1.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
2.
Silver
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Silver is a metallic element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. The symbol Ag stems from Latin argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς, a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earths crust in the pure, free form, as an alloy with gold and other metals. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, Silver is more abundant than gold, but it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is measured on a per mille basis, a 94%-pure alloy is described as 0.940 fine. As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had a role in most human cultures. Silver has long valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many premodern monetary systems in bullion coins, Silver is used in numerous applications other than currency, such as solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils, and as an investment medium. Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, Silver compounds are used in photographic film and X-rays. Dilute silver nitrate solutions and other compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides, added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters. Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. This distinctive electron configuration, with an electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell. Silver is a soft, ductile and malleable transition metal. Silver crystallizes in a cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak and this observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a polish. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm, at wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silvers reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, during World War II in the US,13540 tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper
3.
Copper
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Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
4.
Nickel
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Nickel is a chemical element with symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the metals and is hard and ductile. Meteoric nickel is found in combination with iron, a reflection of the origin of elements as major end products of supernova nucleosynthesis. An iron–nickel mixture is thought to compose Earths inner core, use of nickel has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel was first isolated and classified as an element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt. The elements name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology, Nickel, an economically important source of nickel is the iron ore limonite, which often contains 1–2% nickel. Nickels other important ore minerals include garnierite, and pentlandite, major production sites include the Sudbury region in Canada, New Caledonia in the Pacific, and Norilsk in Russia. Nickel is slowly oxidized by air at room temperature and is considered corrosion-resistant, historically, it has been used for plating iron and brass, coating chemistry equipment, and manufacturing certain alloys that retain a high silvery polish, such as German silver. About 6% of world production is still used for corrosion-resistant pure-nickel plating. Nickel-plated objects sometimes provoke nickel allergy, Nickel has been widely used in coins, though its rising price has led to some replacement with cheaper metals in recent years. Nickel is one of four elements that are ferromagnetic around room temperature, alnico permanent magnets based partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron-based permanent magnets and rare-earth magnets. The metal is valuable in modern times chiefly in alloys, about 60% of world production is used in nickel-steels, other common alloys and some new superalloys comprise most of the remainder of world nickel use, with chemical uses for nickel compounds consuming less than 3% of production. As a compound, nickel has a number of chemical manufacturing uses. Nickel is a nutrient for some microorganisms and plants that have enzymes with nickel as an active site. Nickel is a metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish. It is one of four elements that are magnetic at or near room temperature. Its Curie temperature is 355 °C, meaning that bulk nickel is non-magnetic above this temperature, the unit cell of nickel is a face-centered cube with the lattice parameter of 0.352 nm, giving an atomic radius of 0.124 nm
5.
Troy weight
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Troy weight is a system of units of mass customarily used for precious metals and gemstones. One troy ounce equals 31.1034768 grams exactly, there are only 12 troy ounces per troy pound, rather than the 16 ounces per pound found in the more common avoirdupois system. However, the pound has 7000 grains whereas the troy pound has only 5760 grains. Both systems use the same grain defined by the international yard, therefore the troy ounce is 480 grains, compared with the avoirdupois ounce, which is 437.5 grains. So the troy ounce is about 10% heavier than the avoirdupois ounce, although troy ounces are still used to weigh gold, silver, and gemstones, troy weight is no longer used in most other applications. One troy ounce of gold is denoted with the ISO4217 currency code XAU, troy weight probably takes its name from the French market town of Troyes in France where English merchants traded at least as early as the early 9th century. The name troy is first attested in 1390, describing the weight of a platter, the word troni refers to markets. Watson finds the dialect word troi, meaning a balance in Wrights Dialect Dictionary, troy weight referred to the tower system, the earliest reference to the modern troy weights is in 1414. Many aspects of the weight system were indirectly derived from the Roman monetary system. The Romans used bronze bars of varying weights as currency, an aes grave weighed 1 pound. One twelfth of an aes grave was called an uncia, or in English an ounce, before the adoption of the metric system, many systems of troy weights were in use in various parts of Europe, among them Holland troy, Paris troy, etc. Their values varied from one another by up to several percentage points, troy weights were first used in England in the 15th century, and were made official for gold and silver in 1527. The British Imperial system of weights and measures was established in 1824, the troy ounce in use today is essentially the same as the British Imperial troy ounce, adopted as an official weight standard for United States coinage by Act of Congress on May 19,1828. The British Imperial troy ounce was based on, and virtually identical with, the pre-1824 British troy ounce, the English troy ounce was officially adopted for coinage in 1527. Troy ounces have been used in England since about 1400, before that, various sorts of troy ounces were in use on the continent. The troy ounce and grain were also part of the apothecaries system and this was long used in medicine, but has now been largely replaced by the metric system. The only troy weight in widespread use today is the British Imperial troy ounce, both are currently based on a grain of 0.06479891 gram, with 480 grains to a troy ounce. The British Empire abolished the 12-ounce troy pound in the 19th century, the origin of the troy weight system is unknown
6.
Philadelphia Mint
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The Philadelphia Mint was created from the need to establish a national identity and the needs of commerce in the United States. This led the Founding Fathers of the United States to make an establishment of a national mint. The Coinage Act of 1792 was entered into law on April 2 and it proclaimed the creation of the United States Mint. Philadelphia at that time was the capital, therefore the first mint facility was built there. David Rittenhouse, an American scientist, was appointed the first director of the mint by President George Washington, two lots were purchased by Rittenhouse on July 18,1792, at Seventh Street and 631 Filbert Street in Philadelphia for $4,266.67. The next day, demolition of a whiskey distillery on the property began. Foundation work began on July 31, and by September 7, the smelt house was the first public building erected by the United States government. A three-story brick structure facing Seventh Street was constructed a few months later, measuring nearly 37 ft wide on the street, it only extended back 33 ft. The gold and silver for the mint were contained in basement vaults, the first floor housed deposit and weighing rooms, along with the press room, where striking coins took place. Mint official offices were on the floor, and the assay office was located on the third floor. A photograph of the Seventh Street building taken around 1908 show that by then the year 1792, between the smelt house and the building on Seventh Street, a mill house was built. Horses in the basement turned a mill located on the first floor. In January 1816, the smelt and mill houses were destroyed by a fire, the smelt house was never repaired and all smelting was done elsewhere. The mill house, which was destroyed, was soon replaced with a large brick building. It included a new engine in the basement to power the machinery. Until 1833, these three buildings provided the United States with hard currency, operations moved to the second Philadelphia mint in 1833, and the land housing the first mint was sold. In the late 19th or early 20th century, the property was sold to Frank Stewart, with no governmental help, the first mint was demolished between 1907 and 1911. Now, only a plaque remains to memorialize the spot
7.
Denver Mint
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The Denver Mint is a branch of the United States Mint that struck its first coins on February 1,1906. The mint is still operating and producing coins for circulation, as well as mint sets, coins produced at the Denver Mint bear a D mint mark. The Denver Mint is the single largest producer of coins in the world, the predecessors of the Denver Mint were the men of Clark, Gruber and Company. During the Pikes Peak Gold Rush, they coined gold dust brought from the fields by the miners. In 1858, Austin M. Clark, Milton E. Clark and Emanuel Henry Gruber founded a firm in Leavenworth, Kansas. Desiring to save on shipping and insurance costs associated with shipping gold back east, the firm opened a private mint. On 25 July 1860, the mint opened in a two story building on the corner of Market and 16th Streets, minting $10 gold pieces at the rate of fifteen or twenty coins a minute. On the face is a representation of the peak, its surrounded by a forest of timber. Immediately under its base is the word Denver, and beneath it Ten D, on the reverse is the American Eagle encircled by the name of the firm Clark, Gruber & Co. and beneath the date,1860. A $20 gold coin was added, the weight will be greater, a $5 and a $2.5 gold coin were added, with production reaching $18,000 per week. On the front was the head of the Goddess of Liberty surrounded by thirteen stars, pikess Peak Gold, Denver was on the other side, with 5D. or 2 1/2 D. In the almost three years of operation, they minted $594,305 worth of Pikes Peak Gold in the form of gold coins, additionally, they purchased 77,000 troy ounces of raw gold, and shipped large amounts of dust to the Philadelphia Mint. The building, assaying and minting equipment was bought by the US Treasury in April 1863. Clark, Gruber & Co. remained a bank until bought by the First National Bank of Denver in 1865, established by an Act of Congress on April 21,1862, the United States Mint at Denver opened for business in late 1863 as a United States Assay Office. Operations began in the facilities of Clark, Gruber and Company, located at 16th and Market Streets and acquired by the government for $25,000, unlike Clark, Gruber and Company, though, the Denver plant performed no coinage of gold as first intended. One reason given by the Director of the Mint for the lack of coinage at Denver was, …the hostility of the Indian tribes along the routes, doubtless instigated by rebel emissaries and bad white men. Gold and nuggets brought there by miners from the area were accepted by the Assay Office for melting, assaying. The bars were returned to the depositors as imparted bars stamped with the weight
8.
San Francisco Mint
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The San Francisco Mint is a branch of the United States Mint and was opened in 1854 to serve the gold mines of the California Gold Rush. It quickly outgrew its first building and moved into a new one in 1874 and this building, the Old United States Mint, also known affectionately as The Granite Lady, is one of the few that survived the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake. It served until 1937, when the present facility was opened, within the first year of its operation, the San Francisco mint turned $4 million in gold bullion into coins. The second building, completed in 1874, was designed by Alfred B, mullett in a conservative Greek Revival style with a sober Doric order. Heroic efforts by Superintendent of the Mint, Frank A. Leach, and his men preserved the building, the mint resumed operation soon thereafter, continuing until 1937. In 1961 the Old Mint, as it had known, was designated a National Historic Landmark. It also became a California Historical Landmark in 1974, the given name of The Granite Lady is somewhat of a misnomer as most of the building is made from sandstone. While the base/basement of the building is made of granite, the entire external, the Granite Lady was a marketing term given in the 1970s that stuck. The Old Mint was open to visitors until 1993, in the fall of 2005, ground was broken for renovations that would turn the central court into a glass-enclosed galleria. In 2006 Congress created the San Francisco Old Mint Commemorative Coin, the first phase of renovations were completed in 2011. In 2014, the San Francisco Museum and Historical Society began raising money for the second phase, in 2015, the City of San Francisco looked for a new tenant to renovate and program the space with Activate San Francisco Events being selected as an interim tenant. Until a new tenant is found, the Old Mint will continue to be used for special events, in April 2016, the California Historical Society agreed to undertake the restoration of the building and its preservation as a public space. The new Mint was opened in 1937, beginning in 1955, circulating coinage from San Francisco was suspended for 13 years. In 1968, it took over most proof coinage production from the Philadelphia Mint, from 1975 to 2012, the San Francisco Mint has been used only for proof coinage, with the exception of the Susan B. Anthony dollar from 1979–81 and a portion of the mintage of cents in the early 1980s, the dollars bear a mintmark of an S, but the cents are otherwise indistinguishable from those minted at Philadelphia. In 2012, the San Francisco mint started to mint circulation strike quarters in the America the Beautiful quarter series, marked with an S mintmark and only issued for collectors. From 1962 to 1988, the San Francisco Mint was officially an assay office, the San Francisco Mint is located at 155 Hermann Street, but only admits visitors on rare exception. On May 15,1987, a number of people were allowed to tour the facility
9.
West Point Mint
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The West Point Mint Facility was erected in 1937 near the U. S. Military Academy in West Point, New York, United States, originally it was called the West Point Bullion Depository. At one point it had the highest concentration of silver of any U. S. mint facility and it has since minted mostly commemorative coins, and stores gold. It gained official status as a branch of the United States Mint on March 31,1988, later that year it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Prior to its remodel in 2005 that added a second-story, the mint was a 170-by-256-foot one-story reinforced concrete structure with a flat roof, the walls are mostly featureless with some recessed-arches at the entryways. There are four turrets at the corners actively used in the buildings security and it is on a four-acre parcel of land near the northern facilities of the United States Military Academy, with parking lots on either side. The interior contains minting presses and bullion compartments, as of 1937, it served as a storage facility for silver bullion and was thus nicknamed The Fort Knox of Silver. Even without United States Mint status, it produced U. S. coinage, from 1974 through 1986, the West Point Mint produced Lincoln cents bearing no mint mark, making them indistinguishable from those produced at the Philadelphia Mint. The years 1977 to 1979 saw Bicentennial quarters and Washington quarters produced as well, approximately 20 billion dollars worth of gold was stored in its vaults in the early 1980s. September 1983 saw the first appearance of the W mint mark on a $10 gold coin commemorating the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games and this was the first legal tender U. S. gold coin since 1933. In 1986, American Gold Eagle bullion coins were produced at this facility. The West Point Bullion Depository was granted mint status on March 31,1988, the coin was produced only at the West Point Mint. An unusual coinage from this mint occurred in 1996 when a commemorative Roosevelt dime was produced for the 50th anniversary of this design, given as an insert with the standard mint sets sold that year, over 1.457 million were produced. Thus this W mint marked dime is not particularly scarce, it was only for collectors. In 2015 another W mint marked dime was issued along with a 2015-W dollar, today all American Eagle series proof and uncirculated bullion coins in gold, silver and platinum are produced at West Point, along with all gold commemorative and a few silver commemorative coins. All commemoratives from West Point are struck with the W mint mark, beginning in 2006, the West Point Mint also made all American Buffalo gold bullion coins. The West Point Mint still acts as a bullion depository. Due to the presence of so much gold bullion on site, the mint does not give public tours, and its address is withheld by the National Park Service in its National Register listings
10.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
11.
Seal of the President of the United States
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The Seal of the President of the United States is used to mark correspondence from the U. S. president to the U. S. Congress, and is also used as a symbol of the presidency itself. The central design, based on the Great Seal of the United States, is the coat of arms of the U. S. presidency. The presidential seal developed by custom over a period before being defined in law. The use of presidential seals goes back to at least 1850, the basic design of todays seal originated with Rutherford B. Hayes, who was the first to use the coat of arms on White House invitations in 1877, the precise design dates from 1945, when President Truman specified it in Executive Order 9646. The only changes since were in 1959 and 1960, which added 49th and 50th stars to the following the admissions of Alaska. The current seal is defined in Executive Order 10860, made by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on February 5,1960, and effective since July 4,1960. CREST, Behind and above the eagle a radiating glory Or, on which appears an arc of thirteen cloud puffs proper, and a constellation of thirteen mullets argent. The Seal of the President of the United States shall consist of the Coat of Arms encircled by the words Seal of the President of the United States, the only purely distinct element is the ring of 50 stars, representing the 50 states. Likewise, the symbolism follows that of the Great Seal, The stripes on the represent the 13 original states, unified under. The motto alludes to the same concept, the arc of thirteen clouds, and the thirteen stars, also refer to the original 13 states. The olive branch and arrows denote the powers of peace and war, the actual seal die is only used on correspondence from the President to the United States Congress, closing the envelopes with wax seals. This has been the primary use throughout the history, though isolated uses have been made for correspondence with other members of government. Documents signed by the President when representing the nation are instead sealed with the Great Seal of the United States, strictly speaking, the brass die used at the White House is the only actual seal of the president — other versions are technically facsimiles. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing has other dies, used to produce such facsimiles on documents, stationery and it appears, on the presidential flag on the reverse of the Kennedy half dollar. For the United States Bicentennial, a depiction of Independence Hall was used on the reverse of the coin, the seal returned to the reverse starting in 1977. At the center of the iconic oval rug in the Oval Office of the White House, the coat of arms is incorporated into the Presidential Service Badge issued to US Military personnel. On many versions of presidential china, such as the Wilson or Reagan china, at the burial sites of former Presidents
12.
Frank Gasparro
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Frank Gasparro was the tenth Chief Engraver of the United States Mint, holding this position from February 23,1965 to January 16,1981. Before that, he was Assistant Engraver and he designed both sides of the Susan B. Anthony dollar, both sides of the Eisenhower Dollar, the Lincoln Memorial reverse of the cent, and the reverse of the Kennedy half dollar, Gasparro was born in Philadelphia on August 26,1909. His musician father wanted his son to continue in the family profession and his father ultimately relented and had Gasparro apprentice under sculptor Giuseppe Donato, who had earlier worked for Auguste Rodin. Frank graduated from South Philadelphia High School in 1927 and has been inducted into the SPHS Alumni Cultural Hall of Fame and he attended the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and traveled to Europe with the aid of scholarships that allowed him to refine his craft. He was hired by the United States Mint in December 1942 under Chief Engraver John R. Sinnock, Gasparros design was selected from a group of 23 designs prepared by the Mints engraving staff to replace the Wheat cent produced by the Mint from 1909 to 1958. His original design included the words Lincoln Memorial and 13 stars around the rim of the coin, Gasparro would often tell cashiers that he had designed the back of the penny and when asked what he had designed as a sculptor would reply its in your pocket. By the time of his death, Gasparros design had appeared on the more than 100 billion pennies produced by the Mint, asked to produce a design for the Susan B. Anthony dollar, Gasparro was able to find two photos of womens suffrage leader, one at age 28 and the other when she was 84 and he initially chose the portrait of the younger Anthony, but widespread consensus was that the design made her look too pretty. His design using the photo was accepted. While Gasparro felt that the Anthony dollar was his top achievement, the coin was largely rejected by the public, one of his best known works was the obverse of the Congressional gold medal for John Wayne, widely bought by the public in bronze. After his retirement from the mint he continued to design medals for private and public groups. He also taught art at Philadelphias Samuel S. Fleisher Art Memorial until shortly before his death, Gasparro died at age 92 on September 29,2001, in Havertown, Pennsylvania. He was survived by his wife, Julia, and a daughter
13.
Independence Hall
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Independence Hall is the building where both the United States Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution were debated and adopted. It is now the centerpiece of the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the building was completed in 1753 as the colonial legislature for the Province of Pennsylvania. It became the meeting place of the Second Continental Congress from 1775 to 1783 and was the site of the Constitutional Convention in the summer of 1787. The building is part of Independence National Historical Park and is listed as a World Heritage Site, by the spring of 1729 the citizens of Philadelphia were petitioning to be allowed to build a state house. Two thousand pounds were committed to the endeavor, by October 1730 they had begun purchasing lots on Chestnut Street. By 1732, even though Hamilton had acquired the deed for Lot no.2 from surveyor David Powell, dr. John Kearsley and Hamilton disagreed on a number of issues concerning the state house. Kearsley, who is credited with the designs of both Christ Church and St. Peters Church, had plans for the structure of the building, the two men also disagreed on the buildings site, Kearsley suggested High Street, now Market Street, and Hamilton favored Chestnut Street. Lawrence said nothing on the matter, matters reached a point where arbitration was needed. On August 8,1733, Hamilton brought the matter before the House of Representatives and he explained that Kearsley did not approve of Hamilton’s plans for the location and architecture of the state house and went on to insist the House had not agreed to these decisions. In response to this, Hamilton, on August 11, showed his plans for the house to the House. Ground was broken for construction soon after, Independence Hall is a red brick building designed in the Georgian style. It consists of a building with belltower and steeple, attached to two smaller wings via arcaded hyphens. The highest point to the tip of the spire is 168 ft. The State House was built between 1732 and 1751, designed by Edmund Woolley and Andrew Hamilton, and built by Woolley and its construction was commissioned by the Pennsylvania colonial legislature which paid for construction as funds were available, so it was finished piecemeal. It was initially inhabited by the government of Pennsylvania as its State House. In 1753 Thomas Stretch erected a giant clock at the buildings west end that resembled a tall clock, the 40-foot-tall limestone base was capped with a 14-foot wooden case surrounding the clocks face, which was carved by Samuel Harding. The giant clock was removed about 1830, the clock’s dials were mounted at the east and west ends of the main building connected by rods to the clock movement in the middle of the building. The acquisition of the clock and bell by the Pennsylvania Colonial Assembly is closely related to the acquisition of the Liberty Bell
14.
Half dollar (United States coin)
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It has been produced every year since the conception of the United States Mint in 1794. The only other U. S. coin that has been minted as consistently is the cent, though not commonly used today, half dollar coins have a long history of heavy use alongside other denominations of coinage, but have faded out of general circulation for many reasons. They were produced in large quantities until the year 2002. As a result of its usage, a large amount of pre-2002 half dollars remain in Federal Reserve vaults. Presently, collector half dollars can be ordered straight from the U. S. Mint, half dollar coins saw heavy use, particularly in the first half of the twentieth century. For many years, they were used in casinos. Additionally, some concession vendors at sporting events distribute half dollar coins as change for convenience, by the early 1960s, the rising price of silver was nearing the point where the bullion value of U. S. silver coins would exceed face value. In 1965, the U. S. introduced layered composition coins made of a copper core laminated between two outer faces. The silver content of dimes and quarters was eliminated, but the Kennedy half dollar composition still contained silver from 1965 to 1970, the 1964 Kennedy half dollars were removed from circulation by the public for sentimental reasons. The quarter took over the role as the highest-value component of change. Most coins enter circulation through the drawers of businesses. Few businesses stock their change drawers with half dollars, and many banks do not stock them or hand out as normal business practice. If and when the supply runs low, the mint will again fill orders for circulation half dollars. It took about 18 years for the large stockpile of a similar low-demand circulation coin. Modern-date half dollars can be purchased in sets, mint sets, rolls, and bags from the U. S. Mint. All collector issues since 2001 have had much lower mintages than in previous years, although intended only for collectors, these post-2001 half dollars sometimes find their way into circulation. On December 1,1794, the first half dollars, approximately 5,300 pieces, were delivered, another 18,000 were produced in January 1795 using dies of 1794, to save the expense of making new ones. Another 30,000 pieces were struck by the end of 1801, the coin had the Heraldic Eagle, based on the Great Seal of the United States on the reverse
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United States Mint
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The United States Mint produces circulating coinage for the United States to conduct its trade and commerce, as well as controlling the movement of bullion. It does not produce paper money, the Mint was created in Philadelphia in 1792, and soon joined by other centres, whose coins were identified by their own mint marks. There are currently four active coin-producing mints, Philadelphia, Denver, San Francisco, the Mint was created by Congress with the Coinage Act of 1792, and originally placed within the Department of State. Per the terms of the Coinage Act, the first Mint building was in Philadelphia, then the capital of the United States, today, the Mints headquarters are in Washington D. C. It operates mint facilities in Philadelphia, Denver, San Francisco, and West Point, New York and a bullion depository at Fort Knox, Kentucky. Official Mints were once located in Carson City, Nevada, Charlotte, North Carolina, Dahlonega, Georgia, New Orleans, Louisiana, Washington, D. C. and even in Manila. Originally part of the State Department, the Mint was made an independent agency in 1799 and it converted precious metals into standard coin for anyones account with no seigniorage charge beyond the refining costs. Under the Coinage Act of 1873, the Mint became part of the Department of the Treasury and it was placed under the auspices of the Treasurer of the United States in 1981. Legal tender coins of today are minted solely for the Treasurys account, the first Director of the United States Mint was renowned scientist David Rittenhouse from 1792 to 1795. The position was held most recently by Edmund C, moy until his resignation effective January 9,2011. Henry Voigt was the first Superintendent and Chief Coiner, and is credited with some of the first U. S. coin designs. Another important position at the Mint is that of Chief Engraver, the Mint has operated several branch facilities throughout the United States since the Philadelphia Mint opened in 1792, in a building known as Ye Olde Mint. With the opening of branch mints came the need for mint marks, the first of these branch mints were the Charlotte, North Carolina, Dahlonega, Georgia, and New Orleans, Louisiana branches. Both the Charlotte and Dahlonega Mints were opened to facilitate the conversion of gold deposits into coinage. The Civil War closed both these facilities permanently, the New Orleans Mint closed at the beginning of the Civil War and did not re-open until the end of Reconstruction in 1879. During its two stints as a facility, it produced both gold and silver coinage in eleven different denominations, though only ten denominations were ever minted there at one time. A new branch facility was opened in Carson City, Nevada, in 1870, it operated until 1893, like the Charlotte and Dahlonega branches, the Carson City Mint was opened to take advantage of local precious metal deposits, in this case, a large vein of silver. Though gold coins were produced there, no base metal coins were
16.
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
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On November 22,1963, John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, was fatally shot in Dallas, Texas while riding in a motorcade in Dallas Dealey Plaza, at 12,30 p. m. Fatally shot by Lee Harvey Oswald, he was traveling with his wife, Jacqueline, Texas Governor John Connally, Kennedys death marked the fourth and most recent assassination of an American President. The Committee was not able to identify any individuals or groups involved with the conspiracy, in addition, the HSCA found that the original federal investigations were seriously flawed in respect of information-sharing and the possibility of conspiracy. As recommended by the HSCA, the evidence indicating conspiracy was subsequently re-examined and rejected. However, Kennedys assassination is still the subject of debate and has spawned numerous conspiracy theories. Polling in 2013 showed that 60% of Americans believe that a group of conspirators was responsible for the assassination, President Kennedy traveled to Texas to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough and conservative John Connally. A presidential visit to the state of Texas was first agreed upon by Lyndon B. Johnson, President John F. Kennedys vice president, and Texas native, President Kennedys trip to Dallas was first announced to the public in September 1963. The exact motorcade route was finalized on November 18 and announced to the public a few days before November 22, the White House staff informed the Secret Service that the President would arrive there via a short flight from Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth to Dallas Love Field. Leaving from Dallas Love Field,45 minutes had been allotted for the motorcade to reach the Trade Mart at an arrival time of 12,15 p. m. The actual route was chosen to be a meandering 10-mile route between the two places, which could be driven slowly in the allotted time, on November 14, both men attended a meeting at Love Field and drove over the route that Sorrels believed best suited for the motorcade. From Love Field, the route passed through a portion of Dallas, through Downtown along Main Street. The planned route to the Trade Mart was widely reported in Dallas newspapers several days before the event, for the benefit of people who wished to view the motorcade. The route on Main Street precluded a direct turn onto the Fort Worth Turnpike exit, the Texas School Book Depository was situated at this corner of Houston and Elm. Three vehicles were used for Secret Service and police protection in the Dallas motorcade, the first car, an unmarked white Ford, carried Dallas Police Chief Jesse Curry, Secret Service Agent Win Lawson, Sheriff Bill Decker and Dallas Field Agent Forrest Sorrels. The second car, a 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible, held driver Agent Bill Greer, SAIC Roy Kellerman, Governor John Connally, Nellie Connally, President Kennedy, Secret Service agents Clint Hill, Jack Ready, Tim McIntyre and Paul Landis rode on the running boards. By the time the motorcade reached Dealey Plaza, they were five minutes away from their planned destination. At 12,30 p. m. President, you cant say Dallas doesnt love you and those were the last words ever spoken by John F. Kennedy
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United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
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Die (manufacturing)
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A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industries to cut or shape material mostly using a press. Like molds, dies are generally customized to the item they are used to create, products made with dies range from simple paper clips to complex pieces used in advanced technology. Forming dies are made by tool and die makers and put into production after mounting into a press. The die is a block that is used for forming materials like sheet metal. For the vacuum forming of sheet only a single form is used. Vacuum forming is considered a simple molding thermoforming process but uses the principles as die forming. The workpiece may pass through several stages using different tools or operations to obtain the final form, the main components for die tool sets are, Die block – This is the main part that all the other parts are attached to. Punch plate – This part holds and supports the different punches in place, blank punch – This part along with the blank die produces the blanked part. Pierce punch – This part along with the pierce die removes parts from the finished part. Stripper plate – This is used to hold the material down on the blank/pierce die, pilot – This will help to place the sheet accurately for the next stage of operation. Guide, back gauge, or finger stop – These parts are all used to make sure that the material being worked on always goes in the position, within the die. Setting block – This part is used to control the depth that the punch goes into the die, Blanking dies – See blanking punch Pierce die – See pierce punch. Shank – used to hold in the presses and it should be aligned and situated at the center of gravity of the plate. Processes, Blanking, A blanking die produces a piece of material by cutting the desired shape in one operation. The finished part is referred to as a blank, generally a blanking die may only cut the outside contour of a part, often used for parts with no internal features. Three benefits to die blanking are, Accuracy, a properly sharpened die, with the correct amount of clearance between the punch and die, will produce a part that holds close dimensional tolerances in relationship to the parts edges. Since the part is blanked in one operation, the edges of the part produces a uniform appearance as opposed to varying degrees of burnishing from multiple operations. Due to the compression of the blanking process, the end result is a flat part that may retain a specific level of flatness for additional manufacturing operations
19.
United States Bicentennial
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It was a central event in the memory of the American Revolution. The Bicentennial culminated on Sunday, July 4,1976, with the 200th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, the plans for the Bicentennial began when Congress created the American Revolution Bicentennial Commission on July 4,1966. Initially, the Bicentennial celebration was planned as a single city exposition that would be staged in either Philadelphia or Boston, ARBA selected a logo via contest in 1974. Bruce N. Blackburn, co-designer of the modernized NASA insignia used from 1975 to 1992, the logo consisted of a white five-point star inside a stylized star of red, white and blue. It was encircled by the inscription American Revolution Bicentennial 1776–1976 in Helvetica Regular, the logo became a flag that flew at many government facilities throughout the United States and appeared on many other souvenirs and postage stamps issued by the Postal Service. The official Bicentennial events began April 1,1975, when the American Freedom Train launched in Wilmington, Delaware to start its 21-month,25, 388-mile tour of the 48 contiguous states. On April 18,1975, President Gerald Ford traveled to Boston to light a lantern at the historic Old North Church. Festivities included elaborate fireworks in the skies above major American cities, President Ford presided over the display in Washington, D. C. which was televised nationally. A large international fleet of tall-masted sailing ships gathered first in New York City on Independence Day and these nautical parades were named Operation Sail and witnessed by several million observers. The gathering was the second of six such Op Sail events to date, the vessels docked and allowed the general public to tour the ships in both cities, while their crews were entertained on shore at various ethnic celebrations and parties. In addition to the presence of the ships, navies of many nations sent warships to New York harbor for an International Naval Review held the morning of July 4. The review ended just above Liberty Island around 10,30 am, several people threw packages labeled Gulf Oil and Exxon into Boston Harbor in symbolic opposition to corporate power, in the style of the Boston Tea party. Britains Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip made a visit to the United States to tour the country and attend Bicentennial festivities with President. Their visit aboard the Royal Yacht Britannia included stops in Philadelphia, Washington, Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. While in Philadelphia on July 6,1976, Queen Elizabeth presented the Bicentennial Bell on behalf of the British people, local observances included painting mailboxes and fire hydrants red, white, and blue. A wave of patriotism and nostalgia swept the nation and there was a feeling that the irate era of the Vietnam War. In Washington, D. C. the Smithsonian Institution opened an exhibition in its Arts and Industries Building that replicated the look. Many of the Smithsonians museum artifacts dated from the 1876 Worlds Fair in Philadelphia that commemorated the 100th anniversary of the independence of the United States, the Smithsonian also opened the new home of the National Air and Space Museum July 1,1976
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Eva Adams
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Eva Bertrand Adams was the Director of the United States Mint from 1961 to 1969. Eva Adams was born in Wonder, Nevada on September 10,1908 and her father worked for mining magnate George Wingfield, and was responsible for setting up hotels, commissaries, and bars in Wingfields mining camps. As such, the family moved around from camp to camp for years before Adams mother insisted the family settle down and they settled in Reno. Adams graduated from Reno High School at age 14 and she then attended the University of Nevada, Reno, where she was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta, graduating in 1928, at age 19. After graduating from college, Adams moved to Las Vegas, Nevada to become a teacher at Las Vegas High School, during this time, she became involved with the Clark County Democratic Party and was introduced to Pat McCarran. Adams then attended school at Columbia University, receiving a masters degree in English in 1936. She also went on to obtain an LL. M. from the Georgetown University Law Center and she worked for Senator McCarran until his death in 1954. She then worked for McCarrans successor, Ernest S. Brown, in 1954, in 1961, President of the United States John F. Kennedy named Adams Director of the United States Mint, and Adams subsequently held that office from October 1961 until August 1969. Upon retiring from government service in 1969, Adams worked for Mutual of Omaha for a while, Adams died in Reno on August 23,1991
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Dollar coin (United States)
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The dollar coin is a United States coin worth one United States dollar. It is the second largest American coin currently minted in terms of size, with a diameter of 1.043 inches. Dollar coins have been minted in the United States in gold, silver, Dollar coins were first minted in the United States in 1794. The term silver dollar is used for any large white metal coin issued by the United States with a face value of one dollar. While true Gold dollars are no longer minted, the Sacagawea, Dollar coins have never been very popular in the United States since the removal of specie coins from circulation. Despite efforts by the government to promote their use, such as the Presidential $1 Coin Program, the gold dollar was a tiny coin measuring only 13 mm making it difficult to grasp and easy to lose, a serious problem when a dollar was almost a days wage. Dollar coins have found little acceptance in circulation in the United States since the early 20th century. This contrasts with currencies of most other developed countries, where denominations of similar value exist only in coin, a major reason for the lack of acceptance of dollar coins is their similarity in size to a quarter. Whatever the reason, a U. S. Mint official claimed in a November 2012 meeting that most of 2.4 billion dollar coins minted in the five years were not in circulation. The dollar coin is so unpopular with the Federal Reserve that it has contrived barriers to its distribution, the mint marks are C, CC, D, D, O, P, S, and W. C, Charlotte, North Carolina. Before the American Revolutionary War, coins from many European nations circulated freely in the American colonies, chief among these was the Spanish silver dollar coins minted in Mexico and other colonies with silver mined from Central and South American mines. These coins, along others of similar size and value, were in use throughout the colonies, and later the United States. In 1776, the Continental Congress authorized plans to produce a coin to prop up the rapidly failing Continental—the first attempt by the fledgling U. S. at paper currency. Several examples were struck in brass, pewter, and silver, the Continental Dollar bears a date of 1776, and while its true denomination is not known, it is generally the size of later dollars, and the name has stuck. The failure of the Continental exacerbated a distrust of paper money among both politicians and the populace at large, the Coinage Act of 1792 authorized the production of dollar coins from silver. The United States Mint produced silver coins from 1794 to 1803. The first silver dollars, precisely 1,758 of them, were coined on October 15,1794 and were delivered to Mint Director David Rittenhouse for distribution to dignitaries as souvenirs. Thereafter, until 1804, they were struck in varying quantities, there are two obverse designs, Flowing Hair and Draped Bust
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Quarter (United States coin)
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The quarter, short for quarter dollar, is a United States coin worth 25 cents, one-fourth of a dollar. It has a diameter of.955 inches and a thickness of.069 inches, the coin sports the profile of George Washington on its obverse and its reverse design has changed frequently. It has been produced on and off since 1796, and consistently from 1831 onward, the choice of 1⁄4 as a denomination—as opposed to the 1⁄5 more common elsewhere—originated with the practice of dividing Spanish milled dollars into eight wedge-shaped segments. At one time o bits was a nickname for a quarter. The current clad version is two layers of cupronickel, 75% copper and 25% nickel, on a core of pure copper, the total composition of the coin is 8. 33% nickel, with the remainder copper. It weighs 0.2000 avoirdupois oz, 1/80th of a pound,0.1823 troy oz, the diameter is 0.955 inches, and the width of 0.069 inches. The coin has a 0. 069-inch reeded edge, owing to the introduction of the clad quarter in 1965, it was occasionally called a Johnson Sandwich after Lyndon B. Johnson, the U. S. President at the time and it currently costs 11.14 cents to produce each coin. The U. S. Mint began producing silver quarters again in 1992 for inclusion in the annual Silver Proof set, early quarters were slightly larger in diameter and thinner than the current coin. The current regular issue coin is the George Washington quarter, showing George Washington on the front, the reverse featured an eagle prior to the 199950 State Quarters Program. The Washington quarter was designed by John Flanagan and it was initially issued as a circulating commemorative, but was made a regular issue coin in 1934. The bill passed through the Senate and was signed into legislation by President Bush on December 27,2007, the typeface used in the state quarter series varies a bit from one state to another, but is generally derived from Albertus. On June 7,2006, a bill titled Americas Beautiful National Parks Quarter Dollar Coin Act of 2008 was introduced to the House of Representatives, on December 23,2008, President George W. Bush signed the bill into law. The America the Beautiful Quarters program began in 2010 and will continue for 12 years. S. S and they were issued from 1932 through 1964. The current rarities for the Washington Quarter silver series are, Branch Mintmarks are D = Denver, coins without mintmarks are all made at the main Mint in Philadelphia. This is not due to their mintages, but rather because they are harder to find in high grades, many of these coins are worth only melt value in low grades. Other coins in the above list are expensive because of their extremely low mintages, such as the 1932 Denver and San Francisco issues. The overstruck mintmark issues are scarce and expensive, especially in the higher grades
23.
Jacqueline Kennedy
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Jacqueline Lee Jackie Kennedy Onassis was the wife of the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy, and First Lady of the United States from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. Bouvier was the daughter of Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou Bouvier III. In 1951, she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in French literature from George Washington University, in 1952, Bouvier met Congressman John F. Kennedy at a dinner party. In November of that year, he was elected as a United States Senator from Massachusetts, and they had four children, two of whom died in infancy. As First Lady, she was known for her highly publicized restoration of the White House and her emphasis on arts, on November 22,1963, she was riding with the President in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas, when he was assassinated. She and her children withdrew from view after his funeral. Following her second death in 1975, she had a career as a book editor for the final two decades of her life. She is remembered for her contributions to the arts and preservation of historic architecture, as well as for her style, elegance. She was an icon, and her famous ensemble of pink Chanel suit. She ranks as one of the most popular First Ladies and in 1999 was named on Gallups list of Most Admired Men and Women in 20th-century America. Jacqueline Lee Bouvier was born on July 28,1929, at Southampton Hospital in Southampton, New York, to Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou Black Jack Bouvier III, Bouviers mother was of Irish descent, and her father had French, Scottish, and English ancestry. Named after her father, Bouvier was baptized at the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola in Manhattan and her younger sister Lee was born in 1933. Bouvier spent her childhood years in Manhattan and at Lasata. She idolized her father, who favored her over her sister. From an early age, Bouvier was an equestrienne and successfully competed in the sport. She also took lessons, was an avid reader, and excelled at learning languages. Bouvier enrolled in the Chapin School in Manhattan in 1935, which she attended for grades 1–6. She was a student but often misbehaved, one of her teachers described her as a darling child, the prettiest little girl, very clever, very artistic
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Franklin half dollar
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The Franklin half dollar is a coin that was struck by the United States Mint from 1948 to 1963. The fifty-cent piece pictures Founding Father Benjamin Franklin on the obverse, a small eagle was placed to the right of the bell to fulfill the legal requirement that half dollars depict the figure of an eagle. Produced in 90 percent silver with a edge, the coin was struck at the Philadelphia, Denver. At the end of April 2016 the metal value of the $0.50 coin was approximately $6.48, Mint director Nellie Tayloe Ross had long admired Franklin, and wanted him to be depicted on a coin. In 1947, she instructed her chief engraver, John R. Sinnock, Sinnocks designs were based on his earlier work, but he died before their completion. The designs were completed by Sinnocks successor, Gilroy Roberts, the Mint submitted the new designs to the Commission of Fine Arts for its advisory opinion. The Commission disliked the small eagle and felt that depicting the crack in the Liberty Bell would expose the coinage to jokes, despite the Commissions disapproval, the Mint proceeded with Sinnocks designs. After the coins were released in April 1948, the Mint received accusations that Sinnocks initials JRS on the cutoff at Franklins shoulder were a tribute to Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, no change was made, with the Mint responding that the letters were simply the artists initials. The coin was struck regularly until 1963, beginning in 1964 it was replaced by the Kennedy half dollar, though the coin is still legal tender, its value to collectors or as silver both greatly exceed its face value. Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross had long been an admirer of Benjamin Franklin, in 1933, Sinnock had designed a medal featuring Franklin, which may have given her the idea. Franklin had opposed putting portraits on coins, he advocated proverbs about which the holder could profit through reflection, in a 1948 interview, Ross noted that Franklin only knew of living royalty on coins, and presumably would feel differently about a republic honoring a deceased founder. He detested the eagle, and numismatic lore has it that he referred to it as a scavenger. Given the practical man that he was, Franklin proposed the wild turkey as our national bird, an 1890 statute forbade the replacement of a coin design without congressional action, unless it had been in service for 25 years, counting the year of first issuance. The Walking Liberty half dollar and Mercury dime had been first issued in 1916, they could be replaced without congressional action from and after 1940. Mint officials considered putting Franklin on the dime in 1941, during the war, the Mint contemplated adding one or more new denominations of coinage, Sinnock prepared a Franklin design in anticipation of a new issue, which did not occur. The dime was redesigned in 1946 to depict fallen President Franklin Roosevelt, the Walking Liberty design seemed old-fashioned to Mint officials, and the only other coin being struck which was eligible for replacement was the Lincoln cent. Abraham Lincoln remained a figure, and Ross did not want to be responsible for removing him from the coinage. In 1947, Ross asked Sinnock to produce a design for a half dollar featuring Franklin, the chief engraver adapted his earlier work for the obverse
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Benjamin Franklin
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Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a polymath and a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman. As a scientist, he was a figure in the American Enlightenment. As an inventor, he is known for the rod, bifocals. He facilitated many civic organizations, including Philadelphias fire department and the University of Pennsylvania, Franklin earned the title of The First American for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, initially as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation, in the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, In a Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat. To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin the most accomplished American of his age, Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at the age of 23. He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richards Almanack, which he authored under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, after 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British policies. He pioneered and was first president of The Academy and College of Philadelphia which opened in 1751 and he organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing shipments of crucial munitions from France, during the Revolution, he became the first US Postmaster General. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, from 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the 1750s, he argued against slavery from an economic perspective, Franklins father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23,1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15,1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrill, Josiah Franklin had seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683, after her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9,1689 in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their child, was Josiah Franklins fifteenth child and tenth
26.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
27.
Pattern coin
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A pattern coin is a coin which has not been approved for release, produced for the purpose of evaluating a proposed coin design. They are often off-metal strike, to standard or piedforts. They are collected or studied by many coin collectors because of their sometimes highly elaborate designs, the first English coin that can be identified with certainty is a groat, originally worth fourpence. This piece, an example of which was illustrated and sold in the Dodsley Cuff sale of the century, had crowns in place of the usual three pellets in each quarter of the reverse. Patterns are particularly identifiable and exist in larger numbers from the reign of Elizabeth I onwards, the experimental base metal issues of all coinage prior to the mid-18th century have been well preserved. Boultons mint in Soho produced prodigious quantities of patterns, which were supplemented by Taylor some fifty or so years later from the same dies. After the Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4,1776, during the next 16 years, a variety of different coin designs from over the world were common. In this period, a large amount of different pattern coins were created, proposed for use in the newly found states. However, none of these designs were used by the general public, in 1792 the United States Mint opened in Philadelphia. In that year several more patterns were created, including the half dime and it is believed that ca.1,500 pieces were struck as patterns, and that these patterns themselves entered circulation during the next decade. Over the next 40 years, more patterns were created but there is little currently known about these pieces. Technically, these coins were not patterns but rather off-metal strikes, an example is an 1807 Half Eagle, or five dollar gold piece struck in copper. Starting in 1836, more patterns were created by the United States Mint in Philadelphia. S, dollars that was minted in 1877 and weighed 2.5 ounces. The U. S. Mint deemed the idea of a 2.5 ounce gold coin infeasable, however, transitional pieces are patterns dated before coins with the new design officially went into circulation. These were often produced during final stage of the pattern process, one famous example is the 1856 Flying Eagle cent, although that coin has been commonly and incorrectly believed to be regular issue due to its high mintage for collectors. Fantasy pieces include many struck in the 1860s and 1870s as patterns and this practice ended in the 1880s, when the U. S. Mint enforced regulations to prevent the sale of pattern coins. From time to time the U. S. Mint experiments with new coinage, at that time the practice of using dies with Martha Washington for trial strikings began, since they would not be confused with real circulating money. Because they do not resemble money, no restrictions exist on the sale of Martha Washington pieces, mint-produced modern patterns are very rare, with only a few pieces existing in private collections
28.
Robert Kennedy
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Robert Francis Bobby Kennedy, commonly known by his initials RFK, was an American politician from Massachusetts. He served as the United States junior senator from New York from January 1965 until his assassination in June 1968. He was previously the 64th U. S. Attorney General from January 1961 to September 1964, serving under his older brother President John F. Kennedy and his successor, Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and is seen as an icon of modern American liberalism. After serving in the United States Naval Reserve as a Seaman Apprentice from 1944 to 1946, Kennedy graduated from Harvard University, prior to entering public office, he worked as a correspondent for The Boston Post and as an assistant counsel to the Senate committee chaired by Joe McCarthy. Kennedy was the manager for his brother John in the 1960 presidential election. He was appointed Attorney General after the election and served as the closest adviser to the president from 1961 to 1963. His tenure is best known for its advocacy for the Civil Rights Movement, the fight against organized crime and the Mafia, after his brothers assassination, he remained in office in the Johnson administration for a few months. He left to run for the United States Senate in New York in 1964, in 1968, Kennedy was a leading candidate for the Democratic nomination for the presidency, he appealed especially to poor, African-American, Hispanic, Catholic and young voters. Robert F. Kennedy was born on November 20,1925, in Brookline, Massachusetts and his older brothers were Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. and John F. Jack Kennedy, who was elected the 35th President of the United States in 1960. His younger brother was longtime United States Senator Edward M. Ted Kennedy, all four of his grandparents were children of Irish immigrants. His father was a businessman and a leading Irish Catholic figure in the Democratic Party. After he stepped down as ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1940, Joe Sr. focused his attention on his oldest son, Joseph Jr. expecting that he would enter politics and be elected president. He also urged the children to examine and discuss current events in order to propel them to public service. After Joseph Jr. was killed during World War II, the senior Kennedys hopes fell on his son, John. Joseph Sr. had the money and connections to play a role in the familys political ambitions. Kennedys older brother John was often bedridden by illness and, as a result, although he made little effort to get to know his younger brother during his childhood, John would take him for walks and regale him with the stories of heroes and adventures he had read. One of their favorite authors was John Buchan, who wrote The Thirty-Nine Steps, John sometimes referred to Robert as Black Robert due to his prudishness and disposition. He described his position in the hierarchy by saying, When you come from that far down
29.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
30.
Lyndon Johnson
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A Democrat from Texas, he previously served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and then as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two more as Senate Majority Whip, Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1960 presidential election. Although unsuccessful, he was chosen by then-Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts to be his running mate and they went on to win a close election over Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Johnson was sworn in as Vice President on January 20,1961. Two years and ten months later, on November 22,1963 and he successfully ran for a full term in the 1964 election, winning by a landslide over Republican opponent Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. He is one of four people who have served as President, Vice President, Senator. Johnson was renowned for his personality and the Johnson treatment. Assisted in part by an economy, the War on Poverty helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to use force in Southeast Asia without having to ask for an official declaration of war. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, from 16,000 advisors in non-combat roles in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968, American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. Growing unease with the war stimulated a large, angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U. S. and abroad. Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, while he began his presidency with widespread approval, support for Johnson declined as the public became upset with both the war and the growing violence at home. In 1968, the Democratic Party factionalized as antiwar elements denounced Johnson, Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him, as the New Deal coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years collapsed. After he left office in January 1969, Johnson returned to his Texas ranch, historians argue that Johnsons presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his policies and the passage of many major laws, affecting civil rights, gun control, wilderness preservation. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27,1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a farmhouse on the Pedernales River. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia, the nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas, was named after LBJs cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia. Johnson had English, German, and Ulster Scots ancestry and he was maternally descended from pioneer Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines, who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana
31.
Proof coin
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Nearly all countries have issued proof coinage. Preparation of a proof striking usually involved polishing of the dies and they can usually be distinguished from normal circulation coins by their sharper rims and design, as well as much smoother fields – the blank areas not part of the coins design. The dies for making modern proof coins are often treated with chemicals to certain parts of the design take on a frosted appearance. Several other methods have used in the past to achieve this effect, including sand blasting the dies. Proof coins of the early 19th century even appear to be scratched, the term proof refers to the process by which the coins are made and not to the condition of the coin. Certification agencies can grade and assign numerical ratings for proof coins, most proof coins are double struck under higher pressure. This does not normally result in doubling that is readily observable, after being struck, they are separately and individually handled, in contrast to normal coins which are thrown into bins. The U. S. had largely stopped striking proof coins in 1916, beginning in 1936, the U. S. Mint began producing proof coins again. Proof coins through 1942 could be ordered individually from the mint, because of this the lowest mintage for any denomination determines the total number of complete sets that can exist. Consequently, this number is used to indicate the mintages of proof sets for the years 1936 through 1942, sets struck from 1936 to 1942 and, when resumed, from 1950 to 72 include the cent, nickel, dime, quarter, and half dollar. From 1973 through 1981 the dollar was included, and also from 2000 on. From 1950 to 1955, proof sets were packaged in a box,1955 saw both the original box packaging and introduced the flat-pack, where the coins were sealed in cellophane and presented in an envelope. The flat-pack packaging continued through 1964, after which the coins were sealed in various styles of hard plasticized cases, the 1999–2008 proof sets also contain five different Statehood quarters. The 2004–2005 series also contain the two Lewis and Clark nickels, the 2007-2017 proof sets also include Presidential dollars. The 2010-2021 proof sets also contain America the Beautiful quarters, depicting different National Parks, Proof sets containing only 2009 cents, Statehood quarters, America the Beautiful quarters, and Presidential dollars are also available. From 1971 to 1974, proof silver-clad Eisenhower dollars were issued in a plastic case contained in a brown wood-grain finish slipcase box, anthony dollars were struck in 1999. S. Mint to advise the public that these sets were not government-issued sets, a proof Coin & Chronicles set was issued for 2009, which included one each of the 4 different Lincoln Cent designs and a commemorative Lincoln Silver Dollar, presented in special packaging. Other sets, called Prestige Proof sets, also contain selected commemorative coins and these sets were sold from 1983 to 1997 at an additional premium
32.
Gimbels
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Gimbel Brothers was an American department store corporation from 1887 until 1987. The company is known for creating the Gimbels Thanksgiving Day Parade, Gimbels was also once the largest department store chain in the country. By the time it closed in 1987, Gimbels had 36 stores throughout the United States, the company, founded by a young Bavarian Jewish immigrant, Adam Gimbel, began as a general store in Vincennes, Indiana. After a brief stay in Danville, Illinois, Gimbel relocated in 1887 to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the new store quickly became the leading department store in Milwaukee. However, with seven sons Adam Gimbel saw that one store, no matter how successful, as a joke of the time put it, he had a surplus of capital and a surplus of Gimbels. In 1894, Gimbel acquired the Granville Haines store in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with its arrival in New York, Gimbels prospered, and soon became the primary rival to the leading Herald Square retailer, Macys, who had a competing branch across the street. This rivalry entered into the popular argot, Would Macys tell Gimbels, to distinguish itself from Herald Square neighbors, Gimbels advertising promised more, Select, dont settle. Gimbels became so successful that in 1922 the chain went public, in 1925 Gimbels entered the Pittsburgh market with its purchase of Kaufmann & Baers. Also acquired in this transaction was Gimbels third radio outlet, WCAE, although expansion spurred talk of the stores becoming a nationwide chain, the Great Depression ended that prospect. Gimbel did increase the number of more upscale Saks Fifth Avenue stores in the 1930s, opening branches in Chicago, Boston and San Francisco. By 1930, Gimbels had seven flagship stores throughout the country and net sales of $123 million with 20 sites, by the time of World War II, profits had risen to a net worth of $500 million, or over $8 billion as of 2013. In 1962, Gimbels acquired Milwaukee competitor Schusters, and in that region operated stores from both chains for a while as Gimbels Schusters. By 1965, Gimbel Brothers Inc. consisted of 53 stores throughout the country, which included 22 Gimbels,27 Saks Fifth Avenue stores, and four Saks 34th St. Despite its limited presence, Gimbels was well-known nationwide, in part because of the carefully cultivated rivalry with Macys, the New York store received considerable attention as the site of the 1939-40 sale of art and antiquities from the William Randolph Hearst collection. The Slinky made its debut at the northeast Philadelphia Gimbels store, also, the Philadelphia Gimbels was the first department store in the world to move customers from floor to floor via the escalator. The idea of a department-store parade originated in 1920 with Gimbels Department Store in Philadelphia with the now known as the 6abc Dunkin Donuts Thanksgiving Day Parade. Macys did not start a parade until 1924, when Gimbels closed down in 1986, television station WPVI took over responsibility for the parade, with sponsorship by Reading, Pennsylvania-based Boscovs. Currently, Dunkin Donuts is the sponsor of the parade
33.
Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs
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The Assistant Secretary position is currently vacant pending nomination by President Donald Trumps Administration. Easum, David D. Newsom, Joseph Palmer II, G. Mennen Williams, at first, when the Department of State established three geographical divisions in 1909, African affairs were the responsibility of the Divisions of Near Eastern and Western European Affairs. Department Order No.692 of June 15,1937 transferred responsibility for all African territories except Algeria, a Division of African Affairs was created in the office of Near Eastern Affairs in January 1944. When the Bureau of Near Eastern, South Asian, and African Affairs was created, there continued to be a Division of African Affairs within that bureau
34.
G. Mennen Williams
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Gerhard Mennen Soapy Williams was the 41st Governor of Michigan, elected in 1948 and serving six two-year terms in office. He later served as Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs under President John F. Kennedy and Chief Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court. As assistant secretary of state, his remark that what we want for the Africans is what they want for themselves, reported in the press as Africa for the Africans, Gerhard Mennen Williams was born in Detroit, Michigan, to Henry P. Williams and Elma Mennen. His mother came from a prominent family, her father, Gerhard Heinrich Mennen, was the founder of the Mennen brand of personal care products. Because of this, Williams acquired the popular nickname Soapy, Williams attended the Salisbury School in Connecticut, an exclusive Episcopal preparatory school. He graduated from Princeton University in 1933 and received a law degree from the University of Michigan Law School, while at law school, Williams became affiliated with the Democratic Party, departing from his familys strong ties to the Republican Party. Williams met Nancy Quirk on a date while attending the university. She was the daughter of D. L. Quirk and Julia Quirk and her brother, Daniel Quirk, was later mayor of Ypsilanti. The couple married in 1937 and had three children, a son, G. Mennen Williams Jr. and two daughters, Nancy Ketterer III and Wendy Stock Williams and he worked with the law firm Griffiths, Williams and Griffiths from 1936 to 1941. Law firm partners included Hicks Griffiths and Martha Griffiths, later elected a Member of Congress, during World War II, he served four years in the United States Navy as an air combat intelligence officer in the South Pacific. He achieved the rank of lieutenant commander and earned ten battle stars and he later served as the deputy director of the Office of Price Administration from 1946 to 1947, and was named to the Michigan Liquor Control Commission in 1947. On November 2,1948, Williams was elected Governor of Michigan, defeating Governor Kim Sigler with the support of labor unions and he was subsequently elected to a record six two-year terms in that post. Among his accomplishments was the construction of the Mackinac Bridge and he appeared on the cover of Times September 15,1952, issue, sporting his signature green bow tie with white polka dots. Williams gained prominence for his refusal in 1950 to extradite Haywood Patterson, one of the Scottsboro Boys, Williams named the first woman judge in the states history as well as the first black. As a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1956, he sought the vice-presidential nomination. At the 1952,1956 and 1960 conventions he fought for insertion of a civil rights plank in the party platform. He strongly opposed the selection of Lyndon Baines Johnson as vice president in 1960, Williams made public his opposition, shouting No when a call was made for Johnsons nomination to be made unanimous. He was the delegate to publicly oppose Johnsons nomination
35.
Hammer and sickle
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The hammer and sickle or sickle and hammer is a Communist symbol that was conceived during the Russian Revolution. At the time of creation, the hammer stood for industrial laborers, after World War I and the Russian Civil War, the hammer and sickle became more widely used as a symbol for peaceful labor within the Soviet Union and for international proletarian unity. It was taken up by many Communist movements around the world, farm and worker instruments and tools have long been used as symbols for proletarian struggle. A popular ancestor to the hammer and sickle was a hammer on a plough, in Ireland, the symbol of the plough remains in use. The Starry Plough banner was used by the Irish Citizen Army. James Connolly, co-founder of the Irish Citizen Army with Jack White, a sword is forged into the plough to symbolise the end of war with the establishment of a Socialist International. This was unveiled in 1914 and flown by the Irish Citizen Army during the 1916 Easter Rising, in 1917, Vladimir Lenin and Anatoly Lunacharsky held a competition to create a Soviet emblem. ” in six languages. It originally featured a sword, but Lenin strongly objected, disliking the violent connotations, the winning designer was Yevgeny Ivanovich Kamzolkin. On 6 July 1923 the 2nd session of the Central Executive Committee adopted this emblem, serp i Molot is the name of the Moscow Metallurgical Plant. Serp i Molot is also the name of a stop on the railway line from Kurski railway station in Moscow to Gorky, featured in Venedikt Yerofeyevs novel. In the Soviet Union the hammer and sickle came to take on a meaning, with the sickle coming to be associated with women. In addition, the Russian city of Oryol also uses the hammer, the former Soviet national airline, Aeroflot, continues to use the hammer and sickle in its symbol. The flag can also appear without the hammer and sickle in some circumstances, all of these use the yellow-on-red colour scheme. In Laos and Vietnam, the hammer and sickle flags party flags can often be seen flying side-by-side with their national flags. The Communist Party of Sweden, the Portuguese Communist Party and the Mexican Communist Party use the hammer, the hammer and sickle accompanied by the yellow star is used by the Communist Refoundation Party, the main Communist party in Italy. Many symbols having similar structures and messages to the original have been designed, for example, the Angolan flag shows a segment of a cog, crossed by a machete and crowned with a socialist star, while the flag of Mozambique features an AK-47 crossed by a hoe. In the logo of the Communist Party USA, a circle is formed by a half cog, a hammer is laid directly over the sickles handle with the hammers head at the logos center. The logo of the Communist Party of Turkey consists of half a cog wheel crossed by a hammer, movement, the pickaxe and rifle used in communist Albania, and the hammer and compasses of the emblem of the East German flag
36.
Q. David Bowers
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Quentin David Bowers is an American numismatist. Beginning in 1952, Bowers’s contributions to numismatics have continued uninterrupted and unabated to the present day and he has been involved in the selling of rare coins since 1953 when he was a teenager. A1960 graduate of the Pennsylvania State University, Q, David Bowers was given the Alumni Achievement Award by that institutions College of Business Administration in a ceremony in 1976. Bowers was born in Honesdale, Pennsylvania, in 1938 and his maternal grandfather, Chester L. Garratt, an attorney by profession, was a hobbyist and researcher in many areas. Garratt gave him his first rare coin, a well worn 1893 Columbian half dollar and this would be his first exposure to numismatics. In 1945–46, his exposure to numismatics was a friend’s home in which a dozen or more Indian cents were embedded face-up in a concrete walk near the front door. In 1948, his family moved to Forty Fort, Pennsylvania, as a 13-year-old high school student, Bowerss interests included reptiles, scouting, short-wave radio, Strombecker kit models of World War II airplanes, and rocks and minerals. During this time Bowers became interested in the written word and he received Raymond L. Ditmars Reptiles of North America from his mother as a Christmas gift in 1952. According to Bowers, Ditmars, who was curator of reptiles at the New York Zoological Garden, had a way of making just about anything sound fascinating. From such experiences, Bowers learned the power of the written word, robert L. Rusbar, a local tax collector, had a collection of rocks and minerals, and Bowers visited him. After a session with rocks and minerals, Rusbar asked Bowers if he collected coins, Rusbar presented a small green-covered album of Lincoln cents, pointed to one of the first openings, and showed that he had paid $10 for that particular coin. He carefully explained that it was a Lincoln cent made in the first year of issue,1909, with the initials of the designer, Victor David Brenner, V. D. B. on the reverse. Bowers would soon discover that the reason for the value was that beneath the date. This mint mark jumped the value from a few cents up to the $10 he had paid, Bowers discovered that 484,000 had been minted and became inspired to find one himself. Rusbar would give Bowers a couple of blue Whitman coin folders, inspired with the idea of making money by selling coins, rather than cutting grass, Bowers traded a $10 bill for 1,000 mixed Lincoln cents. Bowers goal was to find the 1909-s VDB, from finding Lincoln cents in circulation, Bowers moved towards other series, including Mercury dimes and Standing Liberty quarters. Seeking to gain knowledge, Bowers discovered the Numismatic Scrapbook Magazine. The dozens of pages were filled with stories and tales about coins and coin collecting, but advertisements offering things for sale were a catalyst in stimulating Bowers affinity for coins
37.
Washington quarter
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The Washington quarter is the present quarter dollar or 25-cent piece issued by the United States Mint. The coin was first struck in 1932, the version was designed by sculptor John Flanagan. The committee had engaged sculptor Laura Gardin Fraser to design a commemorative medal, the new silver quarters entered circulation on August 1,1932, and continued to be struck in silver until the Mint transitioned to copper-nickel clad coinage in 1965. A special reverse commemorating the United States Bicentennial was used in 1975 and 1976, with all pieces bearing the double date 1776–1976, the bust of Washington was made smaller beginning in 1999, in 2010 it was restored to bring out greater detail. On December 2,1924, Congress created the United States George Washington Bicentennial Commission, the 200th anniversary of the birth of Washington, the first President of the United States, would occur in 1932, and Congress wished to plan for the event well in advance. President Calvin Coolidge was ex officio chairman of the commission, which included government officials as well as prominent private citizens such as automobile manufacturer Henry Ford, in 1929, the Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover, succeeded Coolidge both as president and in his commission role. By that time, however, the commission had become inactive, a new group, the George Washington Bicentennial Committee was established by Act of Congress in February 1930. Hoover was concerned about the numbers of designs used for commemorative coins in the 1920s. When a commemorative coin bill was sent to him by Congress, the Depression had decreased demand for coin in commerce, no half dollars had been struck in 1930, and none would be until 1933. Most commemorative coins at the time were struck in a quantity of a few thousand, the half dollar was seen as the largest and most prominent design—the Peace dollar was not then being struck and did not circulate in much of the country. Other commemoratives had been sold at a premium, the Washington half dollar would, for one year, although it had not yet received congressional approval, the committee went ahead and began a competition. The committee anticipated that the same artist would first design the committees medal, the obverse of both medal and coin were to be based on the well-known bust of Washington by French sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon, the artist was not restricted as to the reverse design. After reviewing the entries, both the Bicentennial Committee and Fine Arts Commission agreed on designs by Laura Gardin Fraser, with a right-facing Washington, Frasers designs were to be used for the medal, and, as those involved expected, the half dollar as well. On February 9,1931, New Jersey Representative Randolph Perkins introduced legislation for a Washington quarter, to the dismay of the Bicentennial Committee and Fine Arts Commission. Thus, a new quarter would both be a tribute to Washington on his bicentennial, and relieve the Mint of the burden of having to coin a difficult-to-strike piece, Moore was ignored, and Congress passed authorizing legislation for a Washington quarter on March 4,1931. The act provided that Washingtons image, to appear on the obverse, was to be based on the celebrated bust of the president by Jean-Antoine Houdon. On July 14,1931, Assistant Mint Director Mary Margaret OReilly wrote to Moore, Moore replied, stating that as Fraser had won the competition for the medal, she should adapt her design for the quarter. Secretary Mellon responded to Moore, stating that as the Treasury had been no party to the earlier agreement, it was not bound by it
38.
United States Bicentennial coinage
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The United States Bicentennial coinage was a set of circulating commemorative coins, consisting of a quarter, half dollar and dollar struck by the United States Mint in 1975 and 1976. Regardless of when struck, each bears the double date 1776–1976 on the normal obverses for the Washington quarter, Kennedy half dollar. No coins dated 1975 of any of the three denominations were minted, given past abuses in the system, the Mint advocated against the issuance of commemorative coins starting in the 1950s. Beginning in 1971, members of Congress introduced bills to authorize coins to honor the United States Bicentennial, a nationwide competition resulted in designs of a Colonial drummer for the quarter, Independence Hall for the half dollar and the Liberty Bell superimposed against the moon for the dollar. All three coins remain common today due to the quantity struck, circulation pieces were in copper nickel, Congress also mandated 45,000,000 part-silver pieces be struck for collectors. The Mint sold over half of the coins before melting the remainder after withdrawing them from sale in 1986. Commemorative coins had been struck for a number of events and anniversaries by the United States Mint since 1892, organizations would get Congress to authorize a coin and would be allowed to buy up the issue, selling it to the public at a premium. The final issue among these commemoratives, half dollars honoring Booker T. Washington and George Washington Carver were struck over a number of years, originally priced at $3.50, they were repeatedly discounted, many could not be sold at a premium and entered circulation. The promoter of these issues, S. J, phillips, mishandled the distribution and lost $140,000. The negative publicity caused the Department of the Treasury, of which the Mint is a part, to oppose subsequent commemorative coin proposals, in 1966, Congress established the American Revolutionary Bicentennial Commission to plan and coordinate activities connected with the 1976 bicentennial of American Independence. In February 1970, the ARBC established a Coins and Medals Advisory Committee, the committees initial report, in July 1970, called for the production of a commemorative half dollar for the Bicentennial. In December 1970, the called for special designs for all denominations of US coinage for the Bicentennial. The Treasury, however, opposed the change, following its longstanding position against commemorative coins, several proposals for Bicentennial coins were introduced in Congress in 1971 and 1972, but did not pass. Mint Director Mary Brooks had attended the Advisory Committee meetings, however, in a newspaper interview she termed the idea of changing the six circulating coins a disaster. She felt if any Bicentennial coin was issued, it should be non-circulating, Brooks believed that such a coin would not disrupt the Mint in the production of coins for circulation. During 1972, however, she retreated from that position, in January 1973, Texas Representative Richard C. White introduced legislation for commemorative dollars and half dollars, oregon Senator Mark Hatfield also put forward a bill, calling for a $25 gold piece. Hearings before a subcommittee in the House of Representatives were held on May 2,1973, Brooks testified, supporting the limited redesign in the bill, but opposing a more extensive coin redesign
39.
Dwight Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
40.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
41.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
42.
Mary Brooks
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Mary Elizabeth Thomas Peavey Brooks directed the United States Mint from September 1969 to February 1977. Mary Elizabeth Thomas was born to John W. Thomas and Florence Thomas on November 1,1907, in Colby and her parents moved to Gooding, Idaho, in early 1909 when she was 14 months of age. Her father was a rancher and banker, he was appointed a U. S, an only child, Thomas graduated from Gooding High School in 1925, and attended Mills College in Oakland, California, then a two-year womens school. She transferred to the University of Idaho in Moscow in 1927, where she was a member of the Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority and she met her first husband, Arthur Jacob Art Peavey, Jr. of Twin Falls, while they were students at the university in Moscow. He was a member of Phi Delta Theta fraternity and also graduated in 1929 and he drowned in a boating accident on the Snake River in 1941 and wasnt found for ten days, which left her a widow in her early thirties with two young children. A short time later her mother died, so she moved her family to Washington, wayland Curly Brooks, was a U. S. They were married in May 1946 for eleven years, until his death from a heart attack in 1957. After he left the Senate in January 1949, they had lived in the Chicago area, Brooks took over her father’s Idaho sheep ranch after his death in 1945 and ran it until her son took it over in 1961. He said She was just as much at home with rancher as she was with presidents and her Idaho license plate read MTN MARY. She served in the Idaho State Senate from 1963 to 1969 and her son, John Peavey, was appointed to her seat in the state senate and served for all but two of the next 25 years. A failed attempt at lieutenant governor in 1994 marked the end of his political career, President Nixon appointed Brooks director of the U. S. Mint, the third woman named to the post. She oversaw the first production of the Eisenhower dollar coin, as well as the design of the Bicentennial quarter, half dollar and she is credited with saving the original San Francisco Mint building, known as the Granite Lady, by transferring it to the Treasury Department. The building, one of the few to survive the Great Earthquake of 1906, had been vacant since 1937 and it is now both a National Historic Landmark and a California Historical Landmark. Brooks received the “I Left My Heart In San Francisco” Award in 1974 from the San Francisco Convention, during Brooks tenure as Director of the Mint, she famously led a tour of the U. S. Bullion Depository at Fort Knox, Kentucky for members of Congress, as of 2012, this tour still is the only time that the inside of the USBD has been seen by members of the public. She was inducted into the University of Idaho Alumni Association’s Hall of Fame in 1970, the university also conferred upon her an honorary doctorate in 1999. Brooks died in 2002 at age 94 in Twin Falls and she was survived by a son, John Peavey, of Carey, and a daughter, Elizabeth Ann Betty Eccles, of McCall, and six grandchildren and eight great-grandchildren. Fort Knox tour of 1974 US Mint. gov - Directors of the United States Mint, 1792–Present People magazine article Mary Brooks Runs a Nickel and Dime Operation, The Mint - July 19,1976
43.
American Numismatic Association
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The American Numismatic Association is a Colorado Springs, Colorado organization founded in 1891 by Dr. George F. Heath. It was formed to advance the knowledge of numismatics along educational, historical, the ANA has about 24,000 members who receive many benefits, such as discounts, access to website features, and the monthly journal The Numismatist. The ANAs Colorado Springs headquarters houses its administrative offices, library, the ANA received a Federal Charter from the United States Congress in 1912. A Board of Governors are in charge of the ANA, numerous advisory committees help to operate it properly. The ANA has a Young Numismatists program intended to promote interest among youth, the ANA has held annual conventions throughout the nation in most years since 1891, with two per year since 1978. The Farran Zerbe Memorial Award is bestowed upon the most dedicated members, the ANA also maintains a Numismatic Hall of Fame. Dr. George F. Heath of Monroe, Michigan, gained knowledge of history by studying his collection of coins. The obscurity of his community was an obstacle towards obtaining certain specimens, in 1888, he printed, published and distributed a four-page leaflet, NUMISMATIST, in which he listed his coin needs, advertised duplicates for sale, and discussed numismatic topics. The nascent publication found many friends among other isolated collectors, as Heaths subscription list increased, a need for a national organization of numismatists was evident. The February 1891 edition of The Numismatist printed a question, What is the matter with having an American Numismatic Association, a follow-up statement was included, There is nothing like the alliance of kindred pursuits to stimulate growth and interest. On October 7 and October 8,1891, five men—Heath, William G. Jerrems, David Harlowe, heckelman and John Brydon—holding 26 proxies, met in Chicago with 61 charter members. The result was the founding of the ANA, which has become the largest non-profit numismatic organization in the world. Heath then introduced the idea of a convention, where members could make personal contact with other numismatists. The first convention was held in 1891, then annually until 1895, after the 1907 convention in Columbus, Ohio, it was decided to hold annual conventions thereafter. On June 16,1908, Dr. Heath suddenly died, Farran Zerbe, then president, assumed the task of editing and publishing THE NUMISMATIST, and soon purchased the publication from Heaths heirs. In 1911, through the generosity of W. C. C, wilson of Montreal, Quebec, Canada, THE NUMISMATIST was purchased from Zerbe and presented to the ANA and since that period, the magazine has been owned and published monthly by the ANA. On May 9,1912, the ANA attained national prominence as it was granted a Federal Charter signed by President William H. Taft. In 1962, an amendment to make the Charter permanent and allow for a larger Board was introduced and passed by Congress, the amendment was presented by Congressman Wilbur Mills and Senator John L. McClellan, both of Arkansas
44.
Rosemont, Illinois
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Rosemont is a village in Cook County, Illinois, United States, located immediately northwest of Chicago. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 4,202, the village was incorporated in 1956, though it had been settled long before that. The residential sections of Rosemont are a community, as a result of the 1995 decision by residents to enclose the residential portions of the city. According to the 2010 census, Rosemont has an area of 1.79 square miles. As of the 2000 census, there were 4,224 people,1,692 households, the population density was 2,423.6 per square mile. There were 1,745 housing units at a density of 1,001.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 79. 24% White,1. 35% African American,0. 88% Native American,4. 40% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,11. 55% from other races, and 2. 56% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 35. 35% of the population, Rosemont was tied for first place in 2000 with Bowdon, Georgia as the place in the United States with the highest percentage of people reporting Bulgarian ancestry. The percentage of people so reporting in 2000 was 2. 7%,35. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the family size was 3.31. In the village, the population was out with 24. 4% under the age of 18,10. 4% from 18 to 24,35. 7% from 25 to 44,18. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 110.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 111.2 males, the median income for a household in the village was $34,663, and the median income for a family was $44,939. Males had an income of $30,066 versus $30,015 for females. The per capita income for the village was $19,781, about 10. 6% of families and 14. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23. 6% of those under age 18 and 10. 6% of those age 65 or over. Rosemont is positioned between OHare International Airport and the rest of the City of Chicago, due to its location, much of the village is occupied by large hotels and office buildings. According to Colliers Bennett & Kahnweiler, the Rosemont/OHare office market encompassed approximately 13,500,000 square feet of total inventory in 2008, additionally, Rosemont operates several visitor related-forums. Among these are the Donald E, the village is the sponsor of the Cavaliers Drum and Bugle Corps
45.
Gloss (material appearance)
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Gloss is an optical property which indicates how well a surface reflects light in a specular direction. It is one of important parameters that are used to describe the appearance of an object. The factors that affect gloss are the index of the material, the angle of incident light. Objects with a surface, i. e. The image forming qualities of these surfaces are much lower making any reflections appear blurred and distorted, substrate material type also influences the gloss of a surface. Metals do not suffer from this effect producing higher amounts of reflection at any angle, the Fresnel equation is given as follows, R s = I r I0 R s =12 Surface roughness in micrometer range influences the specular reflectance levels. The diagram on the right depicts the reflection at an angle i on a surface with a characteristic roughness height h. But when Δ ϕ = π, then beams are not in phase and through interference, low intensity of specularly reflected light means the surface is rough and it scatters the light in other directions. If an arbitrary criterion for smooth surface is Δ ϕ < π2, then substitution into the equation above will produce, the earliest studies of gloss perception are attributed to Ingersoll who in 1914 examined the effect of gloss on paper. The Ingersoll “glarimeter” had a specular geometry with incident and viewing angles at 57. 5°, using this configuration gloss was measured using a contrast method which subtracted the specular component from the total reflectance using a polarizing filter. In the 1930s work by A. H. Pfund was also the first to suggest that more than one method was needed to analyze gloss correctly, in 1937 Hunter, as part of his research paper on gloss, described six different visual criteria attributed to apparent gloss. The following diagrams show the relationships between an incident beam of light, I, a reflected beam, S, a diffusely reflected beam, D. Specular gloss – the perceived brightness and the brilliance of highlights Defined as the ratio of the light reflected from a surface at an equal, the perception of an image reflected in the surface can be degraded by appearing unsharp, or by appearing to be of low contrast. The former is characterised by the measurement of the distinctness-of-image and the latter by the haze or contrast gloss, standardisation in gloss measurement was led by Hunter and ASTM who produced ASTM D523 Standard test method for specular gloss in 1939. This incorporated a method for measuring gloss at a angle of 60°. Later editions of the Standard included methods for measuring at 20° for evaluating high gloss finishes, developed at the DuPont Company, in 1937, the paper industry adopted a 75° specular-gloss method because the angle gave the best separation of coated book papers. This method was adopted in 1951 by the Technical Association of Pulp, in the paint industry, measurements of the specular gloss are made according to International Standard ISO2813. This standard is essentially the same as ASTM D523 although differently drafted, in this standard it also defined methods for the measurement of distinctness of image gloss and reflection haze
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