died in Yorkshire during a visit in 306 AD. This saw his son Constantine the Great proclaimed emperor in the city, in the early 5th century, the Roman rule ceased with the withdrawal of the last active Roman troops
Yorkshire
–
Statue of
Constantine I outside
York Minster.
Yorkshire
–
Flag of Yorkshire
Yorkshire
–
York Minster, western elevation
Yorkshire
–
Yorkist king
Richard III grew up at
Middleham.
33.
Motte and bailey
–
The Normans introduced the design into England and Wales following their invasion in 1066. Motte-and-bailey castles were adopted in Scotland, Ireland, the Low Countries, by the end of the 13th century, the design was largely superseded by alternative forms of fortification, but the earthworks remain a prominent feature in many countries. The term motte and bailey is a modern one, and is not medieval in origin. The word bailey comes from the Norman-French baille, or basse-cour, in medieval sources, the Latin term castellum was used to describe the bailey complex within these castles. One contemporary account of these comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130. De Colmieu described how the nobles would build a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible. The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs, inside the enclosure is a citadel, or keep, which commands the whole circuit of the defences. Mottes were made out of earth and flattened on top, some were also built over older artificial structures, such as Bronze Age barrows. The size of mottes varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height and this minimum height of 3 metres for mottes is usually intended to exclude smaller mounds which often had non-military purposes. In England and Wales, only 7% of mottes were taller than 10 metres high, a motte was protected by a ditch around it, which would typically have also been a source of the earth and soil for constructing the mound itself. A keep and a wall would usually be built on top of the motte. Smaller mottes could only support simple towers with room for a few soldiers, wooden structures on mottes could be protected by skins and hides to prevent them being easily set alight during a siege. The bailey was a courtyard overlooked by the motte and surrounded by a wooden fence called a palisade. The bailey was often kidney-shaped to fit against a circular motte, the bailey would contain a wide number of buildings, including a hall, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges or workshops, and was the centre of the castles economic activity. The bailey was linked to the motte either by a bridge stretching between the two, or, more popularly in England, by steps cut into the motte. Typically the ditch of the motte and the bailey joined, forming a figure of eight around the castle, wherever possible, nearby streams and rivers would be dammed or diverted, creating water-filled moats, artificial lakes and other forms of water defences. In practice, there was a number of variations to this common design. A castle could have more than one bailey, at Warkworth Castle an inner, some baileys had two mottes, such as those at Lincoln
Motte and bailey
–
A reconstruction of the English city of
York in the 15th century, showing the motte and bailey fortifications of
Old Baile (left) and
York Castle (right)
Motte and bailey
–
Plan of
Topcliffe Castle in England, an archetypal motte-and-bailey design
Motte and bailey
–
The motte and bailey defences of
Launceston Castle in England
Motte and bailey
–
Windsor Castle, built with a motte (centre) and two baileys (left and right)
34.
Border Reivers
–
Border reivers were raiders along the Anglo-Scottish border from the late 13th century to the beginning of the 17th century. Their ranks consisted of both Scottish and English families, and they raided the entire Border country without regard to their victims nationality. Their heyday was perhaps in the last hundred years of their existence, during the time of the Stewart Kings in Scotland, Scotland and England were frequently at war during the late Middle Ages. During these wars, the livelihood of the people on the Borders was devastated by the contending armies, even when the countries were not at war, tension remained high, and royal authority in either kingdom was often weak. Loyalty to a feeble or distant monarch and reliance on the effectiveness of the law usually made people a target for depredations rather than conferring any security, there were other factors which promoted a predatory mode of living. Also, much of the region is mountainous or open moorland, unsuitable for arable farming. Livestock was easily rustled and driven back to raiders territory by mounted reivers who knew the country well, the raiders also often removed easily portable household goods or valuables, and took prisoners for ransom. The reivers were both English and Scottish and raided both sides of the border impartially, so long as the people they raided had no powerful protectors and their activities, although usually within a days ride of the border, extended both north and south of their main haunts. English raiders were reported to have hit the outskirts of Edinburgh, the largest of these was The Great Raid of 1322, during the Scottish Wars of Independence, where it reached as far south as Chorley. The main raiding season ran through the winter months, when the nights were longest. The numbers involved in a raid might range from a few dozen to organised campaigns involving up to three thousand riders. When raiding, or riding, as it was termed, the reivers rode light on hardy nags or ponies renowned for the ability to pick their way over the boggy moss lands. They were armed with lances and small shields, and sometimes also with longbows, or light crossbows, known as latches and they invariably also carried swords and dirks. As soldiers, the Border reivers were considered among the finest light cavalry in all of Europe, after meeting one reiver, Queen Elizabeth I is quoted as having said that with ten thousand such men, James VI could shake any throne in Europe. Reivers served as mercenaries, or were forced to serve in English and Scots armies in the Low Countries, such service was often handed down as a penalty in lieu of that of death upon their families. Reivers fighting as levied soldiers played important parts at the battles of Flodden, when fighting as part of larger English or Scottish armies, Borderers were difficult to control as many had relatives on both sides of the border, despite laws forbidding international marriage. They could claim to be of either nationality, describing themselves as Scottish or English as needed and they were badly-behaved in camp, frequently plundered for their own benefit instead of obeying orders, and there were always questions about how loyal they were. The inhabitants of the Borders had to live in a state of constant alert, in the very worst periods of warfare, people were unable to construct more than crude turf cabins, the destruction of which would be little loss
Border Reivers
–
Reivers at
Gilnockie Tower, from a 19th-century print
Border Reivers
–
Auld Wat of Harden by
Tom Scott. A romanticised image of a notorious raider, Walter Scott of Harden.
Border Reivers
–
Black Middens Bastle House, a surviving bastle house
Border Reivers
–
A leather jack of the kind worn by reivers in the 16th century
35.
Wool
–
Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other animals, including cashmere and mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits, and other types of wool from camelids. Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur, it is crimped, Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the layer of the skin called the epidermis. Follicles can be classed as primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber, Kemp, medullated fibers and true wool fibers, secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp, Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out. Wools scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a specific heat coefficient, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes for insulation, felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together. The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers, a fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch, while coarser wool like karakul may have as few as one or two. In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, on sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow, Wool can absorb almost one-third of its own weight in water. Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics and it is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes. Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers, Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, Wool is considered by the medical profession to be allergenic. Sheep shearing is the process by which the fleece of a sheep is cut off. After shearing, the wool is separated into four categories, fleece, broken, bellies. In Australia before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for micron, yield, staple length, staple strength, the sheep is given a dip in antiseptic solution after shearing, so as to cure the wounds caused during shearing
Wool
–
Wool just before processing
Wool
–
Sheep before shearing
Wool
–
Merino sheep
Wool
–
Champion
hogget fleece,
Walcha Show
36.
Heraldry
–
The beauty and pageantry of heraldic designs allowed them to survive the gradual abandonment of armour on the battlefield during the seventeenth century. Heraldry has been described poetically as the handmaid of history, the shorthand of history, in modern times, heraldry is used by individuals, public and private organizations, corporations, cities, towns, and regions to symbolize their heritage, achievements, and aspirations. Various symbols have been used to represent individuals or groups for thousands of years, similar emblems and devices are found in ancient Mesopotamian art of the same period, and the precursors of heraldic beasts such as the griffin can also be found. In the Bible, the Book of Numbers refers to the standards and ensigns of the children of Israel, the Greek and Latin writers frequently describe the shields and symbols of various heroes, and units of the Roman army were sometimes identified by distinctive markings on their shields. The Book of Saint Albans, compiled in 1486, declares that Christ himself was a gentleman of coat armour, the medieval heralds also devised arms for various knights and lords from history and literature. Notable examples include the toads attributed to Pharamond, the cross and martlets of Edward the Confessor, and the arms attributed to the Nine Worthies. These too are now regarded as an invention, rather than evidence of the antiquity of heraldry. The development of the modern heraldic language cannot be attributed to an individual, time. Yet no individual is depicted twice bearing the arms, nor are any of the descendants of the various persons depicted known to have borne devices resembling those in the tapestry. A Spanish manuscript from 1109 describes both plain and decorated shields, none of which appears to have been heraldic, in England, from the time of the Norman conquest, official documents had to be sealed. A notable example of an armorial seal is attached to a charter granted by Philip I, Count of Flanders. Seals from the part of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries show no evidence of heraldic symbolism. One of the earliest known examples of armory as it came to be practiced can be seen on the tomb of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. An enamel, probably commissioned by Geoffreys widow between 1155 and 1160, depicts him carrying a shield decorated with six golden lions rampant. He wears a helmet adorned with another lion, and his cloak is lined in vair. A medieval chronicle states that Geoffrey was given a shield of this description when he was knighted by his father-in-law, Henry I, in 1128, but this account probably dates to about 1175. Since Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, it seems reasonable to suppose that the adoption of lions as an emblem by Henry or his sons might have been inspired by Geoffreys shield. Richard is also credited with having originated the English crest of a lion statant and it is from this garment that the phrase coat of arms is derived
Heraldry
–
The German
Hyghalmen Roll was made in the late 15th century and illustrates the German practice of repeating themes from the arms in the crest. (See
Roll of arms).
Heraldry
–
Shields of Magister Militum Praesentalis II. Page from the
Notitia Dignitatum, a medieval copy of a Late Roman register of military commands
Heraldry
–
An extravagant example of marshalling: the 719 quarterings of the
Grenville Armorial at
Stowe.
Heraldry
–
The
Zechariah Seal coat of arms.
37.
Battle of Agincourt
–
The Battle of Agincourt was a major English victory in the Hundred Years War. The battle took place on Friday,25 October 1415 in the County of Saint-Pol, Artois, Henry V led his troops into battle and participated in hand-to-hand fighting. The French king of the time, Charles VI, did not command the French army himself as he suffered from severe psychotic illnesses with moderate mental incapacitation, instead, the French were commanded by Constable Charles dAlbret and various prominent French noblemen of the Armagnac party. This battle is notable for the use of the English longbow in very large numbers, the battle is the centrepiece of the play Henry V by William Shakespeare. The Battle of Agincourt is well documented by at least seven contemporary accounts, the approximate location of the battle has never been in dispute and the place remains relatively unaltered even after 600 years. Two of the most frequently cited accounts come from Burgundian sources, one from Jean Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy, who was present at the battle, Henry V invaded France following the failure of negotiations with the French. He initially called a Great Council in the spring of 1414 to discuss going to war with France, Henry would marry Princess Catherine, the young daughter of Charles VI, and receive a dowry of 2 million crowns. The French responded with what they considered the terms of marriage with Princess Catherine, a dowry of 600,000 crowns. By 1415, negotiations had ground to a halt, with the English claiming that the French had mocked their claims and ridiculed Henry himself. In December 1414, the English parliament was persuaded to grant Henry a double subsidy, on 19 April 1415, Henry again asked the Great Council to sanction war with France, and this time they agreed. The siege took longer than expected, the town surrendered on 22 September, and the English army did not leave until 8 October. The campaign season was coming to an end, and the English army had suffered many casualties through disease and he also intended the manoeuvre as a deliberate provocation to battle aimed at the dauphin, who had failed to respond to Henrys personal challenge to combat at Harfleur. The French had raised an army during the siege which assembled around Rouen and this was not strictly a feudal army, but an army paid through a system similar to the English. The French hoped to raise 9,000 troops, but the army was not ready in time to relieve Harfleur, after Henry V marched to the north, the French moved to block them along the River Somme. They were successful for a time, forcing Henry to move south, away from Calais, the English finally crossed the Somme south of Péronne, at Béthencourt and Voyennes and resumed marching north. Without a river obstacle to defend, the French were hesitant to force a battle and they shadowed Henrys army while calling a semonce des nobles, calling on local nobles to join the army. By 24 October, both faced each other for battle, but the French declined, hoping for the arrival of more troops. The two armies spent the night of 24 October on open ground, the English had very little food, had marched 260 miles in two and a half weeks, were suffering from sickness such as dysentery, and faced much larger numbers of well equipped French men at arms
Battle of Agincourt
–
The Battle of Agincourt, 15th-century miniature
Battle of Agincourt
–
1915 depiction of Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt: The King wears on this surcoat the Royal Arms of England, quartered with the Fleur de Lys of France as a symbol of his claim to the throne of France.
Battle of Agincourt
–
The 15th century
Agincourt Carol
Battle of Agincourt
–
Battlefield today
38.
Shakespeare
–
William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
Shakespeare
–
The
Chandos portrait, artist and authenticity unconfirmed.
National Portrait Gallery, London.
Shakespeare
–
John Shakespeare's house, believed to be
Shakespeare's birthplace, in
Stratford-upon-Avon.
Shakespeare
–
Shakespeare's coat of arms, as it appears on the rough draft of the application to grant a coat-of-arms to John Shakespeare. It features a spear as a
pun on the family name.
Shakespeare
–
Shakespeare's funerary monument in Stratford-upon-Avon.
39.
Henry IV, Part 1
–
Henry IV, Part 1 is a history play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written no later than 1597. It is the play in Shakespeares tetralogy dealing with the successive reigns of Richard II, Henry IV. From the start it has been a popular play both with the public and critics. Henry Bolingbroke—now King Henry IV—is having an unquiet reign and his personal disquiet at the usurpation of his predecessor Richard II would be solved by a crusade to the Holy Land, but broils on his borders with Scotland and Wales prevent that. Moreover, he is increasingly at odds with the Percy family, who helped him to his throne, and Edmund Mortimer, adding to King Henrys troubles is the behaviour of his son and heir, the Prince of Wales. Hal has forsaken the Royal Court to waste his time in taverns with low companions and this makes him an object of scorn to the nobles and calls into question his royal worthiness. Hals chief friend and foil in living the low life is Sir John Falstaff, fat, old, drunk, and corrupt as he is, he has a charisma and a zest for life that captivates the Prince. The play features three groups of characters that interact slightly at first, and then together in the Battle of Shrewsbury. First there is King Henry himself and his immediate council and he is the engine of the play, but usually in the background. Next there is the group of rebels, energetically embodied in Henry Percy and including his father, the Scottish Earl of Douglas, Edmund Mortimer and the Welshman Owen Glendower also join. Finally, at the centre of the play are the young Prince Hal and his companions Falstaff, Poins, Bardolph, streetwise and pound-foolish, these rogues manage to paint over this grim history in the colours of comedy. As the play opens, the king is angry with Hotspur for refusing him most of the prisoners taken in a recent action against the Scots at Holmedon, Hotspur, for his part, would have the king ransom Edmund Mortimer from Owen Glendower, the Welshman who holds him. Henry refuses, berates Mortimers loyalty, and treats the Percys with threats, stung and alarmed by Henrys dangerous and peremptory way with them, they proceed to make common cause with the Welsh and Scots, intending to depose this ingrate and cankered Bolingbroke. By Act II, rebellion is brewing, meanwhile, Henrys son Hal is joking, drinking, and thieving with Falstaff and his associates. He likes Falstaff but makes no pretense at being like him, Hal believes that this sudden change of manner will amount to a greater reward and acknowledgment of prince-ship, and in turn earn him respect from the members of the court. The revolt of Mortimer and the Percys very quickly gives him his chance to do just that, the high and the low come together when the Prince makes up with his father and is given a high command. He vows to fight and kill the rebel Hotspur, and orders Falstaff to take charge of a group of foot soldiers, Henry needs a decisive victory here. He outnumbers the rebels, but Hotspur, with the hope of despair
Henry IV, Part 1
–
The first page of Henry the Fourth, Part I, printed in the
First Folio of 1623
Henry IV, Part 1
–
John Farmanesh-Bocca as Prince Hal in the Carmel Shakespeare Festival production of Henry IV, Part 1.
Henry IV, Part 1
–
Hal confronting Falstaff with his lies in Henry IV, Part 1, engraving after
Robert Smirke
Henry IV, Part 1
–
An 1829 watercolor by
Johann Heinrich Ramberg of Act II, Scene iv: Falstaff enacts the part of the king.
40.
Ruins
–
Natural disaster, war and depopulation are the most common root causes, with many structures becoming progressively derelict over time due to long-term weathering and scavenging. Many ruins have become UNESCO World Heritage Sites in recent years, to identify, ancient cities were often highly militarized and fortified defensive settlements. In times of war they were the focus of armed conflict. Entire cities have also been ruined, and some occasionally lost completely, the ancient city of Pompeii was completely lost during a volcanic eruption in the 1st century AD, its uncovered ruins now preserved as a World Heritage Site. The city of Lisbon was totally destroyed in 1755 by an earthquake and tsunami. Apart from acts of war, some important historic buildings have fallen victim to deliberate acts of destruction as a consequence of social, political, marble was still being burned for agricultural lime in the Roman Camapgna into the nineteenth century. In Europe, many buildings suffered as a result of the politics of the day. In the 16th century, the English monarch Henry VIII set about confiscating the property of monastic institutions in a campaign which known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Many abbeys and monsateries fell into ruin when their assets, including lead roofs, were stripped, following World War II, a number of European historic buildings fell into ruin as a result of taxation policies, which required all structures with roofs to pay substantial property tax. The owners of buildings, like Fetteresso Castle and Slains Castle in Scotland, deliberately destroyed their roofs in protest at, and defiance of. Post-colonial Ireland has encouraged the ruin of grand Georgian houses, symbols of British imperialism, however, sometimes tower basements remain, because their removal can sometimes be expensive. One example of such a basement is the basement of the radio mast of Deutschlandsender Herzberg/Elster. The basements of large wooden towers such as Transmitter Ismaning may also be left behind, the contemplation of rust belt post-industrial ruins is in its infancy. The new sense of historicism that accompanied neoclassicism led some artists, in the period of Romanticism ruins were frequent object for painters, place of meetings of romantic poets, nationalist students etc. Joseph Michael Gandy completed for Sir John Soane in 1832 an atmospheric watercolor of the architects vast Bank of England rotunda as an overgrown ruin. Ruinenwert was popularized in the 20th century by Albert Speer while planning for the 1936 Summer Olympics, for example, the ruins of Dunstanburgh Castle in England inspired Turner to create several paintings, in 1989 the ruined Dunnottar Castle in Scotland was used for filming of Hamlet
Ruins
–
Roman Forum ruins in
Rome
Ruins
–
Ruins of
Spiš Castle in
Slovakia
Ruins
–
San Francisco
earthquake of 1906: Ruins in vicinity of Post and Grant Avenue.
Ruins
–
Ury House,
Aberdeenshire ruined by removal of the roof after the Second World War to avoid taxation.
41.
Kendal Castle
–
Kendal Castle is a medieval fortification to the east of the town of Kendal, Cumbria, in northern England. The castle, which is atop a glacial drumlin, was built in the 12th century as the Caput baroniae for the Barony of Kendal, by the 15th century, the Parr family owned the castle. The castle was built in the late 12th century as the home of the Lancaster family who were Barons of Kendal. The best-known family associated with the castle was the Parr family, including Queen Catherine Parr and her family had lived at Kendal since her ancestor Sir William Parr married the heiress of Kendal, Elizabeth Ros, during the reign of Edward III of England. By the time Catherine Parr was born, the family had long deserted the castle which was falling into disrepair. Catherines father preferred to live in the centre of court in London, Sir Thomass father seems to be the last of the Parrs to have lived at Kendal Castle. The building has been a ruin since Tudor times but imposing stonework remains are still present, the site is freely accessible to the public. It is managed by the South Lakeland District Council, the David & Charles Book of Castles. BBC Cumbria, Oil painting of Kendal Castle in 1650, fantasy picture 2007, Kendal Castle 1 Kendal Castle 2 The Cumbria Directory - Kendal Castle
Kendal Castle
–
Kendal Castle looking south, with the town of Kendal visible behind.
Kendal Castle
–
The two remaining significant ruins of Kendal Castle. In the foreground is part of the walls of the old manor hall, while the only surviving tower of the Castle is visible rear left.
Kendal Castle
–
Kendal Castle at sunset, August 2003
Kendal Castle
–
Kendal Castle, October 2005
42.
Barony of Kendal
–
The Barony of Kendal is a subdivision of the English historic county of Westmorland. It is one of two ancient baronies that make up the county, the other being the Barony of Westmorland, in 1974, the entire county became part of the modern county of Cumbria and ceased to have an administrative function. At the same time, Kendal borough was merged with the parts of Lancashire, Furness and Cartmell. The barony is the remnant of the feudal barony whose caput was at Kendal castle, the feudal barony had its own complex evolution, determined by the evolution of the families that owned it. The parishes of the two wards are as follows, Kendal ward, Ambleside, Burton-in-Kendal, Grasmere, Grayrigg, Kentmere, Kendal, Lonsdale ward, Kirkby Lonsdale Geographically, with the exception of its southern side, the Barony of Kendal is surrounded by mountainous terrain and water. In its eastern corner, it borders on the ancient Yorkshire parish of Sedbergh, which is nestled in the Pennines, and now part of Cumbria. To the south, the borders on the Lonsdale wapentake of northern Lancashire, and it touches the sea in its southeast, in Morecambe Bay. On its north, Grasmere also stretches into the Kirkstone Pass section of the Helvellyn range in the Eastern Fells, unlike many parts of Cumbria, the Kentdale area was already noted in the Domesday book. Much of Kendal parish was in the hands of a person called Gillemichael, much of the Lonsdale area had been under control of a person called Torfin, but had then came into the kings hands. Other parts, including Beetham, were held by Earl Tostig, whose possessions later passed in some cases to the king, the whole area was only later united as one unit under Kendal when it eventually came into the hands of Ivo de Taillebois. William Farrer has made suggestions about how to interpret the names of the lands around Kendal mentioned there under Gillemichael, Strickland, Staveley, Kentmere, Longsleddale, Bannisdale, Strickland Roger, Strickland Kettle, Crook and Winster. Kirkby Kendal, Kirkland, Nethergraveship, Underbarrow with Bradleyfield, New Hutton, mint, Farrer thought possibly Mintsfeet and Spittal. Patton, Skelsmergh, possibly Bretherdale and Fawcett Forest, Selside with Whitwell, Whinfell, Docker, Lambrigg, Grayrigg, but, says Farrer, Killington and Firbank being in the parish of Kirkby Lonsdale are not likely to have been included in Hutton. Farrer also wrote that, The parishes of Windermere and Grasmere were forest, Windermere water was a several fishery of the lords of Kentdale, and so it has always lain in Kentdale and the county of Westmorland. There is some doubt about who should be named as the first true Baron of Kendal, William de Lancaster I was in any case the first administrator of the region after England recovered the area from King David I of Scotland. Ketel fitz Eldred is known to have been lord over similar areas after the death of Ivo, but between Ivo and William, a period which included Scottish occupation, the history of the Barony of Kendal is very unclear. Two historical records claim a direct line of descent from Ivo to Eldred to Ketel to Gilbert. These were records made much later in Cockersand Abbey and St Marys Abbey in Yorkshire, but modern commentators believe this to be impossible, and made by placing a sequence of lords into the simplest possible family tree
Barony of Kendal
–
The ruins of Kendal Castle, the ancient seat of the Barons of Kendal.
Barony of Kendal
–
The
blazonry attributed to William de Lancaster I and several of his descendants who were Barons of Kendal.
Barony of Kendal
–
Catherine Parr, who married
Henry VIII. Her brother was the last Parr to possess the Marquis Fee division of the Barony of Kendal.
43.
Edward III of England
–
Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, Isabella of France, at age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself heir to the French throne in 1337. This started what would become known as the Hundred Years War, following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England, victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny. Edwards later years, however, were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity, Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency. He was in ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, Edward was denounced as an adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs. This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements, Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312, and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years. The reign of his father, Edward II, was a problematic period of English history. One source of contention was the inactivity, and repeated failure. Another controversial issue was the kings patronage of a small group of royal favourites. The birth of an heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward IIs position in relation to the baronial opposition. To bolster further the independent prestige of the prince, the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age. In 1325, Edward II was faced with a demand from his brother-in-law, Charles IV of France, Edward was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger. Instead, he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place, the young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella, who was the sister of King Charles, and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. While in France, however, Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have Edward deposed, to build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve-year-old Philippa of Hainault. An invasion of England was launched and Edward IIs forces deserted him completely, the king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son on 25 January 1327. The new king was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327 and it was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer, who was now the de facto ruler of England
Edward III of England
–
Edward III, detail from his bronze effigy in
Westminster Abbey
Edward III of England
–
Drawing of effigy of King Edward III in
Westminster Abbey
Edward III of England
–
To mark his claim to the French crown, Edward's coat of arms showed the three lions of England quartered with the fleurs-de-lys of France. English
stained glass, c. 1350–1377
Edward III of England
–
Groat featuring Edward III
44.
Henry VIII of England
–
Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and he achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and his contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated, and accomplished king, and he has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne. He was an author and composer, as he aged, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI, born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henrys six siblings, only three – Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary – survived infancy and he was baptised by Richard Fox, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three, and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York, in May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. Henry was given an education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin and French. Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, as Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine. In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness, Arthurs death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. After a little debate, Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502, Henry VII gave the boy few tasks. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public, as a result, the young Henry would later ascend the throne untrained in the exacting art of kingship
Henry VIII of England
–
King Henry VIII by
Hans Holbein the Younger,
Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool.
Henry VIII of England
–
Henry's childhood copy of
De Officiis, bearing the inscription in his hand, "Thys boke is myne".
Henry VIII of England
–
An Illumination from a contemporary manuscript thought to depict Henry mourning the loss of his mother (1503). His sisters are also pictured.
Henry VIII of England
–
Eighteen-year-old Henry VIII after his
coronation in 1509
45.
Catherine Parr
–
Catherine Parr was Queen of England and of Ireland as the last of the six wives of King Henry VIII, and the final queen consort of the House of Tudor. She married him on 12 July 1543, and outlived him by one year and she was also the most-married English queen, with four husbands. Catherine enjoyed a relationship with Henrys three children and was personally involved in the education of Elizabeth and Edward, both of whom became English monarchs. She was influential in Henrys passing of the Third Succession Act in 1542 that restored both his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession to the throne. Catherine was appointed Regent from July to September 1544 while Henry was on a campaign in France and in case he lost his life. However he did not give her any function in government in his will, in 1543, she published her first book, Psalms or Prayers, anonymously. On account of Catherines Protestant sympathies, she provoked the enmity of anti-Protestant officials, who sought to turn the King against her, however, she and the King soon reconciled. Her book Prayers or Meditations became the first book published by an English queen under her own name and she assumed the role of Elizabeths guardian following the Kings death, and published a second book, The Lamentations of a Sinner. Henry died on 28 January 1547, Six months after Henrys death, she married her fourth and final husband, Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley. The marriage was short-lived, as she died in September 1548, Catherine was born in 1512, probably in August. Sir Thomas Parr was a descendant of King Edward III, Catherine had a younger brother, William, later created first Marquess of Northampton, and younger sister, Anne, later Countess of Pembroke. Catherines mother was a friend and attendant of Catherine of Aragon, and Catherine Parr was probably named after Queen Catherine. It was once thought that Catherine Parr had been born at Kendal Castle in Westmorland, however, at the time of her birth, Kendal Castle was already in very poor condition. During her pregnancy, Maud Parr remained at court, attending the Queen, Catherines father died when she was young, and she was close to her mother as she grew up. Catherines initial education was similar to other women, but she developed a passion for learning which would continue throughout her life. She was fluent in French, Latin, and Italian, in 1529, when she was seventeen, Catherine married Sir Edward Burgh, a grandson of Edward Burgh, 2nd Baron Burgh. Earlier biographies mistakenly reported that Catherine had married the older Burgh, following the grandfather Edwards death in December 1528, Catherines father-in-law Sir Thomas Burgh was summoned to Parliament in 1529 as Baron Burgh. Catherines first husband was in his twenties and may have been in poor health and he served as a feoffee for Thomas Kiddell and as a justice of the peace
Catherine Parr
–
Catherine Parr
Catherine Parr
–
Snape Castle
Catherine Parr
–
The
Melton Constable or Hastings portrait of Queen Catherine.
Catherine Parr
–
The title page of Parr's Prayers or meditacions, published in 1550.
46.
Alavana
–
Alavana or Alauna was a Roman fort in Britain, tentatively identified with the ruins at Watercrook about 2 mi south of Kendal in Cumbria. The fort at Watercrook was erected around AD90, originally in timber, the fort was abandoned for about 20 years during the Antonine occupation of Scotland. It is noted as Alone or Alona in the Antonine Itinerary and it was refurbished under Marcus Aurelius and occupied until around 270, when its military units departed. Its remains are now buried beneath a local farm, while excavated artifacts are displayed at the Kendal Museum
Alavana
–
The site of the Roman fort at Watercrook across the
River Kent.
47.
Roman empire
–
Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
Roman empire
–
The
Augustus of Prima Porta (early 1st century AD)
Roman empire
–
Aureus of
Augustus, the first
Roman Emperor.
Roman empire
–
A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England
Roman empire
–
A 5th-century
papyrus showing a parallel Latin-Greek text of a speech by
Cicero
48.
Kendal Mint Cake
–
Kendal Mint Cake is a glucose-based confection flavoured with peppermint. It originates from Kendal in Cumbria, England, Kendal Mint Cake is popular among climbers and mountaineers, especially those from the United Kingdom, as a source of energy. Kendal Mint Cake is based on a traditional recipe known as mint cake, peppermint tablet and it is well-known mountaineers and explorers for its high energy content. There are currently two companies still produce Kendal Mint Cake in Kendal. The origin of the cake is allegedly the result of a batch of Peppermint creams that went wrong, supposedly, the mixture was left overnight and the solidified mint cake was discovered in the morning. Romneys was founded in 1918 and used an old recipe to create Mint Cake and this Mint Cake was sold in Kendal and sent by train to other areas of the north west for sale. In 1987, Romneys bought Wipers Mint Cake from Harry Wiper, in 2016 Romneys collaborated with fashion site Lyst to create a limited run of Kendall Mint Cakes to celebrate Kendall Jenners 21st Birthday on November 3. 200 limited edition cakes were given away on social media, Quiggins Mint Cake is the oldest surviving mint cake company. The Quiggin family had been making confectionery since 1840 in the Isle of Man and when one of the four moved to Kendal in 1880. In the BBC TV programme Great British Menu, series 5, Lisa Allen visited Quiggins factory, in the BBC TV programme Great British Railway Journeys, Michael Portillo visited Quiggins factory. Wilsons Mint Cake was founded in 1913, when James Wilson purchased a factory in the Stricklandgate area of the town and he had previously made and distributed types of toffee, but he decided to concentrate on mint cake. In 1966, the moved to a location in the Cross Lane area of Kendal. Wilsons was licensed to sell a Beatrix Potter range of sweets, as of 2007 the factory was run by the grandson of James, Andrew Wilson, and Mint Cake was no longer the major product of the company as chocolate confectionery took up 90% of orders. After moving from Kendal to Holme in 2013 it was reported in 2016 that the company had closed down, Kendal Mint Cake is made from sugar, glucose, water and peppermint oil. The mixture is poured into moulds and allowed to set. There are numerous types of Mint Cake that are now available, Mint Cake made with white sugar, Mint Cake made with brown sugar, and Mint Cake enrobed in chocolate are the three most popular varieties. The packaging currently includes the following, “We sat on the snow and looked at the country far below us … we nibbled Kendal Mint Cake. A member of the successful Everest expedition wrote – It was easily the most popular item on our high altitude ration – our only criticism was that we did not have enough of it. ”Mint Cake was provided to the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–1917, which was led by Sir Ernest Shackleton
Kendal Mint Cake
–
Kendal mint cake with a chocolate coating
Kendal Mint Cake
–
Romney's Kendal Mint Cake
Kendal Mint Cake
–
Quiggin's factory on Low Fellside, in Kendal, England.
Kendal
.jpg)
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
- Rinteln, Lower Saxony, Germany
- Killarney, County Kerry, Munster, Ireland
