1.
Kenya Army
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The Kenya Army is the land arm of the Kenya Defence Forces. The origin of the present day Kenya Army may be traced from the Kings African Rifles of British colonial forces, the reasons that necessitated the recruitment and formation of troops that preceded the Kings African Rifles and in essence the Kenya Army are as many as they are varied. It will be difficult to them without tracing the events that were unfolding in the East African region during the last quarter of the 19th Century. This period was characterised by active involvement of the British in the enforcement of abolition of trade in East Africa. During the same period other European nations were also developing spheres of influence in Africa, in this rivalry the British established the Imperial British East Africa Company to take care of its interests. As these interests developed and expanded, there was need to create a formidable force to safeguard these interests. It is out of this that the first indigenous land forces in Kenya can be traced, in 1873 the Sultan of Zanzibar, Seyyid Barghash signed the final treaty to abolish slave trade in all his dominions. The task of enforcing the abolition was vested on the British Royal Navy Fleet under Admiral Freeman Tie, in 1877 a Royal Navy Officer Lt Lloyd Matthews serving in the HMS London formed a small force of 300 Zanzibaris for the purpose of combating slave trade. During the following year Lt Matthews was given leave to serve under the Sultan who appointed him Brigadier General in command of the newly established force, by 1880 the force had grown to 1300 men who were all Armed with Snider rifles donated to the Sultan by the British Government. On 8 Sep 1888 the British Africa Company was granted royal Charter and was charged with the responsibility of administering British East Africa on the liens of a Crown colony, in 1893 the three-year contract with the Indian contingent came to an end. During the same period the company was experiencing serious problems that had led to the abandonment of Uganda and Jubaland in fact. Then British Consul in Zanzibar at the time, Sir Athur Hardinge notified the foreign office of his intention of taking over East Africa from the company, on 1 July 1895 a British protectorate was declared over all the areas previously administered by the company. The company troops were reorganized under Capt Hatch. In August 1895 the British government sanctioned the establishment of a composed of 300 Punjabi,300 Swahili,100 Sudanese and 200 soldiers from various ethnic groups in the region. This force was renamed East African Rifles and was formed from the former IBEA force in Mombasa, even though Kenya acceded to the UN request the troops were not deployed due to various logistical constraints. The Country was then experiencing a liberation war waged by the population against the regime of Ian Smith which had unilaterally declared independence from the British. Subsequently, the Kenya Army contributed Officers, towards Peace Support Operations in Chad in 1982 on the request of Organization of African Unity, Kenya has consistently participated in the United Nations Peace-Keeping operations since 1989 when she sent military observers and an infantry battalion to Namibia. Currently, then Kenya ranked number 6 out of the 90 countries who contribute military, since 1989, Kenya has contributed military observers, staff officers, civilian police monitors and infantry troops
2.
King's African Rifles
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It performed both military and internal security functions within the colonial territory, and later served outside these territories during the World Wars. The rank and file were drawn from native inhabitants, while most of the officers were seconded from the British Army. When the KAR was first raised there were some Sudanese officers in the battalions raised in Uganda, until independence, the parade uniform of the KAR comprised khaki drill, with tall fezes and cummerbunds. Both items were normally red, although there were some battalion distinctions with Nyasaland units, for example, wearing black fezes. Prior to 1914, the field service uniforms consisted of a dark blue jersey and puttees, khaki shorts. African askaris wore sandals or were barefoot, on the rationale that the heavy military boots of the period were unsuitable for recruits who had not previously worn footwear, fezzes bore an Arabic or Roman number with the wartime raised battalions wearing theirs on geometric-shaped patches of cloth. During the Great War, all the dark blue items were replaced with khaki equivalents, after the war, the khaki shirt was replaced by a collarless blue-grey angora shirt called a greyback. The Kings African Rifles took part in the campaigns against Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan in Somalia during the early 1900s, Hassan was known to the British as the Mad Mullah. The KAR were part of the British air and ground force that defeated Hassan in 1920, additionally the companies were scattered all over British East Africa. Full strength of the KAR in 1914 was 70 British officers, there were no organic heavy weapons, including artillery or organised reserves and the companies were in reality large platoons of 70 to 80 men. In 1915 the KAR was expanded by having the three battalions reorganised into standard four-company battalions, which were brought up to full strength at 1,045 men each. Later in 1916 the 2nd, 3rd and 4th battalions were expanded into two battalions each through recruiting in their home areas and it was not until General Hoskin was appointed to command British East African forces in 1917 that genuine expansion began. The 1st Battalion was doubled and the 6th Battalion was raised from askaris of the former German East Africa, the 7th was formed from the Zanzibar Armed Constabulary and the Mafia Constabulary. Later in 1917 many other battalions were created as the first four battalions each raised a 3rd battalion. The 4th Regiment raised an additional two battalions, the 5th and 6th through recruiting in Uganda, the KAR Mounted Infantry Unit, originally part of the 3rd regiment and the KAR Signals Company were also raised. The regiment fought in the East African Campaign against the German commander Paul Erich von Lettow-Vorbeck, transport and support into the interior was provided by over 400,000 porters of the Carrier Corps. By the end of the Great War the KAR comprised 1,193 British officers,1,497 British NCOs and 30,658 Africans in 22 battalions, including two made up of former German askaris, as noted above. In Armies in East Africa 1914–18, Peter Abbot notes that the KAR units recruited from prisoners of war were used as garrison troops by the British
3.
Nanyuki
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Nanyuki is a market town in Laikipia County of Kenya lying northwest of Mount Kenya along the A2 road and at the terminus of the branch railway from Nairobi. It is situated just north of the Equator and it was founded in 1907 by British settlers, some of whose descendants still live in and around the town. Nanyuki is currently the main airfield of the Kenya Air Force, the British Army also keeps a base at The Nanyuki Show Ground from where it conducts yearly desert and jungle training exercises on the mountain and in the arid areas to the north. The town was started by British settlers during the days of colonial Kenya in 1907. Some of their descendants live in or around the town. Major Digby Tatham-Warter, a veteran of Operation Market Garden, moved to Nanyuki after the war. The market centre is famous for farms, ranches, game parks and its also the base for people seeking to climb Mount Kenya, the most famous landmark in the country. The Equator line passes 6.5 km south of this town, Nanyuki municipality had an urban population of 31,577 in 1999. Most members of the population earn their money through trade, shops in the town supply many farms, ranches and game parks in a wide circle. Originally, most shops were owned by Indians, who form a sizable part of the population. Climbers and backpackers visit Nanyuki on their way to or from Mount Kenya along the Sirimon and Burguret routes, Nanyuki therefore has many hotels, of which Mount Kenya Safari Club and Sportsman’s Arms Hotel are the most prominent and best known. Other hotels include Lion’s Court, Equatorial Hotel, Mount Kenya Paradise Hotel, the oldest restaurant in town is The Marina and it is still fairly popular. Several years ago, a restaurant was opened south of Nanyuki built inside a huge tree, named “Trout Tree Restaurant” its main attraction is obviously trout prepared in various ways. Patrons can also visit the trout breeding installation at the foot of the tree, another notable restaurant is Barneys located at Nanyuki Civil Airfield, once the location of the No.1340 Flight RAF, which flew Harvards during the Mau Mau Uprising. There is little industry in Nanyuki. There used to be a factory, Mount Kenya Textile Mills. The British management deteriorated over the years, which contributed to its bankruptcy in 1978. Years later, the factory, which had remained more or less intact, was bought by an Asian businessman, the factory eventually closed due to cheap imports and outdated machinery and finally was looted to the ground
4.
Gilgil
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Gilgil, Kenya, is a town in Nakuru County, Kenya. The town is located between Naivasha and Nakuru and along the Nairobi - Nakuru highway and it is to the west of the Gilgil River, which flows south to feed Lake Naivasha. Gilgil has a population of 18,805 according to the 1999 census, Gilgil is the centre of the Gilgil Division in Nakuru County. During the 1920s - 1940s, some members of the Happy Valley set lived in Gilgil, from 1944 to 1948, it also contained a British internment camp for Irgun and Lehi members. Agriculture is the local industry. While Gilgil Telecommunications Industries was an employer, it is now closed down as it was sold by the government. There are a few industries within the outskirts of the town, the industry mines diatomite which is used for various industrial purposes. The other industry is the Ndume Farm Machineries, which manufactures farm equipment, especially milling machines. These populations have expanded the farming activities in the towns outskirts. The community also hosts two large Kenya Defence Forces barracks, the headquarters of Kenya Police Services Anti-Stock-Theft unit and the headquarters of the National Youth Service, the larger numbers of personnel employed by these organizations contribute a lot to the towns economy. The Anti-Stock-Theft unit, an outfit, is a rapid response police unit to track down cattle rustlers mainly among the pastoral communities. Tourism is also a contributor to the towns economy. Nearby destinations include Lake Elementaita, northwest along the Nairobi-Nakuru highway, the Kariandusi Prehistoric Site lies next to the Kariandusi Diatomite Plant. The site is operated by the National Museums of Kenya, there is enough geological evidence to show that in the past, large lakes, sometimes reaching levels hundreds of meters higher than the present Lake Nakuru and Elementaita, occupied this basin. Dating back between 700,000 and one years old, Kariandusi is possibly the first Acheulian site to have been found in Situ in East Africa. Dr Leakey, a renowned paleontologist, believed that this was a site of the Acheulian period. He made this conclusion after numerous collections of specimens were found lying in the Kariandusi riverbed and this living site of the hand-axe man, was discovered in 1928. A rise in the Lake level drove prehistoric men from their home and buried all the tools
5.
National Assembly (Kenya)
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The National Assembly is the lower house of the Parliament of Kenya. Prior to the 11th Parliament, it had served as the unicameral and it has a total of 349 seats,290 elected from the constituencies,47 women elected from the counties and 12 nominated representatives. The speaker serves as an ex officio member, the Kenyan Higher Court, ordered the lawmakers to enact gender quotas legislation, or face dissolution. Education, Research and Technology Committee, Education, training, research, health Committee, Matters related to health, medical care and health insurance. Lands Committee, Matters related to lands and settlement, Transport, Public Works and Housing Committee, Transport, roads, public works, construction and maintenance of roads, rails and buildings, air, seaports and housing. Reports indicate that two independents, NARC-Kenya, and one member of the Federal Party of Kenya also agreed to work with Jubilee, National Assembly of Kenya elections,2007 Constitution of Kenya General, History of Kenya List of national legislatures Legislative branch Parliament of Kenya
6.
Nakuru
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Nakuru is the fourth-largest city in Kenya, the capital of Nakuru County and former capital of the Rift Valley Province. It has 307,990 inhabitants, making it the largest urban centre in the Kenyan mid-west with Eldoret in Uasin Gishu following closely behind, Nakuru lies about 1,850 m above sea level. The history of Nakuru can perhaps be traced to the period due to the archaeological discoveries located about 8 km from the Central Business District at the Hyrax Hill reserve. Nakuru is Kenyas 4th largest urban centre with a population of 307,990, Nakuru was established by the British as part of the White highlands during the colonial era and it has continued growing into a cosmopolitan city. It received township status in 1904 and became a municipality in 1952, the history of Kenya as a country is closely intertwined with that of Nakuru as a town and a district which is now a county. The first and second presidents of Kenya maintained their residences within the city. In 2006, the then MP, Mirugi Kariuki was killed in a crash in Marsabit on his way to a peace meeting. The crash also killed five members of parliament. The ensuing by-election was contested and won by his son, William Kariuki Mirugi of the Narc-Kenya party, at the age of 27, Hon. William Kariuki Mirugi became one of the youngest members of parliament to represent Nakuru Town Constituency. He was however defeated by Lee Kinyanjui during the 2007 general elections beating his close rival Pastor Mike Brawan, the 2007 post-election violence also took a toll on the town, with dozens of buildings burnt to the ground by various factions. The city of Nakuru is situated in Nakuru County, Kenya and it is located along Kenyatta avenue in Nakuru, Nakuru county, Kenya. Small-scale agriculture, manufacturing and tourism are the backbone of the economy of Nakuru and these crops are stored in massive silos at the outskirts of the city by the National Cereals and Produce Board and Lesiolo Grain Handlers Limited. The crops provide the raw material for the manufacturing industries found in Nakuru. These industries include flour milling and grain ginneries, dairy farming is a key economic activity and provides the inputs for various milk processing plants around the city. According to a UN study released in 2011, Nakuru is Africas fastest growing city, the city is also a centre for various retail businesses that provide goods and services to the manufacturing and agricultural sectors. A large public market lies to the west of the town on the thoroughfare to the capital. Nakuru is the home of AmaloGroup Limited, AmaloGroup Limited is a premier Tech Company registered in Kenya. Nakuru is also an important educational centre and it is the home of Egerton University, a large public university, and Kabarak University, a private university associated with former President Mois business and religious interests
7.
Nairobi
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Nairobi is the capital and largest city of Kenya. It is famous for having the Nairobi National Park, the only game reserve found within a major city. The city and its surrounding area also form Nairobi County, whose current governor is Evans Kidero, the name Nairobi comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nairobi, which translates to cool water. The phrase is also the Maasai name of the Nairobi river, however, it is popularly known as the Green City in the Sun, and is surrounded by several expanding villa suburbs. Nairobi was founded in 1899 by the authorities in British East Africa. The town quickly grew to replace Machakos as the capital of Kenya in 1907, after independence in 1963, Nairobi became the capital of the Republic of Kenya. During Kenyas colonial period, the city became a centre for the coffee, tea. The city lies on the River Athi in the part of the country. With a population of 3.36 million in 2011, Nairobi is the second-largest city by population in the African Great Lakes region after Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. According to the 2009 census, in the area of Nairobi,3,138,295 inhabitants lived within 696 km2. Nairobi is the 14th-largest city in Africa, including the population of its suburbs, the Nairobi Securities Exchange is one of the largest in Africa and the second-oldest exchange on the continent. It is Africas fourth-largest exchange in terms of trading volume, capable of making 10 million trades a day, Nairobi is found within the Greater Nairobi Metropolitan region, which consists of 4 out of 47 counties in Kenya, which generates about 60% of the entire nations wealth. The city was named after a water hole known in Maasai as Enkare Nairobi and it was completely rebuilt in the early 1900s after an outbreak of plague and the burning of the original town. The location of the Nairobi railway camp was due to its central position between Mombasa and Kampala. It was also chosen because its network of rivers could supply the camp with water, however, malaria was a serious problem, leading to at least one attempt to have the town moved. In 1905, Nairobi replaced Mombasa as capital of the British protectorate, as the British occupiers started to explore the region, they started using Nairobi as their first port of call. This prompted the government to build several spectacular grand hotels in the city. The main occupants were British game hunters, Nairobi continued to grow under the British and many British subjects settled within the citys suburbs
8.
Namibia
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Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south, although it does not border Zimbabwe, a part of less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates the two countries. Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek, and it is a state of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by the San, Damara, since about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived as part of the Bantu expansion. Since then the Bantu groups in total, known as the Ovambo people, have dominated the population of the country, in the late 19th century during European colonization, the German Empire established rule over most of the territory as a protectorate in 1884. It began to develop infrastructure and farming, and maintained this German colony until 1915, after the end of World War I, in 1920 the League of Nations mandated the country to the United Kingdom, under administration by South Africa. It imposed its laws, including racial classifications and rules, from 1948, with the National Party elected to power, South Africa applied apartheid also to what was known as South West Africa. In 1878 the Cape of Good Hope had annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore Penguin Islands, following continued guerrilla warfare, South Africa installed an interim administration in Namibia in 1985. Namibia obtained full independence from South Africa in 1990, but Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands remained under South African control until 1994. Namibia has a population of 2.1 million people and a stable multi-party parliamentary democracy, Agriculture, herding, tourism and the mining industry – including mining for gem diamonds, uranium, gold, silver, and base metals – form the basis of its economy. The large, arid Namib Desert has resulted in Namibia being overall one of the least densely populated countries in the world, Namibia enjoys high political, economic and social stability. The name of the country is derived from the Namib Desert, before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as German South-West Africa, then as South-West Africa, reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and the South Africans. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by San, Damara, from about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived during the Bantu expansion from central Africa. From the late 18th century onwards, Oorlam people from Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. The missionaries accompanying the Oorlam were well received by them, the right to use waterholes, on their way further northwards, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the Herero at Windhoek, Gobabis, and Okahandja, who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the German Empire deployed troops to the places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486, like most of interior Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century
9.
Mombasa
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Mombasa is a city on the coast of Kenya. It is the countrys second-largest city, after the capital Nairobi and its metropolitan region is the second largest in the country and has a population of approximately two million people. Administratively, Mombasa is the capital of Mombasa County, a regional cultural and economic hub, Mombasa has an extra-large port and an international airport, and is an important regional tourism centre. The city had a population of about 939,000 per the 2009 census and it is located on Mombasa Island and sprawls to the surrounding mainlands. The island is separated from the mainland by two creeks, Tudor Creek and Kilindini Harbour. It is connected to the mainland to the north by the Nyali Bridge, to the south by the Likoni Ferry, the port serves both Kenya and countries of the interior, linking them to the ocean. The city is served by Moi International Airport located in the northwest mainland suburb of Chaani, Mombasa has a cosmopolitan population, with the Swahili people and Mijikenda predominant. Other communities include the Akamba and Taita Bantus as well as a significant population of Luo, the major religions practised in the city are Islam, Christianity and Hinduism. Over the centuries, many immigrants and traders have settled in Mombasa, particularly from the Middle East, Somalia, and the Indian sub-continent, the founding of Mombasa is associated with two rulers, Mwana Mkisi and Shehe Mvita. According to oral history and medieval commentaries, Shehe Mvita superseded the dynasty of Mwana Mkisi, Shehe Mvita is remembered as a Muslim of great learning and so is connected more directly with the present ideals of Swahili culture that people identify with Mombasa. The ancient history associated with Shehe Mvita and the founding of a settlement on Mombasa Island is still linked to present-day peoples living in Mombasa. The Thenashara Taifa Swahili lineages recount this ancient history today and are the keepers of local Swahili traditions, even though today Mombasa is a very heterogeneous cultural mix, families associated with the Twelve Nations are still considered the original inhabitants of the city. Most of the information on Mombasa comes from Portuguese chroniclers writing in the 16th century. In 1331, the famous Moroccan scholar and traveller Ibn Battuta also visited the area during his travels to the Swahili Coast and made mention of the city. He noted that the people of Mombasa were Shãfii Muslims, a people, trustworthy. Their mosques are made of wood, expertly built, the exact founding date of the city is unknown, but it has a long history. Kenyan school history books place the founding of Mombasa as 900 A. D and it must have been already a prosperous trading town in the 12th century, as the Arab geographer Al Idrisi mentions it in 1151. During the pre-modern period, Mombasa was an important centre for the trade in spices, gold and its trade links reached as far as the Indian subcontinent and modern-day China and oral historians today can still recall this period of local history
10.
MD Helicopters MD 500
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The MD Helicopters MD500 series is an American family of light utility civilian and military helicopters. The MD500 was developed from the Hughes 500, a version of the US Armys OH-6A Cayuse/Loach. The series currently includes the MD 500E, MD 520N, the successful Hughes 500/MD500 series began life in response to a U. S. Army requirement for a light observation helicopter. Hughes Model 369 won the contest against competition from Bell and Hiller, the OH-6 Cayuse first flew in February 1963. The engine exhaust port is located at the end of the cabin pod underneath the tailboom and it has a short-diameter main rotor system and a short tail, giving it agile control response and is less susceptible to weather-cocking. Hughes won the U. S. Armys LOH contest with its OH-6 helicopter by submitting a very low and aggressive price per airframe. Due to rising prices, the U. S. Army later re-opened the contest, where Hughes offered the machine at a realistic price. OH-6 helicopters were ordered by the U. S. Army. Prior to the OH-6s first flight, Hughes announced it was developing a version, to be marketed as the Hughes 500, available in basic five-. A utility version with a powerful engine was offered as the 500U. The improved Hughes 500D became the model in 1976, with a more powerful engine, a T-tail, and a new five-blade main rotor. The 500D was replaced by the 500E from 1982 with a nose and various interior improvements, such as greater head-. The 530F was a powerful version of the 500E optimized for hot. McDonnell Douglas acquired Hughes Helicopters in January 1984, and from August 1985 the 500E and 530F were built as the MD 500E, in 2014 an MD530F performed airshow acrobatics, piloted by eighty-two-year-old Dennis Kenyon. Following the 1997 Boeing-McDonnell Douglas merger, Boeing sold the former MD civil helicopter lines to MD Helicopters in early 1999, Military variants are marketed under the MD500 Defender name. The MD 520N introduced a revolutionary advance in design, dispensing with a conventional anti-torque tail rotor in favor of the Hughes/McDonnell-Douglas-developed NOTAR system. Because the fan is enclosed in the tailboom, tail rotor noise—the major source of noise from most conventional helicopters—was significantly reduced. It also eliminated the vulnerable exposed tail rotor blades, eliminating the possibility of persons being injured or killed on the ground, the MD 530N was the first to fly, on December 29,1989, and the MD 520N first flew on May 1,1990
11.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
12.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
