1.
Kfar Etzion
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Kfar Etzion is an Israeli settlement and a religious kibbutz located in the Judean Hills between Jerusalem and Hebron in the southern West Bank re-established in 1967. It is located 4.7 km from the Green Line west of the Separation Barrier, in 2015, Kfar Etzion had a population of 1,071. The international community considers Israeli settlements in the West Bank illegal under international law, the name was taken from a verse in the Bible, Genesis 35,21, which referenced a tower by the same name. During the 1929 Palestine riots, Migdal Eder was attacked and destroyed, residents of the neighboring Arab village of Beit Umar sheltered the farmers, but they could not return to their land. The Jews were forced to again in the wake of the 1936–39 Arab revolt. Much of what Holtzman and his comrades had built was demolished by the Arabs, in 1943–47, the kibbutz movement sent out groups of settlers to establish four kibbutzim, creating what became known as the Etzion bloc. Kfar Etzion, Ein Tzurim, Massuot Yitzhak and Revadim were destroyed in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the kibbutzim held off the attacks for ten days until Kfar Etzion fell. In the Kfar Etzion massacre on 14 May,157 Jewish inhabitants of the village were murdered, as all but four of the inhabitants were executed by Arab Legion, the inhabitants there were taken as prisoners of war and released nine months later. In 1967 Israel gained control over the West Bank in the Six-Day War, a key figure identified with Kfar Etzions reestablishment after 1967 is Hanan Porat, who lived on the kibbutz as a child prior to its destruction in 1948. Another figure involved in Kfar Etzions resettlement is Elyashiv Knohl, a rabbi of the community whose father fought in Israels War of Independence and was captured during the war by the Jordanians. According to Knohl, Kfar Etzions original settlers were socialists, today Kfar Etzion houses a museum and archive documenting the history of Gush Etzion. In the 2013 Middle East cold snap a meter of snow fell on the Kfar Etzion area, residents of Kfar Etzion earn their livelihood growing cherries, flowers, olives, almonds, and grapes. Some raise chickens, and others work in Jerusalem, as of 2012 there is a large clothing store on the settlement. In 2012 the price of a 120-square-meter home on the settlement was ILS1.1 million while the price of a 200-square-meter home was ILS1.8 million. Lone Tree Brewery Between Jerusalem and Hebron, Jewish Settlement in the Pre-State Period, Yossi Katz Official website Peace Now fact sheet
2.
Irregular military
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Irregular military is any non-standard military, that is, distinct from that of the regular army. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term and it can refer to the type of military organization, or to the type of tactics used. An irregular military organization is one which is not part of the army organization. Without standard military unit organization, various more general names are used, such organizations may be called a troop, group, unit, column, band. Irregulars are soldiers or warriors that are members of these organizations and this also applies to irregular troops, irregular infantry and irregular cavalry. Irregular warfare is warfare employing the tactics used by irregular military organizations. This involves avoiding large-scale combat, and focusing on small, stealthy, hit, the words regular and irregular have been used to describe combat forces for hundreds of years, usually with little ambiguity. Due to a chain of command requirements, the regular army is very well defined. In cases where the legitimacy of the army or its opponents is questioned, the Third Geneva Convention of 1949, uses regular armed forces as a critical distinction. The ICRC provided commentary saying that armed forces satisfy four Hague Conventions conditions. The term irregular military describes the how and what, but it is common to focus on the why. Bypassing the legitimate military and taking up arms is an extreme measure, the motivation for doing so is often used as the basis of the primary label for any irregular military. Different terms come in and out of fashion, based on political and emotional associations that develop, here is a list of such terms, organized more or less from oldest to latest. Auxiliaries - foreign or allied troops supplementing the regular army, organized from provincial or tribal regions, in the Imperial Roman army it became common to maintain a number of auxiliaries about equal to the legionaries. Levies - feudal peasants and freemen liable to be called up for military duty. Revolutionary — someone part of a revolution, whether military or not, Guerrilla — someone who uses unconventional military tactics, tends to refer to groups engaged in open conflict rather than underground resistance. Term coined during the Peninsula War in Spain against France, franc-tireur — French irregular forces during the Franco-Prussian War. But is also used in legal cases as a synonym for unprivileged combatant
3.
Haganah
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Haganah was a Jewish paramilitary organization in the British Mandate of Palestine, which became the core of the Israel Defense Forces. The evolution went step by step from Bar-Giora, to Hashomer, to Haganah, the Jewish paramilitary organisations in the New Yishuv started with the Second Aliyah. The first such organization was Bar-Giora, founded in September 1907 and it consisted of a small group of Jewish immigrants who guarded settlements for an annual fee. At no time did Bar-Giora have more than 100 members and it was converted to Hashomer in April 1909, which operated until the British Mandate of Palestine came into being in 1920. Hashomer was an elitist organization with narrow scope, and was created to protect against criminal gangs seeking to steal property. During World War I, the forerunners of the Haganah/IDF were the Zion Mule Corps, after the Arab riots against Jews in April 1920, the Yishuvs leadership saw the need to create a nationwide underground defense organization, and the Haganah was founded in June of the same year. During World War II the successor to the Jewish Legion of World War I was the Jewish Brigade, at the beginning of the ensuing 1948-49 full-scale conventional war against regular Arab armies, the Haganah was reorganised to become the core of the new Israel Defense Forces. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection from these gangs, in addition to guarding Jewish communities, the role of the Haganah was to warn the residents of and repel attacks by Palestinian Arabs. In the period between 1920–1929, the Haganah lacked a central authority or coordination. Haganah units were very localized and poorly armed, they consisted mainly of Jewish farmers who took turns guarding their farms or their kibbutzim, following the 1929 Palestine riots, the Haganahs role changed dramatically. It became a larger organization encompassing nearly all the youth and adults in the Jewish settlements. It also acquired foreign arms and began to develop workshops to create hand grenades and simple military equipment, many Haganah fighters objected to the official policy of havlagah that Jewish political leaders had imposed on the militia. Fighters had been instructed to defend communities and not initiate counterattacks against Arab gangs or their communities. This policy appeared defeatist to many who believed that the best defense is a good offense, in 1931, the more militant elements of the Haganah splintered off and formed the Irgun Tsvai-Leumi, better known as Irgun. During the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, the Haganah worked to protect British interests and to quell Arab rebellion using the FOSH, at that time, the Haganah fielded 10,000 mobilized men along with 40,000 reservists. The battle experience gained during the training was useful in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, by 1939, the British had issued the White Paper, which severely restricted Jewish immigration to Palestine, deeply angering the Zionist leadership. In reaction to the White Paper, the Haganah built up the Palmach as the Haganahs elite strike force, approximately 100,000 Jews were brought to Palestine in over one hundred ships during the final decade of what became known as Aliyah Bet. The Haganah also organized demonstrations against British immigration quotas, in 1940 the Haganah sabotaged the Patria, an ocean liner being used by the British to deport 1,800 Jews to Mauritius, with a bomb intended to cripple the ship
4.
Kibbutz
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A kibbutz is a collective community in Israel that was traditionally based on agriculture. The first kibbutz, established in 1909, was Degania, today, farming has been partly supplanted by other economic branches, including industrial plants and high-tech enterprises. Kibbutzim began as utopian communities, a combination of socialism and Zionism, in recent decades, some kibbutzim have been privatized and changes have been made in the communal lifestyle. A member of a kibbutz is called a kibbutznik, in 2010, there were 270 kibbutzim in Israel. Their factories and farms account for 9% of Israels industrial output, worth US$8 billion, some Kibbutzim had also developed substantial high-tech and military industries. For example, in 2010, Kibbutz Sasa, containing some 200 members, the kibbutzim were founded by members of the Bilu movement who emigrated to Palestine. The first kibbutz was Degania Alef, founded in 1909, joseph Baratz, one of the pioneers of the kibbutz movement, wrote a book about his experiences. We were happy enough working on the land, but we knew more and more certainly that the ways of the old settlements were not for us. This was not the way we hoped to settle the old way with Jews on top and Arabs working for them, anyway, we thought that there shouldnt be employers. There must be a better way, though Baratz and others wanted to farm the land themselves, becoming independent farmers was not a realistic option in 1909. Ottoman Palestine was a harsh environment, the Galilee was swampy, the Judaean Mountains rocky, and the south of the country, the Negev, was a desert. To make things more challenging, most of the settlers had no farming experience. The sanitary conditions were also poor, malaria, typhus and cholera were rampant. Bedouins would raid farms and settled areas, sabotage of irrigation canals and burning of crops were also common. Living collectively was simply the most logical way to be secure in an unwelcoming land, finally, the land had been purchased by the greater Jewish community. From around the world, Jews dropped coins into Jewish National Fund Blue Boxes for land purchases in Palestine, in 1909, Baratz, nine other men, and two women established themselves at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee near the Arab village of Umm Juni/Juniya. These teenagers had hitherto worked as day laborers converting wetlands for human development, as masons and their dream was now to work for themselves, building up the land. They called their community Kvutzat Degania, now Degania Alef, the founders of Degania endured backbreaking labor, The body is crushed, the legs fail, the head hurts, the sun burns and weakens, wrote one of the pioneers
5.
Arab Legion
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The Arab Legion was the regular army of Transjordan and then Jordan in the early part of the 20th century. The Legion was based in Zarqa and 80 percent of its men were the local Chechens and it was quickly expanded to 1,000 men recruiting Arabs who had served in the military of the Ottoman Empire. On 22 October 1923, the police were merged with the Reserve Mobile Force, still under Peake, the new force was named Al Jeish al Arabi but was always known officially in English as the Arab Legion. The Arab Legion was financed by Britain and commanded by British officers, the force was formed as a police force to keep order among the tribes of Transjordan and to guard the important Jerusalem–Amman road. On 1 April 1926, the Transjordan Frontier Force was formed from cadre drawn from the Arab Legion and it consisted of only 150 men and most of them were stationed along Transjordans roads. During this time the Arab Legion was reduced to 900 men and was stripped of its machine guns, artillery. During World War II, the Arab Legion took part in the British war effort against pro-Axis forces in the Mediterranean, by then the force had grown to 1,600 men. The Legion, part of Iraqforce, contributed significantly in the Anglo-Iraqi War and in the Syria-Lebanon campaign, the top three officers representing the Legion who participated in the Victory March were Major General Abdul Qadir Pasha el Jundi, O. B. E. Colonel Bahjat Bey Tabbara, and Lieutenant Colonel Ahmed Sudqui Bey, the Arab Legion actively participated in the 1948 Arab–Israeli war. The regiments were organized into two brigades, 1st Brigade contained 1st and 3rd Regiments while 3rd brigade contained 2nd and 4th Regiments. There were also two batteries with four 25-pounders each. On 9 February 1948 the Transjordan Frontier Force was disbanded with members being absorbed back into the Arab Legion, although headed by Glubb, now a Lieutenant General, command in the field was by Brigadier Norman Lash. The Legion was initially withdrawn from Palestine to Transjordanian territory, under instruction from the United Nations, with the commencement of hostilities the Legion re-entered Palestine with 1st Brigade heading to Nablus and 2nd Brigade heading to Ramallah. This led to the spectacle of British officers leaving their units to return to Transjordan, only to sneak back across the border. Without exception all of the British officers returned to their units, one British MP called for Glubb Pasha to be imprisoned for serving in a foreign army without the Kings permission. Battle for Jerusalem and Siege of Jerusalem from 17 May to 18 July 1948, Attacking and capturing Gezer on 10 June 1948, Tarqumiya on 24 October 1948. By the end of the war in 1949, the Arab Legion consisted of over 10,000 men manning a 100-mile front, over twenty soldiers and policemen were killed. The Legion generally stayed out of the 1956 Suez Crisis, on 1 March 1956, the Legion was renamed as the Arab Army
6.
Declaration of Independence (Israel)
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It declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, which would come into effect on termination of the British Mandate at midnight that day. The event is celebrated annually in Israel with a national holiday Yom Haatzmaut on 5 Iyar of every year according to the Hebrew calendar, the possibility of a Jewish homeland in Palestine had been a goal of Zionist organizations since the late 19th century. After World War I, the United Kingdom was given a mandate for Palestine, in the face of increasing violence after World War II, the British handed the issue over to the recently established United Nations. The result was Resolution 181, a plan to partition Palestine into Independent Arab and Jewish States, the Jewish state was to receive around 56% of the land area of Mandate Palestine, encompassing 82% of the Jewish population, though it would be separated from Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by most of the Jewish population, the result was 33 to 13 in favour of the resolution, with 10 abstentions. Resolution 181, PART I, Future constitution and government of Palestine, TERMINATION OF MANDATE, PARTITION AND INDEPENDENCE, Clause 3 provides, Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem. Shall come into existence in Palestine two months after the evacuation of the forces of the mandatory Power has been completed. The first draft of the declaration was made by Zvi Berenson, a revised second draft was made by three lawyers, A. Beham, A. Hintzheimer and Z. E. Baker, and was framed by a committee including David Remez, Pinchas Rosen, Haim-Moshe Shapira, Moshe Sharett, a second committee meeting, which included David Ben-Gurion, Yehuda Leib Maimon, Sharett and Zisling produced the final text. On 12 May 1948, the Minhelet HaAm was convened to vote on declaring independence, three of the thirteen members were missing, with Yehuda Leib Maimon and Yitzhak Gruenbaum being blocked in besieged Jerusalem, while Yitzhak-Meir Levin was in the United States. The meeting started at 1,45 in the afternoon and ended after midnight, the decision was between accepting the American proposal for a truce, or declaring independence. The latter option was put to a vote, with six of the ten members present supporting it, For, David Ben-Gurion, Moshe Sharett, Peretz Bernstein, Haim-Moshe Shapira, Mordechai Bentov, against, Eliezer Kaplan, David Remez, Pinchas Rosen, Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit. Chaim Weizmann, chairman of the World Zionist Organization and soon to be the first President of Israel, endorsed the decision, after reportedly asking What are they waiting for, the idiots. The draft text was submitted for approval to a meeting of Moetzet HaAm at the JNF building in Tel Aviv on 14 May. The meeting started at 13,50 and ended at 15,00, an hour before the declaration was due to be made, during the process, there were two major debates, centering on the issues of borders and religion. On the border issue, the draft had declared that the borders would be that decided by the UN partition plan. While this was supported by Rosen and Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit, it was opposed by Ben-Gurion and Zisling, with Ben-Gurion stating, We accepted the UN Resolution and they are preparing to make war on us. If we defeat them and capture western Galilee or territory on both sides of the road to Jerusalem, these areas become part of the state
7.
Martin Gilbert
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Sir Martin Gilbert, CBE, FRSL was a British historian and honorary Fellow of Merton College, University of Oxford. He was the author of books, including works on Winston Churchill, the 20th century. He was a member of the Chilcot Inquiry into the UKs role in the Iraq War, Gilbert was born in London to Peter and Miriam Gilbert, all four of his grandparents had been born in Tsarist Russia. Nine months after the outbreak of World War II, he was evacuated to Canada as part of the British efforts to safeguard children, vivid memories of the transatlantic crossing from Liverpool to Quebec sparked his curiosity about the war in later years. After the war, Gilbert attended Highgate School, where he was taught history by the Balkan expert Alan Palmer and he then completed two years of National Service in the Intelligence Corps before going on to study at Magdalen College, Oxford. Gilbert graduated in 1960 with a first-class BA in modern history, one of his tutors at Oxford was A. J. P. After his graduation, Gilbert undertook postgraduate research at St Antonys College, after two years of postgraduate work, Gilbert was approached by Randolph Churchill to assist his work on a biography of his father, Sir Winston Churchill. That same year,1962, Gilbert was made a Fellow of Merton College and he spent the next few years combining his own research projects in Oxford with being part of Randolphs research team in Suffolk, who were working on the first two volumes of the Churchill biography. When Randolph died in 1968, Gilbert was commissioned to take over the task, Gilbert spent the next 20 years on the Churchill project, publishing a number of other books throughout the time. Each main volume of the biography is accompanied by two or three volumes of documents, and so the biography currently runs to 26 volumes, with another 7 document volumes still planned, in the 1960s, Gilbert compiled some historical atlases. His other major works include a definitive history on the Holocaust, as well as the single-volume histories The First World War. He also wrote a series called A History of the Twentieth Century. Gilbert described himself as an historian who made extensive use of primary sources in his work. Interviewed by the BBC on the subject of Holocaust research, Gilbert said he believes that the gathering of facts will ultimately consign Holocaust deniers to history. By the 1980s Gilberts academic attention had turned towards the Refusenik movement in the Soviet Union. In 1995, Gilbert retired as a Fellow of Merton College but was made an Honorary Fellow, in 1999 he was awarded the D. Litt. degree by Oxford for the totality of his published work. In 2000 he received the Guardian of Zion Award from the Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies at Bar-Ilan University. From 2002, he was a Distinguished Fellow of Hillsdale College, Michigan, in October 2008, he was elected to an Honorary Fellowship at Churchill College
8.
Deir Yassin massacre
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The assault occurred as Jewish militia sought to relieve the blockade of Jerusalem during the civil war that preceded the end of British rule in Palestine. According to Irgun sources, the village guards felt surprised by the Jews entering their village at night, the village fell after fierce house-to-house fighting. During and after the battle for the village, at least 107 Palestinians were killed, including women and children—some were shot, while others died when hand grenades were thrown into their homes. Despite an original boast by the victors that 254 had been killed, Aref al-Aref counted 117 victims,7 in combat, several villagers were taken prisoner and may have been killed after being paraded through the streets of West Jerusalem. Morris wrote that there were cases of mutilation and rape. Four of the attackers were killed, with around 35 injured, the killings were condemned by the leadership of the Haganah—the Jewish communitys main paramilitary force—and by the areas two chief rabbis. The Jewish Agency for Israel sent Jordans King Abdullah a letter of apology, Abdullah held the Jewish Agency responsible for the massacre, because they were the head of Jewish affairs in Palestine. He warned about terrible consequences if more incidents like that occurred, the deaths became a pivotal event in the Arab–Israeli conflict for their demographic and military consequences. The attack on Deir Yassin took place after the United Nations proposed on November 29,1947 that Palestine be divided into an Arab state and a Jewish one. Jerusalem was to belong to state, but was to be administered separately. The Arabs rejected the proposal, and civil war broke out, by March 1948, the road was cut off and Jerusalem was under siege. In response, the Haganah launched Operation Nachshon to break the siege, on April 9, Irgun and Lehi forces attacked nearby Deir Yassin. Deir Yassin was a Palestinian Arab village of several hundred residents, all Muslim and it was situated on a hill west of Jerusalem,800 meters above sea level, overlooking the main highway entering Jerusalem. The village was prosperous, thanks to the excavation of limestone from its quarries. On January 20,1948, the villagers met leaders of the Givat Shaul community to form a peace pact, in return, patrols from Givat Shaul guaranteed safe passage to Deir Yassin residents, in vehicles or on foot, passing through their neighborhood on the way to Jerusalem. Yoma Ben-Sasson, Haganah commander in Givat Shaul, said after the village had been captured that, Arab militiamen had tried to set up camp in the village, leading to a firefight that saw one villager killed. Just before January 28, Abd al Qadir had arrived with 400 men and tried to recruit some villagers, but the elders voiced their opposition, no steps were taken against him, and he was not asked to cancel the peace pact. On February 13, a gang of Arabs arrived to attack Givat Shaul, but the Deir Yassin villagers saw them off
9.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
10.
Shlomo Goren
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Shlomo Goren, was an Orthodox Religious Zionist rabbi in Israel, a Talmudic scholar and foremost authority on Jewish law. He served in the Israel Defense Forces during three wars, wrote several award-winning books on Jewish law, and was appointed Chief Rabbi of Tel Aviv in 1968, Gorens original family name was Gorenchik. He was born in Zambrów, Poland and immigrated with his family to the British Mandate of Palestine in 1925, Goren was raised in Kfar Hasidim, a village of religious Jews near Haifa that his father co-founded. He began studying at the Hebron yeshiva in Jerusalem at age 12 and his first book was published when he was 17 years old. Gorens career was characterized by a commitment to the Religious Zionist values of his youth and he volunteered for the Haganah in 1936, and served as a chaplain for the Jerusalem area during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, during which he tested for and qualified as an IDF paratrooper. Goren was a Chaplain of the Carmeli Brigade during the war and he strongly opposed the idea of separate religious and secular units and worked for the integration of all soldiers in united army units. He was the most prominent halakhist involved in rulings for religious soldiers regarding their army service, Goren was eventually promoted to the rank of Brigadier-General. Following the establishment of the state of Israel, Goren was appointed Chief Rabbi of the Military Rabbinate of the IDF with the rank of Major-General, a position he held until 1968. Rabbi Goren used the opportunity to establish and organize the military chaplaincys framework, streamlining processes to get soldiers accommodations for kosher food. Goren personally wrote a new prayerbook to accommodate the different prayer styles used by ethnic groups serving in the army. Goren also served in the 1956 Suez Crisis and the 1967 Six Day War, Goren was on hand during the capture of East Jerusalem on 7 June 1967, where he gave a prayer of thanksgiving broadcast live to the entire country. Shortly afterwards Goren, blowing a shofar and carrying a Torah scroll, the event was one of the defining moments of the war, and several photographs of Goren, surrounded by soldiers in prayer, have since become famous around the world and particularly in Israel. The most famous photograph shows Goren blowing the Shofar against the background of the Western Wall, Goren attracted many admirers through his passion for Religious Zionism and his combining Zionist activism with a commitment to Judaism and Jewish scholarship. However, his uncompromising personality later resulted in him becoming a polarizing, Goren often clashed with his more conservative rabbinical colleagues. One example of Gorens desire to adapt Halakha to changing realities in science was his stance on Kiddush Levana. A prayer customarily added after the blessing contains the words just as I dance before you and am unable to touch you. Goren said that since the Americans landed on the moon in 1969, Goren was also well known for his controversial positions concerning Jewish sovereignty over the Temple Mount. Goren continued to pray for many years in the Makhkame building overlooking the Temple Mount where he conducted yearly High Holiday services and his call for the establishment of a synagogue on the Temple Mount has subsequently been reiterated by his brother-in-law the Chief Rabbi of Haifa, Shear Yashuv Cohen
11.
Mount Herzl
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Mount Herzl, also Har ha-Zikaron, is the site of Israels national cemetery and other memorial and educational facilities, found on the west side of Jerusalem beside Jerusalem Forest. It is named after Theodor Herzl, the founder of modern political Zionism, Herzls tomb lies at the top of the hill. Yad Vashem, which commemorates the Holocaust, lies to the west of Mt. Herzl, Israels war dead are also buried there. Mount Herzl is 834 meters above sea level, every plot section in Mount Herzl has a broad plaza for memorial services. Most state memorial ceremonies for those killed at war are conducted in the National Military, in 1934, Zionist leader Menahem Ussishkin organized the re-interment of Leon Pinsker in Nicanor Cave on Mount Scopus in an attempt to build a pantheon for the great leaders of the Jewish nation. Ussishkin was buried there himself in 1941, when Mount Scopus became an enclave, cut off from Jerusalem, the implementation of this plan was no longer feasible. During summer 1949, Theodor Herzls remains were reinterred on a hill in West Jerusalem which faced the Mount of Olives from a distance and renamed in his honour, Mount Herzl. In November 1949, soldiers who fell during the War of Independence in the Jerusalem area were buried on the slope of the hill. In 1951 the government decided to establish a cemetery for Israeli leaders. It has served this purpose ever since, the military section is the work of two Hungarian-born architects. Apart from Theodor Herzl, Mt. Herzl is the place of five of Israels prime ministers, Levi Eshkol, Golda Meir, Yitzhak Shamir, Yitzhak Rabin. Israeli presidents are also buried on Mt. Herzl, as are other prominent Jewish, Mt. Herzl is the venue for many commemorative events and national celebrations. In 1903, Theodor Herzl wrote in his will, I wish to be buried in a coffin next to my father. The coffins of my father, my sister Pauline, and of my relatives who will have died until then will also be transferred there. When Herzl died a year later, he was interred in Vienna, forty-five years later, Herzls remains were brought to Israel and re-interred in Jerusalem. The location of the site was selected by a special state commission in the top of a hill in Jerusalem next to Military cemetery of Jerusalem. He was buried on 17 August 1949, a temporary stone marked his grave for several years until the site was developed into a national cemetery. Sixty-three entries were submitted in the competition for the design of his new tombstone, the winner was Joseph Klarweins design, consisting of an unadorned black granite stone inscribed with the name Herzl
12.
Jaffa
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Jaffa or Yafo, is the southern and oldest part of Tel Aviv-Yafo, an ancient port city in Israel. Jaffa is famous for its association with the stories of Jonah, Solomon and Saint Peter as well as the mythological story of Andromeda. The town was mentioned in Egyptian sources and the Amarna letters as Yapu, mythology says that it is named for Japheth, one of the sons of Noah, the one who built it after the Flood. The Hellenist tradition links the name to Iopeia, or Cassiopeia, an outcropping of rocks near the harbor is reputed to have been the place where Andromeda was rescued by Perseus. Pliny the Elder associated the name with Iopa, daughter of Aeolus, the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi referred to it as Yaffa. The tell of Jaffa rises to a height of 40 metres, with a view of the coastline. The accumulation of debris and landfill over the centuries made the even higher. Archaeological evidence shows that Jaffa was inhabited roughly 7500 BCE, the natural harbour of Jaffa has been in use since the Bronze Age. The city is mentioned in the Amarna letters under its Egyptian name Ya-Pho. The city was under Egyptian rule until around 800 BCE, Jaffa is mentioned in the Book of Joshua as the territorial border of the Tribe of Dan, hence the modern term Gush Dan for the center of the coastal plain. The tribe of Dan did not manage to dislocate the Philistines from Jaffa, in the Song of Deborah the prophetess asks, דן למה יגור אוניות, Why doth Dan dwell in ships. After Canaanite and Philistine dominion, King David and his son King Solomon conquered Jaffa, the city remained in Israelite hands even after the split of the united Kingdom of Israel. In 701 BCE, in the days of King Hezekiah, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, after a period of Babylonian occupation, under Persian rule, Jaffa was governed by Phoenicians from Tyre. Alexander the Greats troops were stationed in Jaffa and it later became a port of the Seleucid Empire until it was taken over by the Maccabees and ruled by the Hasmonean dynasty. During the First Jewish–Roman War, Jaffa was captured and burned by Cestius Gallus, the Roman Jewish historian Josephus writes that 8,400 inhabitants were massacred. Pirates operating from the rebuilt port incurred the wrath of Vespasian, the New Testament account of Saint Peter bringing back to life the widow Dorcas (recorded in Acts of the Apostles,9, 36–42, takes place in Jaffa, then called in Greek Ἰόππη. Peter retells the story of his vision in Acts 11, 4-17, in Midrash Tannaim in its chapter Deuteronomy 33,19, reference is made to Jose ben Halafta traveling through Jaffa. Jaffa seems to have attracted serious Jewish scholars in the 4th and 5th century, the Jerusalem Talmud in Moed Ketan references Rav Acha of Jaffa, and in Pesachim chapter 1 refers to Rav Phineas of Jaffa
13.
Highway 60 (Israel)
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Highway 60 or Route 60 is a south-north intercity road in Israel and the West Bank that stretches from Beersheba to Nazareth. From its junction with Highway 40 in Beersheba to the citys outskirts, upon entering Jerusalem, its lanes are again mostly separated as it serves as a central artery in the city center. At present, the highway is non-contiguous pending final status agreement between Israel and the Palestinians, the section through Jenin is closed to yellow license plates. The sections north and south of the West Bank and through Jerusalem are closed to green license plates, due to it running through a mainly rural setting, many of the junctions along its route feature hitchhiking posts called trempiadas. The Jerusalem portion of the road begins at the Tunnels Road, passes the edges of Gilo and Beit Safafa, joins the Hebron Road from Bethlehem, at its junction with David Remez Street. In the Abu Tor neighborhood, Route 60 narrows and descends into the Hinnom Valley and it then ascends as Hativat Yerushalayim Street to intersect with the Jaffa Gate entrance to the Old City of Jerusalem. From there it runs underneath the Jaffa Gate Square, briefly overlaps Jaffa Road and it emerges just west of the Damascus Gate intersecting with Street of the Prophets, again becoming a divided street. This section of the road includes tracks for the now completed Jerusalem Light Rails red line, as a freeway, it interchanges with Highway 1 at Shaar Mizrah. The freeway then bypasses Shuafat with one of the longest and highest bridges in the country, feeding into Beit Hanina and it continues as an at-grade road intersecting with Neve Yaakov Blvd and finally exits the city near Kalandia. Before the Oslo Accords, Palestinians lived under Israeli authority and could travel freely on the road, after the Palestinian Authority assumed control over various cities, Israel established checkpoints on areas of the route which entered Palestinian jurisdiction. New routes of highway were paved so that Israeli traffic could bypass the Palestinian towns in order to reduce friction, one of the more sophisticated segments – build in lands east to the Green line set in 1967- is the stretch known as the Tunnels Highway. Leading to the northwest using a pair of tunnels, The northern tunnel, called the Gilo tunnel because it is adjacent to the Gilo neighborhood/Settlement, is 270 metres long. The second tunnel, called the Refaim tunnel based on the nearby Refaim Valley and passing under Har Gilo, the tunnels are linked by the West Banks highest and longest bridge, crossing the Walaja Valley. Route 60 was a scene of violence during the al-Aqsa Intifada. The Israeli Army, in response, has fortified various sections with anti-sniper walls and had established checkpoints along the route, the Tunnels Highway came under particularly heavy assault during the shooting on Gilo neighborhood since it lies between Gilo and Beit Jala. The road was also the site of terrorist attacks in June, August 2010, and June 2015
14.
Jerusalem
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Jerusalem is a city located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is considered a city in the three major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, the part of Jerusalem called the City of David was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent, today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger, Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old Citys boundaries. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, the sobriquet of holy city was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Septuagint which Christians adopted as their own authority, was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesuss crucifixion there, in Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. As a result, despite having an area of only 0, outside the Old City stands the Garden Tomb. Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into Jerusalem, one of Israels Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the countrys undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset, the residences of the Prime Minister and President, the international community does not recognize Jerusalem as Israels capital, and the city hosts no foreign embassies. Jerusalem is also home to some non-governmental Israeli institutions of importance, such as the Hebrew University. In 2011, Jerusalem had a population of 801,000, of which Jews comprised 497,000, Muslims 281,000, a city called Rušalim in the Execration texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt is widely, but not universally, identified as Jerusalem. Jerusalem is called Urušalim in the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba, the name Jerusalem is variously etymologized to mean foundation of the god Shalem, the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city. The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua, according to a Midrash, the name is a combination of Yhwh Yireh and the town Shalem. The earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states, I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem, or as other scholars suggest, the mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem
15.
Hebron
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Hebron is a Palestinian city located in the southern West Bank,30 km south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judaean Mountains, it lies 930 meters above sea level, the city is divided into two sectors, H1, controlled by the Palestinian Authority and H2, roughly 20% of the city, administered by Israel. All security arrangements and travel permits for local residents are coordinated between the Palestinian Authority and Israel via military administration of the West Bank, the settlers are governed by their own municipal body, the Committee of the Jewish Community of Hebron. In Judaism it is considered the second-holiest city after Jerusalem, while Islam regards it as one of the four holy cities. Hebron is a hub of West Bank trade, responsible for roughly a third of the areas gross domestic product. It is locally known for its grapes, figs, limestone, pottery workshops and glassblowing factories. The old city of Hebron is characterized by narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, the city is home to Hebron University and the Palestine Polytechnic University. Hebron is attached to cities of ad-Dhahiriya, Dura, Yatta, Hebron Governorate is the largest Palestinian governorate with its population of 600,364. The name Hebron traces back to two Semitic roots, which coalesce in the form ḥbr, having reflexes in Hebrew and Amorite and denoting a range of meanings from colleague, in the proper name Hebron, the original sense may have been alliance. The Arabic term derives from the Quranic epithet for Abraham, Khalil al-Rahman Beloved of the Merciful or Friend of God, Arabic Al-Khalil thus precisely translates the ancient Hebrew toponym Ḥebron, understood as ḥaber. Archaeological excavations reveal traces of strong fortifications dated to the Early Bronze Age, the city flourished in the 17th–18th centuries BCE before being destroyed by fire, and was resettled in the late Middle Bronze Age. This older Hebron was originally a Canaanite royal city, abrahamic legend associates the city with the Hittites. In Biblical lore they are represented as descendants of the Nephilim, in settling here, Abraham is described as making his first covenant, an alliance with two local Amorite clans who became his ba’alei brit or masters of the covenant. The Hebron of the Bible was centered on what is now known as Tel Rumeida, Later, the biblical narrative has King David reign from Hebron for some seven years. It is there that the elders of Israel come to him to make a covenant before Elohim and it was in Hebron again that Absalom has himself declared king and then raises a revolt against his father David. It became one of the centers of the Tribe of Judah and was classified as one of the six traditional Cities of Refuge. It remained administratively and politically dependent on Jerusalem for this period, Jews also appear to have lived there after the return from the Babylonian exile. During the Maccabean revolt, Hebron was burnt and plundered by Judah Maccabee who fought against the Edomites in 167 BCE, the city appears to have long resisted Hasmonean dominance, however, and indeed as late as the First Jewish–Roman War was still considered Idumean
16.
Gush Etzion
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Gush Etzion is a cluster of Jewish settlements located in the Judaean Mountains, directly south of Jerusalem and Bethlehem in the West Bank. The area was left outside of Israel with the 1949 armistice lines and these settlements were rebuilt after the 1967 Six-Day War, along with new communities that have expanded the area of the Etzion Bloc. As of 2011, Gush Etzion consisted of 22 settlements with a population of 70,000, the international community considers Israeli settlements in the West Bank illegal under international law, but the Israeli government disputes this. The core settlements of Gush Etzion before 1948 were Kfar Etzion, Massuot Yitzhak, Ein Tzurim and Revadim, from November 29,1947, Kfar Etzion was under siege and cut off from Jerusalem. On May 13,1948, when the village surrendered,127 Jewish inhabitants were massacred by the Arab Legion or local village irregulars or both, the other villages surrendered the next day. The inhabitants were taken prisoner and the homes were plundered and burned, the establishment, defense and fall of Gush Etzion have been described as one of the major episodes of the State of Israel-in-the-making, playing a significant role in Israeli collective memory. In 1927, a group of religious Yemenite Jews founded a village they named Migdal Eder. The land had been purchased in 1925 by Zikhron David, a private Jewish land holding company at a site between Bethlehem and Hebron that fell between the zones of influence of the local Arab clans. This early community did not flourish, mainly due to economic hardships, two years later, during the 1929 Palestine riots and recurring hostilities, Migdal Eder was attacked and destroyed. Residents of the neighboring Arab village of Beit Umar sheltered the farmers, in 1932, a Jewish businessman of German extraction, Shmuel Yosef Holtzmann, provided financial backing for another attempt at resettling the area, through a company named El HaHar. The kibbutz established there in 1935 was named Kfar Etzion, in his honor, the 1936–1939 Arab revolt made life intolerable for the residents, who returned to Jerusalem in 1937. The Jewish National Fund organized an attempt at settlement in 1943 with the refounding of Kfar Etzion by members of a religious group called Kvutzat Avraham. Despite the rocky soil, shortage of water, harsh winters, and constant threat of attack. Their isolation was somewhat relieved by the establishment in 1945 of Masuot Yitzhak and Ein Tzurim, populated by members of the religious Bnei Akiva movement, against the backdrop of an impending struggle for Israeli independence, the secular Hashomer Hatzair movement founded a fourth kibbutz, Revadim. A religious center, Neve Ovadia, was founded by the blocs members. By the start of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the Etzion bloc numbered 450 residents, on November 29,1947, the United Nations approved the Partition Plan. The bloc fell within the allotted to a proposed Arab state. The Haganah command decided not to leave the bloc, Arab hostilities began almost immediately, and travel to Jerusalem became exceedingly difficult
17.
Jewish Agency for Israel
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The Jewish Agency for Israel is the largest Jewish nonprofit organization in the world. Its mission is to inspire Jews throughout the world to connect with their people, heritage, and land, and empower them to build a thriving Jewish future and a strong Israel. It is best known as the organization responsible for the immigration and absorption of Jews. Since 1948, the Jewish Agency for Israel has been responsible for bringing 3 million immigrants to Israel, the Jewish Agency played a central role in the founding and the building of the State of Israel. David Ben Gurion was the Chairman of its Executive Committee from 1935 and he became Israels first Prime Minister. In the years before and after the creation of the State and it serves as the main link between Israel and Jewish communities around the world. For example, it conducts intensive Hebrew-language immersion programs in Israel, by law, the Jewish Agency is a para-statal organization but it does not receive core funding from the Israeli government. The Jewish Agency is funded by The Jewish Federations of North America, Keren Hayesod, major Jewish communities and federations, the dozens of programs it supports or operates benefit well over a million Israelis and Jews worldwide every year. In 2008, The Jewish Agency won the Israel Prize for its contribution to Israel. As of 2016, The Jewish Agency sponsors dozens of programs that connect Jews to Israel, the Agency organizes the programs into four different categories, Israel Experiences, Israel in Your Community, Jewish Social Action, and Aliyah. Some programs, According to its website, the Israel Experience programs bring young Jews from around the globe to Israel to get to know the country, Taglit-Birthright Israel provides ten-day educational trips to Israel for Jews ages 18 to 26 from around the world, completely free of charge. Onward Israel organizes 6-to-10-week professional internships in Israel for students and young professionals who have previously visited Israel on Taglit-Birthright or another group tour, participants come in groups, all from the same community or organization. Masa Israel Journey is an organization founded in 2004 by the Government of Israels Office of the Prime Minister, together with The Jewish Agency. It includes a portfolio of more than 200 programs in Israel for Jews aged 18–30, including programs, service programs. It sponsors over 10,000 participants per year, masa provides significant scholarships to participants, performs outreach, and operates alumni activities. Israel Tech Challenge is a partnership of The Jewish Agency with the National Cyber Bureau and it offers trips to Israel of varying lengths for students and young professionals with knowledge in the field of computer science and programming. The programs offer visits with Israeli hi-tech professionals and academics, along with experience or training in coding and it was founded in 1946 by the World Zionist Organization. As of 2013, it had 12,000 alumni from South America, the United States, South Africa, Australia, North Africa, naale allows Jewish teenagers from the diaspora to study in Israel and earn a high school diploma
18.
United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine
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The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was a proposal by the United Nations, which recommended a partition of Mandatory Palestine at the end of the British Mandate. On 29 November 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted the Plan as Resolution 181, the resolution recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish States and a Special International Regime for the city of Jerusalem. Part I of the Plan stipulated that the Mandate would be terminated as soon as possible, the new states would come into existence two months after the withdrawal, but no later than 1 October 1948. The Plan sought to address the objectives and claims of two competing movements, Palestinian nationalism and Jewish nationalism, or Zionism. The Plan also called for Economic Union between the states, and for the protection of religious and minority rights. The Plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, despite its perceived limitations, immediately after adoption of the Resolution by the General Assembly, a civil war broke out and the plan was not implemented. The British administration was formalized by the League of Nations under the Palestine Mandate in 1923, the Mandate reaffirmed the 1917 British commitment to the Balfour Declaration, for the establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish people, with the prerogative to carry it out. A British census of 1918 estimated 700,000 Arabs and 56,000 Jews, the Commission concluded that the Mandate had become unworkable, and recommended Partition into an Arab state linked to Transjordan, a small Jewish state, and a mandatory zone. The Jewish leaders, Chaim Weizmann and David Ben-Gurion, persuaded the Zionist Congress to lend provisional approval to the Peel recommendations as a basis for further negotiations. In a letter to his son in October 1937, Ben-Gurion explained that partition would be a first step to possession of the land as a whole, the same sentiment, that acceptance of partition was a temporary measure beyond which the Palestine would be redeemed. In its entirety, was recorded by Ben-Gurion on other occasions, such as at a meeting of the Jewish Agency executive in June 1938, the British Woodhead Commission was set up to examine the practicality of partition. The Peel plan was rejected and two alternatives were considered. Representatives of Arabs and Jews were invited to London for the St. James Conference, with World War II looming, British policies were influenced by a desire to win Arab world support and could ill afford to engage with another Arab uprising. However, the League of Nations commission held that the White Paper was in conflict with the terms of the Mandate as put forth in the past, the outbreak of the Second World War suspended any further deliberations. The Jewish Agency hoped to persuade the British to restore Jewish immigration rights, aliyah Bet was organized to spirit Jews out of Nazi controlled Europe, despite the British prohibitions. The White Paper also led to the formation of Lehi, a small Jewish organization which opposed the British, the Jewish community rejected the restriction on immigration and organized an armed resistance. These actions and United States pressure to end the policy led to the establishment of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. N. U. S. endorsed the Commission findings concerning Jewish immigration and land purchase restrictions, in effect the British continued to carry out its White Paper policy
19.
Henry Laurens (scholar)
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For the American Revolutionary statesman, see Henry Laurens. Henry Laurens is a French historian, and author of reference works about the Arab-Muslim world. He is Professor and Chair of History of the Contemporary Arab World at the Collège de France, since 1999, he has served on the Administrative Council of the French Institute of Oriental Archeology in Cairo. In 2004, he became a member of the High Council of the Institute of the Arab World in Paris and he is also on the editorial board of the journal Maghreb-Machrek. Laurens earned his degree and doctorate, specializing in Arabic literature, at the National Institute of Oriental Languages, from 1981 to 1983, he studied and taught abroad in Damascus and Cairo. He was awarded his doctorate, with distinction, in 1989 at the Sorbonne–Paris IV, with a thesis on The French Revolution and Islam, History and Meanings of the Egyptian Expedition. 1981-1982 Scholarship student at the French Institute of Arab Studies in Damascus 1982-1983 French lecturer at Cairo University, aux sources de lorientalisme,1978 Les Origines intellectuelles de lexpédition dÉgypte. List of Islamic studies scholars Biography on the website of the Collège de France Clara Dupont-Monod, Henry Laurens, lorientaliste, May 2010
20.
David Shaltiel
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He was born in Berlin into a Portuguese orthodox Jewish family settled in Hamburg. as oldest son of Benjamin Sealtiel and Helene Wormser. At 16, Shaltiel joined the Zionist youth movement Blau Weiss, however, he was not happy there, and returned to Europe in 1925. From 1925-1930 he was enlisted in the French Foreign Legion, in 1934 he returned to Palestine. There he started working for the Haganah, being charged with buying arms in Europe, in 1936 he was captured in Aachen, Germany, by Gestapo. Shaltiel spent the three years in prisons/ concentration camps, including Dachau and Buchenwald. When he was sent to Berlin in 1939 the Haganah succeeded in freeing him and he then went back to Palestine. There he was at first condemned to death for murder by the British, Shaltiel was married twice - first to Inge, then in 1942 to Yehudit, born Judith Irmgard Schonstedt, psychologist and daughter of a rabbinic family from Berlin. Shaltiel and Yehudit adopted a girl, Tamar, who had to be returned to her biological mother. He died in Jerusalem in February 1969, in 1942-43, he was the Haganah Commander in Haifa. Later, as Haganahs link to these organizations, Irgun, helped them coordinate several missions with the Haganah, among them the widely condemned attack at Deir Yassin. At first Shaltiel did not agree with attacking Deir Yassin, but after a day he surrendered and he was also the mastermind behind Operation Kedem, which had the goal of capturing East Jerusalem. The mission was carried out July 8,1948 by Irgun troops and was a total failure, from that moment, he was, disgraced and his name was erased from official Israel history. Between June 11 and July 21,1948, he had a series of meetings, mediated by the UN, with Abdullah el Tell, the commander of Arab Legion troops in the Old City. On July 7 they signed the Mount Scopus Agreement which stated that the Jewish enclave at Mount Scopus should be de-militarized, on July 15 the Haganah and Irgun launched a massive bombardment on the Old City which was followed by infantry attacks on the New, Jaffa and Zion Gates. These failed to gain their objectives, on 21 July Shaltiel and el Tell signed a formal cease-fire based on the existing positions of their forces. After the end of the Independence War, David Shaltiel founded the Border Corps of the Israeli army, Heyl Hasfar, and was its first commander. Later, because of problems, he recommended the transfer of these units into the frame of the Israeli Police. Dayan, Moshe, The Story of My Life, hamburger- Fremdenlegionär - Diplomat - Verteidiger von Jerusalem
21.
Yigael Yadin
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Yigael Yadin was an Israeli archeologist, politician, and the second Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces. Yadin was born in 1917 to noted archeologist Eleazar Sukenik and educationalist and he joined the Haganah at age 15, and served there in a variety of different capacities. In 1946, however, he left the Haganah following an argument with its commander Yitzhak Sadeh over the inclusion of a gun as part of standard squad equipment. He was a university student when, in 1948, shortly before the State of Israel declared its independence and he was Head of Operations during Israels War of Independence, and was responsible for many of the key decisions made during the course of that war. In June 1948 he threatened to resign during the Generals Revolt during which he accused Ben-Gurion of attempting to transform the army as a whole into an army of one political party. Yadin was appointed Chief of Staff of the IDF on 9 November 1949, following the resignation of Yaakov Dori, by age thirty-five, he had completed his military career. Upon leaving the military, he devoted himself to research and began his lifes work in archeology, in 1956 he received the Israel Prize in Jewish studies, for his doctoral thesis on the translation of the Dead Sea Scrolls. As an archeologist, he excavated some of the most important sites in the region, including the Qumran Caves, Masada, Hazor and he considered the Solomonic Gate at Tel Gezer to be the highpoint of his career. He was sometimes forced to deal with the theft of important artifacts, occasionally by prominent political, even as an archeologist, Yadin never completely abandoned public life. Furthermore, Dash was a response to the sense of frustration and despair in the aftermath of the 1973 war. Many people regarded Yadin, a warrior and a scholar, as the prototype of the ideal Israeli, untainted by corruption. In the 1977 elections, which transformed the Israeli political landscape, as a result of the election, Likud party leader Menachem Begin was initially able to form a coalition without Dash, significantly lowering the bargaining power of Dash. Dash joined the coalition after a few months and he retired from politics in 1981. Yadin was married to Carmela, who worked with him throughout his career in translating and editing his books and he died in 1984 and was buried in the military cemetery in Mount Herzl in Jerusalem. The Israeli actor Yossi Yadin was his brother, Jerusalem, International Publishing Company J-m Ltd,1959. The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands, Masada, Herods Fortress and the Zealots’ Last Stand. Silberman A Prophet from Amongst You, The Life of Yigael Yadin, Soldier, Scholar, Yigael Yadin on the Knesset website Photographs and film footage of Yadin and his archaeological excavations Interviews with the late Professor Yigael Yadin related to his archeological discoveries
22.
Abdullah el-Tell
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Abdullah Yousef el-Tell served in the Transjordanian Arab Legion during the 1948 war in Palestine rising from the rank of company commander to become Military Governor of the Old City of Jerusalem. He was later accused of being involved in the assassination of King Abdullah I, el-Tell was born into a wealthy family in Irbid just as the Ottoman army were retreating from the town. His mother held him up to the window to witness the soldiers leaving and his secondary education was in Egypt. When he was 18 years old, he was jailed for demonstrating against the British, in 1941, he joined the British Army and in 1942 completed an officer training course in the Suez Canal area. El-Tells ancestors, the Banu Zaydan, had lived in the Jordanian cities of Amman and they adopted the surname el-Tell in reference to their previous habitation near the Amman citadel, which was built on a tell. El-Tell was born in Irbid on 17 July 1918 and he received his primary education in the city, but moved to Salt for his high school education. It was there that he became skilled in the English language, after working as a customs officer for the Transjordanian government, he joined the Arab Legion in 1942. He initially served in the 1st Brigade as a lieutenant, becoming a first lieutenant in May 1943. He was deployed at an Arab Legion training base in Sarafand al-Amar near al-Ramla in Palestine and he was promoted to major in March 1948. El-Tell married Asia Mismar in 1944 and they later had five sons, Muntasir, Salah al-Din, Osama, Khaled and Hamza, and one daughter, Inas. All were born after the 1948 War, when el-Tell was living in exile in Cairo, Egypt, in March 1948, el-Tell was promoted to the rank of Major commanding the 6th Regiment of the Arab Legion, stationed in Jericho. In early May his regiment was involved in an attack on the three Jewish colonies at Kfar Etzion which dominated the road between Hebron and Bethlehem and his commander in-chief, Glubb Pasha, ordered him to withdraw his troops. On 12 May, however, el-Tell told one of his officers in Hebron, Captain Hikmet Muhair and this resulted in the 6th Regiment receiving orders to attack. The Jewish positions had been holding off attacks from local irregulars, a number of prisoners were murdered after they had surrendered while 320 were taken to the prisoner of war camp at Mafraq. Glubb was reported to have informed the Haganah in early May that when the Mandate ended his forces would enter the area allocated by the plan to the Arab state with limited objectives. He appears to have had no wish to send troops into Jerusalem and they arrived just in time to prevent a breakthrough at the Zion Gate where Palmach troops had briefly broken through to the Jewish Quarter. El-Tell took charge of the siege of the quarter, methodically attacking each Haganah stronghold, on 25 May, he wrote to Otto Lehner of the Red Cross saying that unless the Haganah abandoned its positions in the Hurva Synagogue, he would be forced to attack it. The Haganah commander, Moshe Russnak refused, but Russnak was coming under increasing pressure from the population to surrender
23.
Convoy of 35
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They were spotted before they could reach their target and killed in a prolonged battle by Arab irregulars and local villagers. On 16 January 1948, a convoy of 38 men was sent by the Haganah to deliver supplies to the four blockaded kibbutzim of Gush Etzion, south of Jerusalem, following an Arab attack on January 14. The unit, named in Hebrew Machleket HaHar, set out on foot from Hartuv at 11 p. m. on January 15 and they took a detour around the Tegart fort-type Palestine Police station, to avoid detection by the British. Three were sent back because one man sprained an ankle, the remaining 35 were killed by Arab villagers and militiamen between the villages of Jaba and Surif. The fate of the 35 was reconstructed from British and Arab reports, the six hours of night that remained did not suffice for the trip. About an hour before the convoy reached their destination, it became light and their presence was discovered by two Arab women who encountered two scouts of the group near Surif. A large number of armed villagers from Surif and other communities gathered to block the way, the battle was fought in two stages, four hours apart, with hundreds of Arabs from a nearby training base taking part. The Haganah force battled until it ran out of ammunition, the last of the 35 was apparently killed at about 4,30 p. m. A phone conversation about the battle was intercepted by the Irgun, in which it was heard that many were killed and some were wounded. After no word of the 35 had been received for a time and wounded Arabs started arriving at Hebron. After threatening and exhorting the village mukhtars and notables, the British were led to the site of the battle where they found the bodies of the 35, according to some reports many of the bodies had been mutilated, some beyond recognition. According to one account the last three Jews to die blew themselves up with a grenade, a contemporary report puts the number of casualties in Sasa at 11 killed and 3 wounded, but official sources confirm the figure of 60 killed with 20 houses destroyed. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, when the bodies of the 35 were returned to Israel, only 23 of the 35 bodies could be identified. To solve the problem, Rabbi Aryeh Levin performed the rare goral ha-gra ceremony and they were buried in Mount Herzl in Jerusalem. In August 1949, a group of former Palmach soldiers founded a kibbutz and they built a memorial commemorating the fallen Haganah soldiers there. Prior to the 1967 Six-Day War, it was assumed that the location of the final battle was on the Jordanian side of the armistice line. However, in 1967 the British police officer who had found the bodies in 1948, the story of the 35 was immortalised in a poem, Here Our Bodies Lie by Haim Gouri. Yael Zerubavel analysed remembrance of the event using the number 35 as a prominent example of the Israeli practice of numerical commemoration, kfar Etzion massacre Gush Etzion Convoy
24.
Auster
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Auster Aircraft Limited was a British aircraft manufacturer from 1938 to 1961. 1,604 high-wing Taylorcraft Auster monoplanes were built during World War II for the forces of the UK and Canada. During the war the head office and drawing office were at a big old house on the outskirts of Thurmaston called The Woodlands, the fuselages and wings were manufactured at Syston under the works manager by the name of Sharp. Sheet metalwork was done at the old en tout cas works at Thurmaston, final assembly, fitting out and testing took place at Rearsby aerodrome. The name changed to Auster on 7 March 1946, when shifted to Rearsby aerodrome. All designs were evolved from the early Taylorcraft with a skid or tailwheel beneath the fin. When the company was merged into Beagle Aircraft in June,1961, the design was developed still further as the Terrier and, with a nosewheel. The Auster name was dropped in 1968, Taylorcraft Plus C – licence-built Taylorcraft B Taylorcraft Plus D – re-engined Plus C. Model D/1 – Auster I – military version of Plus C with enlarged windows. Model E – Auster III – re-engined Auster I with split flaps, Model F – Auster II – re-engined Auster I. Model G – Auster IV – enlarged version of Auster III. Model H – Experimental tandem two-seat training glider converted from Taylorcraft B. Model J – Auster V – Auster IV with blind-flying instruments, Model M – Auster A. 2/45 –2 or 3-seat high-wing AOP aircraft, prototype only. Model N – Auster A. 2/45 – re-engined Model M, Model P – Auster Avis – four-seater based on J/1 with slimmer fuselage, two built. Model Q – Auster T7 – two-seat trainer version of AOP6, Model S – AOP aircraft based on AOP6 with enlarged tail, prototype only. Model A7 – light twin project, not built, Model B1 – mid-wing AOP project, not built. Model B3 – radio-controlled target drone, Model B8 – Auster B8 Agricola – low-winged agricultural aircraft Model B9 – ramjet helicopter project, not built Model C4 – Auster Antarctic – modified Auster T7 for Antarctic support. Model C6 – Auster Atlantic – four-seat high-wing touring monoplane with tricycle undercarriage, Model D4 – Auster D4 – two-seat development of the Auster Arrow. Model D5 – Beagle Husky – re-engined version of Auster Alpha with modified tail Model D6 – Auster D6 – four-seat development of Auster Autocar Model D8 – original designation of Beagle Airedale, Model E8 – AOP9 with modified engines as the AOP11. To mark the 40th anniversary of the International Auster Club,13 Austers descended onto a field next to the old wartime factory in Rearsby. Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom The Squadrons of the Royal Air Force & Commonwealth 1918-1988 James J. Halley, fromow, Battle History 666 The History of the Auster Aeroplane Ambrose Hitchman and Mike Preston
25.
Piper J-3 Cub
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The Piper J-3 Cub is an American light aircraft that was built between 1937 and 1947 by Piper Aircraft. The aircraft has a simple, lightweight design which gives it good low speed handling properties, the Cub is one of the best known light aircraft of all time. The Cubs simplicity, affordability and popularity — as well as its production numbers. The Cub was originally intended as a trainer, and saw popularity in this role. Large numbers of Cubs are still flying today, notably Cubs are highly prized as bush aircraft. The Cub is a high-wing strut-braced monoplane with a large area rectangular wing and it is powered by an air-cooled piston engine driving a fixed pitch propeller. Its fuselage is a steel frame covered in fabric, seating two people in tandem. The aircrafts standard chrome yellow paint has come to be known as Cub Yellow or Lock Haven Yellow, the Taylor E-2 Cub first appeared in 1930, built by Taylor Aircraft in Bradford, Pennsylvania. Sponsored by William T. Piper, a Bradford industrialist and investor, later in 1930, the company went bankrupt, with Piper buying the assets but keeping founder C. Gilbert Taylor on as president. In 1936, an earlier Cub was altered by employee Walter Jamouneau to become the J-2 while Taylor was on sick leave, when he saw the redesign, Taylor was so incensed that he fired Jamouneau. Piper, however, had encouraged Jamouneaus changes, and hired him back, Piper then bought Taylors share in the company, paying him US$250 per month for three years. Although sales were slow, about 1,200 J-2s were produced before a fire in the Piper factory ended its production in 1938. After Piper moved his company from Bradford to Lock Haven, the J-3, powered by a 40 hp engine, in 1938, it sold for just over $1,000. A very few examples, designated J3P, were equipped with Lenape Papoose 3-cylinder radial engines, the Piper J-3 Cub became the primary trainer aircraft of the CPTP and played an integral role in its success, achieving legendary status. 75 percent of all new pilots in the CPTP were trained in Cubs, by wars end,80 percent of all United States military pilots had received their initial flight training in Piper Cubs. The need for new pilots created an appetite for the Cub. In 1940, the year before the United States entry into the war,3,016 Cubs had been built, prior to the United States entering World War II, J-3s were part of a fund-raising program to support the United Kingdom. Billed as a Flitfire, a Piper Cub J3 bearing Royal Air Force insignia was donated by W. T. Piper, Piper distributors nationwide were encouraged to do the same
26.
Tel Aviv
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Tel Aviv-Yafo is a major city in Israel, located on the countrys Mediterranean coastline. It is the center and the technology hub of Israel, with a population of 432,892. Tel Aviv is the largest city in the Gush Dan region of Israel, Tel Aviv is also a focal point in the high-tech concentration known as the Silicon Wadi. Tel Aviv is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, headed by Ron Huldai, Tel Aviv is a global city, and is the thirty eighth most important financial center in the world. Tel Aviv is known to have the third-largest economy of any city in the Middle East after Abu Dhabi and Kuwait City, the city receives over a million international visitors annually. Known as The City that Never Sleeps and a party capital, it has a lively nightlife, the city was founded in 1909 by Jewish immigrants on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa. It is named after the Hebrew translation of Theodor Herzls 1902 novel, Altneuland, the modern citys first neighbourhoods had already been established in 1886, the first being Neve Tzedek. Immigration by mostly Jewish refugees meant that the growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced Jaffas, Tel Aviv and Jaffa were merged into a single municipality in 1950, two years after the establishment of the State of Israel. Tel Avivs White City, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, Tel Aviv is the Hebrew title of Theodor Herzls Altneuland, translated from German by Nahum Sokolow. The name was chosen in 1910 from several suggestions, including Herzliya and it was found fitting as it embraced the idea of a renaissance in the ancient Jewish homeland. Aviv is Hebrew for spring, symbolizing renewal, and tel is a man-made mound accumulating layers of civilization built one over the other and symbolizing the ancient. Although founded in 1909 as a settlement on the sand dunes North of Jaffa. The marketing pamphlets advocating for its establishment in 1906, wrote, In this city we will build the streets so they have roads and sidewalks and electric lights. Every house will have water wells that will flow through pipes as in every modern European city. Since 1886, Jewish settlers had founded new neighborhoods outside Jaffa on the current territory of Tel Aviv, the first was Neve Tzedek, built on lands owned by Aharon Chelouche and inhabited primarily by Mizrahi Jews. Other neighborhoods were Neve Shalom, Yafa Nof, Achva, Ohel Moshe, Kerem HaTeimanim, once Tel Aviv received city status in the 1920s, those neighborhoods joined the newly formed municipality, now becoming separated from Jaffa. The Second Aliyah led to further expansion, in 1906, a group of Jews, among them residents of Jaffa, followed the initiative of Akiva Aryeh Weiss and banded together to form the Ahuzat Bayit society. The societys goal was to form a Hebrew urban centre in an environment, planned according to the rules of aesthetics
27.
British Mandate for Palestine (legal instrument)
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The Mandate of Palestine was superseded with UN Charter, Chapter XII, Article 80 UN Trusteeship Agreement, UNGA181 of November 29,1947. The Palestine Mandate was administrated by the United Kingdom from September 29,1922 to November 29,1947, Government of the State of Israel was proclaimed over parts of this territory on 14 May,1948. The approximate northern border with the French Mandate was agreed upon in the Paulet–Newcombe Agreement of 23 December 1920, Transjordan had been a no mans land following the July 1920 Battle of Maysalun. The Trans-Jordan Memorandum provided the detail to support Article 25 of the Mandate and it also established a separate Administration of Trans-Jordan for the application of the Mandate, under the general supervision of Great Britain. Transjordan became largely autonomous under British tutelage according to an agreement of February 20,1928, the League of Nations welcomed the end of the mandate in Transjordan on 18 April 1946. The conquest of Palestine became part of British strategies aimed at establishing a bridge between the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. This would enable rapid deployment of troops to the Gulf, then the line of defence for British interests in India. A land bridge was also an alternative to the Suez Canal, the committee considered various scenarios and provided guidelines for negotiations with France, Italy, and Russia regarding the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The Committee recommended in favour of the creation of a decentralised, at the same time, the British and French also opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli and Mesopotamian campaigns. In Gallipoli, the Turks successfully repelled the British, French and Australian, from 1915, Zionist leader and anglophile Zeev Jabotinsky was pressing the British to agree to the formation of a Zionist volunteer corps that would serve under the aegis of the British army. The British eventually agreed to set up the Zion Mule Corps, after Lloyd George was made prime minister during the war, the British waged the Sinai and Palestine Campaign under General Allenby. This time the British agreed to a Jewish Legion, which participated in the invasion, russian Jews regarded the German army as a liberator and the creation of the Legion was designed to encourage them to participate in the war on Britains side. At the same time, British intelligence officer T. E. Lawrence was encouraging an Arab Revolt led by the Sharif of Mecca. The British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces in 1917 and occupied Ottoman Syria, the land remained under British military administration for the remainder of the war, and beyond. The Ottoman Empire capitulated on 30 October 1918, and on 23 November 1918, the Middle East was divided into three OETAs. Occupied Enemy Territory Administration South extended from the Egyptian border of Sinai into Palestine and Lebanon as far north as Acre and Nablus, a temporary British military governor Major General Sir Arthur Wigram Money would administer this sector. In October 1919, British forces in Syria and the last British soldiers stationed east of the Jordan were withdrawn and the region came under exclusive control of Faisal bin Hussein from Damascus. In 1916, Britain and France concluded the Sykes–Picot Agreement, which proposed to divide the Middle East between them into spheres of influence, with Palestine as an international enclave, the British made two potentially conflicting promises regarding the territory it was expecting to acquire
28.
Yishuv
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The Yishuv or Ha-Yishuv or Ha-Yishuv Ha-Ivri is the term referring to the body of Jewish residents in the land of Israel prior to the establishment of the State of Israel. The term is used in Hebrew even nowadays to denote the Pre-State Jewish residents in the Land of Israel. A distinction is drawn between the Old Yishuv and the New Yishuv, The Old Yishuv refers to all the Jews living there before the aliyah of 1882 by the Zionist movement. The Old Yishuv residents were religious Jews, living mainly in Jerusalem, Safed, Tiberias, smaller communities were in Jaffa, Haifa, Pekiin, Acre, Nablus, Shfaram and until 1779 also in Gaza. In the final centuries before modern Zionism, a part of the Old Yishuv spent their time studying the Torah and lived off Maamodot. The Old Yishuv were the Jewish communities of the southern Syrian provinces in the Ottoman period, up to the onset of Zionist aliyah and the consolidation of the New Yishuv by the end of World War I. The Old Yishuv developed after a period of decline in Jewish communities of the Southern Levant during the early Middle Ages. The oldest group consisted of the Ladino-speaking Sephardic Jewish communities in Galilee, a second group was composed of Ashkenazi and Hassidic Jews who had emigrated from Europe in the 18th and early 19th centuries. A third wave was constituted by Yishuv members who arrived in the late 19th century. Apart from the Old Yishuv centres in the four cities of Judaism, namely Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias and Safed, smaller communities also existed in Jaffa, Haifa, Pekiin, Acre, Nablus. Petah Tikva, although established in 1878 by the Old Yishuv, Rishon LeZion, the first settlement founded by the Hovevei Zion in 1882, could be considered the true beginning of the New Yishuv. The Ottoman government was not supportive of the new settlers from the First and Second Aliyah, the Yishuv relied on money from abroad to support their settlements. In 1908 the Zionist Organization founded the Palestine Office, under Arthur Ruppin, for acquisition, agricultural settlement and training. The first Hebrew high schools were opened in Palestine as well as the Technion, hashomer, a Zionist self-defence group, was created to protect the Jewish settlements. Labor organizations were created along with health and cultural services, all coordinated by the Jewish National Council. By 1914, the old Yishuv was a minority and the new Yishuv began to express itself, the Zionist movement tried to find work for the new immigrants who arrived in the Second Aliyah. However, most were middle class and were not physically fit or knowledgeable in agricultural work, the Jewish plantation owners had previously hired Arab workers who accepted low wages and were very familiar with agriculture. The leaders of the Zionist movement insisted that plantation owners only hire Jewish workers, the conquest of labor was a major Zionist goal
29.
Armored car (military)
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A military armored car is a lightweight wheeled armored fighting vehicle, historically employed for reconnaissance, internal security, armed escort, and other subordinate battlefield tasks. With the gradual decline of mounted cavalry, armored cars were developed for carrying out duties formerly assigned to horsemen, following the invention of the tank, the armored car remained popular due to its comparatively simplified maintenance and low production cost. It also found favor with several colonial armies as a weapon for use in underdeveloped regions. During World War II, most armored cars were engineered for reconnaissance and passive observation, some equipped with heavier armament could even substitute for tracked combat vehicles in favorable conditions—such as pursuit or flanking maneuvers during the North African Campaign. The Motor Scout was designed and built by British inventor F. R. Simms in 1898 and it was the first armed petrol engine-powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar, an iron shield in front of the car protected the driver. However, these were not armored cars as the term is understood today and they were also, by virtue of their small capacity engines, less efficient than the cavalry and horse-drawn guns that they were intended to complement. At the beginning of the 20th century, the first military armored vehicles were manufactured, by adding armor and weapons to existing vehicles. The vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was powered by a four-cylinder 3. 3-litre 16-hp Cannstatt Daimler engine, the armament, consisting of two Maxim guns, was carried in two turrets with 360° traverse. Simms Motor War Car was presented at the Crystal Palace, London, another early armored car of the period was the French Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the Salon de lAutomobile et du cycle in Brussels, on 8 March 1902. The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss machine gun, and with 7 mm armour for the gunner, one of the first operational armoured cars with four wheel drive and fully enclosed rotating turret, was the Austro-Daimler Panzerwagen built by Austro-Daimler in 1904. It was armoured with 3-3.5 mm thick curved plates over the body and had a 4mm thick dome-shaped rotating turret that housed one or two machine-guns and it had a 4-cylinder 35 hp 4.4 litre engine giving it average cross country performance. Of note, both the driver and co-driver had adjustable seats enabling them to them to see out of the roof of the drive compartment as needed. The Italians used armored cars during the Italo-Turkish War, a great variety of armored cars appeared on both sides during World War I and these were used in various ways. Generally, the cars were used by more or less independent car commanders. However, sometimes they were used in units up to squadron size. The cars were armed with light machine guns, but larger units usually employed a few cars with heavier guns. As air power became a factor, armored cars offered a platform for antiaircraft guns
30.
Russian Orthodox Church
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The Russian Orthodox Church, alternatively legally known as the Moscow Patriarchate, is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox patriarchates. The Primate of the ROC is the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus and it also exercises ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the autonomous Church of Japan and the Orthodox Christians resident in the Peoples Republic of China. The ROC branches in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Moldova and Ukraine since the 1990s enjoy various degrees of self-government, in Ukraine, ROC has tensions with schismatic groups supported by the current government, while it enjoys the position of numerically dominant religious organisation. The ROC should also not be confused with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, headquartered in New York, New York, the two Churches reconciled on May 17,2007, the ROCOR is now a self-governing part of the Russian Orthodox Church. According to one of the legends, Andrew reached the location of Kiev. The spot where he erected a cross is now marked by St. Andrews Cathedral. By the end of the first millennium AD, eastern Slavic lands started to come under the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There is evidence that the first Christian bishop was sent to Novgorod from Constantinople either by Patriarch Photius or Patriarch Ignatios, by the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility, under the leadership of Byzantine Greek priests, although paganism remained the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus′ to convert to Christianity and her grandson, Vladimir of Kiev, made Rus officially a Christian state. The Kievan church was a metropolitanate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Ecumenical patriarch appointed the metropolitan, who usually was a Greek. The Metropolitans residence was located in Kiev itself, the capital of the medieval Rus state. Following the tribulations of the Mongol invasion, the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival, despite the politically motivated murders of Mikhail of Chernigov and Mikhail of Tver, the Mongols were generally tolerant and even granted tax exemption to the Church. Such holy figures as Sergius of Radonezh and Metropolitan Alexis helped the country to withstand years of Tatar oppression, the Trinity monastery founded by Sergius of Radonezh became the setting for the flourishing of spiritual art, exemplified by the work of Andrey Rublev, among others. The followers of Sergius founded four hundred monasteries, thus extending the geographical extent of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. However, the Moscow Prince Vasili II rejected the act of the Council of Florence brought to Moscow by Isidore in March 1441, Isidore was in the same year removed from his position as an apostate and expelled from Moscow. The Russian metropolitanate remained effectively vacant for the few years due largely to the dominance of Uniates in Constantinople then. In December 1448, Jonas, a Russian bishop, was installed by the Council of Russian bishops in Moscow as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia without the consent from Constantinople. Subsequently, there developed a theory in Moscow that saw Moscow as the Third Rome, the successor to Constantinople
31.
Monastery
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A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone. A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which may be a chapel, church or temple, a monastery complex typically comprises a number of buildings which include a church, dormitory, cloister, refectory, library, balneary and infirmary. These may include a hospice, a school and a range of agricultural and manufacturing such as a barn. In English usage, the monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics, historically, a convent denoted a house of friars, now more commonly called a friary. Various religions may apply these terms in specific ways. The earliest extant use of the term monastērion is by the 1st century AD Jewish philosopher Philo in On The Contemplative Life, in England the word monastery was also applied to the habitation of a bishop and the cathedral clergy who lived apart from the lay community. Most cathedrals were not monasteries, and were served by canons secular, however, some were run by monasteries orders, such as York Minster. Westminster Abbey was for a time a cathedral, and was a Benedictine monastery until the Reformation. They are also to be distinguished from collegiate churches, such as St Georges Chapel, in most of this article, the term monastery is used generically to refer to any of a number of types of religious community. In the Roman Catholic religion and to some extent in certain branches of Buddhism, there is a more specific definition of the term. Buddhist monasteries are generally called vihara, viharas may be occupied by males or females, and in keeping with common English usage, a vihara populated by females may often be called a nunnery or a convent. However, vihara can also refer to a temple, in Tibetan Buddhism, monasteries are often called gompa. In Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, a monastery is called a wat, in Burma, a monastery is called a kyaung. A Christian monastery may be an abbey, or a priory and it may be a community of men or of women. A charterhouse is any monastery belonging to the Carthusian order, in Eastern Christianity, a very small monastic community can be called a skete, and a very large or important monastery can be given the dignity of a lavra. The great communal life of a Christian monastery is called cenobitic, as opposed to the life of an anchorite. In Hinduism monasteries are called matha, mandir, koil, or most commonly an ashram, jains use the Buddhist term vihara
32.
White flag
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White flags have had different meanings throughout history and depending on the locale. The white flag is an internationally recognized protective sign of truce or ceasefire and it is also used to symbolize surrender, since it is often the weaker party which requests negotiation. A white flag signifies to all that an approaching negotiator is unarmed, persons carrying or waving a white flag are not to be fired upon, nor are they allowed to open fire. The use of the flag to surrender is included in the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, the improper use of the flag is forbidden by the rules of war and constitutes a war crime of perfidy. The first mention of the usage of flags to surrender is made during the Eastern Han dynasty. In the Roman Empire, the historian Cornelius Tacitus mentions a flag of surrender in AD109. Before that time, Roman armies would surrender by holding their shields above their heads, the white flag was widely used in the Middle Ages in Western Europe to indicate an intent to surrender. Its use may have expanded across continents, e. g, the white color was also used as a symbol of military command, by the commanding officer of a French army. It would be featured on a white scarf attached to the flag as to recognise French units from foreign ones. The French troops fighting in the American War of Independence fought under the white flag, the French Navy used a plain white ensign for ships of the line. Smaller ships might have used other standards, such as a fleur-de-lis on white field, commerce and private ships were authorised to use their own designs to represent France, but were forbidden to fly the white ensign. During the French Revolution, in 1794, the blue, white, the white flag quickly became a symbol of French royalists. During the Bourbon Restoration, the flag replaced the Tricolor. It was finally abandoned in 1830, with the July Revolution, with the use of the blue, white. In 1873, an attempt to reestablish the monarchy failed when Henri of Artois and he demanded the return of the white flag before he would accept the throne, a condition that proved unacceptable. The design lasted until March 1865, when concerns about it being mistaken for a flag of truce when the flag was not completely flying necessitated the addition of a red band on the fly edge. The Christian Flag, designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and Christendom, has a white field, in conventional vexillology, a white flag is linked to surrender, a reference to the Biblical description of Jesus non-violence and surrender to Gods will. In FIA sanctioned races, a white flag warns of a car ahead
33.
Keffiyeh
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The keffiyeh or kufiya, also known as a ghutrah, shemagh, ḥaṭṭah, mashadah, chafiye or cemedanî, is a traditional Middle Eastern headdress fashioned from a square scarf, usually made of cotton. It is typically worn by Arabs, as well as by some Mizrahi Jews and it is commonly found in arid regions as it provides protection from sunburn, dust and sand. During his sojourn with the Marsh Arabs of Iraq, Gavin Young noted that the local sayyids – venerated men accepted, as descendants of the Prophet Muhammad and Ali ibn Abi Talib – wore dark green keffiyeh in contrast to the black-and-white checkered examples typical of the areas inhabitants. Many Palestinian keffiyehs are a mix of cotton and wool, which facilitates quick drying and, the keffiyeh is usually folded in half and the fold worn across the forehead. Often, the keffiyeh is held in place by a circlet of rope called an agal, some wearers wrap the keffiyeh into a turban, while others wear it loosely draped around the back and shoulders. A taqiyah is sometimes worn underneath the keffiyeh, in the past, the keffiyeh is almost always of white cotton cloth, but many have a checkered pattern in red or black stitched into them. The plain white keffiyeh is most popular in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf – in Kuwait and Bahrain, the keffiyeh is worn by men of all ages, whether on the head or around the shoulders. In Jordan, the keffiyeh is strongly associated with the country and its heritage. The Jordanian keffiyeh has decorative cotton or wool tassels on the sides, the bigger these tassels, the greater the garments supposed value and it has long been worn by Bedouins and villagers and used as a symbol of honor and/or tribal identification. The tasseled red-and-white Jordanian shemagh is much thicker than the untasseled red-and-white shemagh seen in Persian Gulf countries, in Yemen, the keffiyeh is used extensively in both red-white and black-white pattern and in some traditional Yemeni designs and colours. The shemagh is part of an ancient Middle Eastern headgear tradition, the keffiyeh, especially the all-white keffiyeh, is also known as the ghutrah. This is particularly common in the Arabian Peninsula, where the skullcap is called a keffiyeh, the garment is also known in some areas as the ḥaṭṭah. Roughly speaking, Ordinary keffiyeh A piece of cloth made from wool and cotton. Shemagh A piece of cloth, usually made of cotton or flax and decorated with many colors, ghutrah A piece of white cloth made of cotton mild, worn in western Iraq and by the Arabs of the Persian Gulf states. Rezza It is worn by inhabitants of North Africa and Egypt, traditionally worn by Palestinian farmers, the keffiyeh became worn by Palestinian men of any rank and became a symbol of Palestinian nationalism during the Arab Revolt of the 1930s. Its prominence increased during the 1960s with the beginning of the Palestinian resistance movement, Arafat would wear his keffiyeh in a semi-traditional way, wrapped around his head via an agal. He also wore a similarly patterned piece of cloth in the neckline of his military fatigues. Early on, he had made it his trademark to drape the scarf over his right shoulder only, arranging it in the rough shape of a triangle
34.
Palmach
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The Palmach was the elite fighting force of the Haganah, the underground army of the Yishuv during the period of the British Mandate for Palestine. The Palmach was established on 15 May 1941, by the outbreak of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War it consisted of over 2,000 men and women in three fighting brigades and auxiliary aerial, naval and intelligence units. With the creation of Israels army, the three Palmach Brigades were disbanded and this and political reasons compelled many of the senior Palmach officers to resign in 1950. The Palmach contributed significantly to Israeli culture and ethos, well beyond its military contribution and its members formed the backbone of the Israel Defense Forces high command for many years, and were prominent in Israeli politics, literature and culture. The Palmach was established by the Haganah High Command on 14 May 1941 and its aim was to defend the Palestinian Jewish community against two potential threats. Firstly the occupation of Palestine by the Axis in the event of their victory over the British in North Africa, secondly, if the British army were to retreat from Palestine, Jewish settlements might come under attack from the Arab population. Yitzhak Sadeh was named as Palmach commander, initially the group consisted of around one hundred men. In the early summer of 1941 the British military authorities agreed to joint operations against Vichy French forces in Lebanon, the first action was a sabotage mission against oil installations at Tripoli, Lebanon. Twenty-three Palmach members and a British liaison officer set out by sea but were never heard of again, on 8 June mixed squads of Palmach and Australians began operating in Lebanon and Syria. The success of operations led the British GHQ to fund a sabotage training camp for three hundred men at Mishmar HaEmek. Since the Palmach consisted of volunteers, the funding was used to cover the needs of twice that number of men. When the British ordered the dismantling of Palmach after the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein in 1942, the organization went underground. Since British funding had stopped, Yitzhak Tabenkin, head of the kibbutz union HaKibbutz HaMeuhad, each kibbutz would host a Palmach platoon and supply them with food, homes and resources. In return the platoon would safeguard the kibbutz and carry out such as agricultural work. The proposal was accepted in August 1942, when it was decided that each month Palmach members would have eight training days,14 work days. The program of combined training, agricultural work and Zionist education was called Hachshara Meguyeset הכשרה מגויסת. Later, Zionist youth movements offered members aged of 18–20 an opportunity to join groups for agricultural settlement that became the basis for the Nahal. Basic training included physical fitness, small arms, mêlée and KAPAP, basic training, topography, first aid
35.
Zionism
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Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a revival movement, in reaction to anti-Semitic. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the state in Palestine. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to threats to its continued existence. A variety of Zionism, called cultural Zionism, founded and represented most prominently by Ahad Haam, unlike Herzl, the founder of political Zionism, Ahad Haam strived for Israel to be a Jewish state and not merely a state of Jews. Advocates of Zionism view it as a liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people residing as minorities in a variety of nations to their ancestral homeland. The term Zionism is derived from the word Zion, referring to Jerusalem and these groups were collectively called the Lovers of Zion and were seen to encounter a growing Jewish movement toward assimilation. The first use of the term is attributed to the Austrian Nathan Birnbaum, founder of a nationalist Jewish students movement Kadimah, the common denominator among all Zionists is the claim to Eretz Israel as the national homeland of the Jews and as the legitimate focus for Jewish national self-determination. It is based on ties and religious traditions linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel. Zionism does not have an ideology, but has evolved in a dialogue among a plethora of ideologies, General Zionism, Religious Zionism, Labor Zionism, Revisionist Zionism, Green Zionism. The political movement was established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl in 1897 following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat. At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to Ottoman Palestine, although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe where these alternative movements were rooted, the alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine but the Zionists persisted. The movement was successful in establishing Israel on May 14,1948. The proportion of the worlds Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged, by the early 21st century, more than 40% of the worlds Jews live in Israel, more than in any other country. These two outcomes represent the success of Zionism, and are unmatched by any other Jewish political movement in the past 2,000 years. In some academic studies, Zionism has been analyzed both within the context of diaspora politics and as an example of modern national liberation movements
36.
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
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The movements parts are, The International Committee of the Red Cross is a private humanitarian institution founded in 1863 in Geneva, Switzerland, by Henry Dunant and Gustave Moynier. Its 25-member committee has a unique authority under international law to protect the life. The ICRC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on three occasions, on an international level, the Federation leads and organizes, in close cooperation with the National Societies, relief assistance missions responding to large-scale emergencies. The International Federation Secretariat is based in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1963, the Federation was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize jointly with the ICRC. National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies exist in every country in the world. Currently 190 National Societies are recognized by the ICRC and admitted as members of the Federation. Each entity works in its home country according to the principles of humanitarian law. In many countries, they are linked to the respective national health care system by providing emergency medical services. When he arrived in the town of Solferino on the evening of June 24, he toured the field of the Battle of Solferino. In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were wounded on the field. Jean-Henri Dunant was shocked by the aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment. He succeeded in organizing an overwhelming level of assistance by motivating the local villagers to aid without discrimination. Back in his home in Geneva, he decided to write a book entitled A Memory of Solferino which he published using his own money in 1862. He sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout Europe, in addition, he called for the development of international treaties to guarantee the protection of neutral medics and field hospitals for soldiers wounded on the battlefield. In 1863, Gustave Moynier, a Geneva lawyer and president of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare, received a copy of Dunants book, eight days later, the five men decided to rename the committee to the International Committee for Relief to the Wounded. In October 1863, the conference organized by the committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battlefield. Only one year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the United States, Brazil, sixteen countries sent a total of twenty-six delegates to Geneva
37.
Mafraq
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Mafraq is the capital city of Mafraq Governorate in Jordan, located 80 km to the north from the capital Amman in crossroad to Syria to the north and Iraq to the east. Mafraq was first settled in the 4th century BC and it is located about 17 km west from the historic Nabataean and Byzantine town of Umm el-Jimal, which was built in the 1st century. The city gained a significant importance after the establishment of the Hejaz Railway connecting Istanbul to Medina, Mafraq was also the location of a British military base and airport from the early 20th century. It later became the base for the Arab Legion during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Mafraq is the capital of Mafraq Governorate and the headquarters of the Third Division of the Jordanian Army. King Hussein Air College and an air base of the Royal Jordanian Air Force are also located in the city, as of 2016, 50% of the population of Mafraq is Syrian refugees. The city of Mafraq is located in northern Jordan at the boundary between the Hauran plateau and the Syrian Desert, about 80 km to the north from Amman and it is the capital and largest city of Mafraq Governorate. The city is at a proximity to the three major cities in the region, Amman, to the south, Irbid to the west. The international highway that connects Damascus to Riyadh passes through the city, Mafraq is served by a station on the 1,050 mm national railway system. Al al-Bayt University is the university in the city. The university was established in 1992 and is located in the outskirts of Mafraq city. King Hussein Air Base Railway stations in Jordan Official website
38.
Al-Dawayima
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It has been occasionally identified with the Old Testament town of Bosqat, the home of Josiahs mother Jedidah though the association has not found widespread acceptance. According to a 1945 census, the population was 3,710. The population figures for this also included the populations of nearby khirbets. During the 1948 Palestine war, the massacre occurred. According to Saleh Abd al-Jawad an estimated 80–200 civilian men, women and children were killed, according to John Bagot Glubb, a UN report said that 30 women and children were killed. Al-Dawayimas historical remains encompass a period from the Bronze Age, through to the Persian and Hellenistic. The core clan of Al-Dawayima were the Ahdibs, who traced their origin to the Muslim conquest, in the late Ottoman era, in May,1838, Edward Robinson visited during harvesting time. He noted that Al-Dawayima was situated on a hill, with a view of several villages to the east, during the harvest, several Christians from Beit Jala were employed here as labourers, the barley harvest was coming to an end, while the wheat harvest was just beginning. It also noted that it was located west of Hebron, in 1883, the Palestine Exploration Funds Survey of Western Palestine described al-Dawayima as a village on a high stony ridge that had olive groves beneath it. On a higher ridge to the west stood a shrine that was topped by a white stone, the people of al-Dawayima were Muslims. They maintained several religious shrines, chief among them the shrine of Shaykh ´Ali and this shrine had a large courtyard, a number of rooms, and one large hall for prayers, and was surrounded by fig and carob trees and cactuses. It attracted visitors from the neighboring villages, the villagers expanded and renovated the village mosque in the 1930s, and added a tall minaret. By 1945, Al-Dawayima had a population of 3,710 Muslims, by 1944/45,21,191 dunums of village land were allotted to cereals,1,206 dunums were irrigated or used for orchards, while 179 dunams were built-up areas. It was the site of the massacre in which 80-200 civilians were killed including women and children. The massacre was cited by Yigal Allon as the reason for the halting of the annexation that included Bayt Jibrin, Qubeiba. The massacre was seen as a reprisal by the Israelis for the massacre of Jews in Kfar Etzion months before, on May 13,1948, by Palestinian fighters, the nearby Jewish town of Amatzya is located on lands belonging to Al-Dawayima. According to the Palestinian historian Walid Khalidi, The site has been fenced in, a cowshed, a chicken coop, and granaries have been built at its center. The southern side of the site contains stone terraces and the remnants of a house, the eastern side is occupied by the residential area of the moshav
39.
Six-Day War
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The Six-Day War, also known as the June War,1967 Arab–Israeli War, or Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between June 5 and 10,1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Relations between Israel and its neighbours had never fully normalised following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, in the period leading up to June 1967, tensions became dangerously heightened. In reaction to the mobilisation of Egyptian forces along the Israeli border in the Sinai Peninsula, the Egyptians were caught by surprise, and nearly the entire Egyptian air force was destroyed with few Israeli losses, giving the Israelis air superiority. Simultaneously, the Israelis launched an offensive into the Gaza Strip and the Sinai. After some initial resistance, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser ordered the evacuation of the Sinai, Israeli forces rushed westward in pursuit of the Egyptians, inflicted heavy losses, and conquered the Sinai. Nasser induced Syria and Jordan to begin attacks on Israel by using the initially confused situation to claim that Egypt had defeated the Israeli air strike. Israeli counterattacks resulted in the seizure of East Jerusalem as well as the West Bank from the Jordanians, on June 11, a ceasefire was signed. Arab casualties were far heavier than those of Israel, fewer than a thousand Israelis had been killed compared to over 20,000 from the Arab forces. Israels military success was attributed to the element of surprise, an innovative and well-executed battle plan, Israel seized control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Israeli morale and international prestige was greatly increased by the outcome of the war, across the Arab world, Jewish minority communities were expelled, with refugees going to Israel or Europe. After the 1956 Suez Crisis, Egypt agreed to the stationing of a United Nations Emergency Force in the Sinai to ensure all parties would comply with the 1949 Armistice Agreements, in the following years there were numerous minor border clashes between Israel and its Arab neighbors, particularly Syria. In early November 1966, Syria signed a defense agreement with Egypt. Jordanian units that engaged the Israelis were quickly beaten back, King Hussein of Jordan criticized Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser for failing to come to Jordans aid, and hiding behind UNEF skirts. In May 1967, Nasser received false reports from the Soviet Union that Israel was massing on the Syrian border, the right of innocent, maritime passage must be preserved for all nations. On May 30, Jordan and Egypt signed a defense pact, the following day, at Jordans invitation, the Iraqi army began deploying troops and armoured units in Jordan. They were later reinforced by an Egyptian contingent, on June 1, Israel formed a National Unity Government by widening its cabinet, and on June 4 the decision was made to go to war. The next morning, Israel launched Operation Focus, a surprise air strike that was the opening of the Six-Day War. Before the war, Israeli pilots and ground crews had trained extensively in rapid refitting of aircraft returning from sorties and this has contributed to the Arab belief that the IAF was helped by foreign air forces
40.
Levi Eshkol
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Levi Eshkol served as the fourth Prime Minister of Israel from 1963 until his death from a heart attack in 1969. He was the first Israeli Prime Minister to die in office, Levi Eshkol was born in the shtetl of Oratov, Kiev Governorate, Russian Empire. His mother came from a Hasidic background and his father came from a family of Mitnagdim, Eshkol received a traditional Jewish education in Vilna. In 1914, he left for Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire and he was a leading member of the Judea Workers Union in 1915–17. During World War I, he volunteered with the Jewish Legion and he played an important part in the Suez Canal Crisis 1956 by financing military outposts and was accused of funding the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt helping Israel survive through the time. Eshkol joined Kibbutz Degania Bet and married Rivka Maharshek and they had a daughter, Noa, born in 1924 and were divorced in 1927. Eshkol married his second wife Elisheva Kaplan in 1928, with whom he had three daughters, Dvora, Ofra, and Tama and his second wife died in 1959. In 1964 he married Miriam, a librarian at the Library of the Knesset 35 years his junior, from 1940 to 1948 Eshkol was a member of the Haganah high command. He engaged in arms acquisition for the Haganah prior to and during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, after Israels victory, Eshkol was appointed Director-General of the Ministry of Defense, serving from 1950 to 1951. Eshkol was elected to the Knesset in 1951 as a member of Mapai party and he served as Minister of Agriculture until 1952, when he was appointed Finance Minister following the death of Eliezer Kaplan. He held that position for the following 12 years, during his term as Finance Minister, Eshkol established himself as a prominent figure in Mapais leadership, and was designated by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion as his successor. When Ben-Gurion resigned in June 1963, Eshkol was elected party chairman with a broad consensus, Ben-Gurion failed to challenge Eshkols leadership and split from Mapai with a few of his young protégés to form Rafi in June 1965. In the meantime, Mapai merged with Ahdut HaAvoda to form the Alignment with Eshkol as its head, Rafi was defeated by the Alignment in the elections held in November 1965, establishing Eshkol as the countrys indisputable leader. Eshkol formed Israels twelfth government in 1963 and his first term in office saw continuous economic growth, epitomized by the opening of the National Water Carrier system in 1964. His and Finance Minister Pinchas Sapirs subsequent soft landing of the economy by means of recessive policies precipitated a drastic slump in economic activity. Israels centralized planned economy lacked the mechanisms to self-regulate the slowdown, upon being elected into office, Levi Eshkol fulfilled Zeev Jabotinskys wish and brought his body and that of his wife to Israel where they were buried in Mount Herzl Cemetery. He was the first Israeli Prime Minister invited on a state visit to the United States in May 1964. Israels overwhelming victory allowed Eshkol to remain Prime Minister despite never receiving recognition for his role in achieving it, the March 10,1965, MOU, variously interpreted since, said Israel would not be the first country to introduce nuclear weapons to the Middle East
41.
Israeli settlement
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Such settlements within Palestinian territories currently exist in Area C of the West Bank and in East Jerusalem, and within Syrian territory in the Golan Heights. Israel dismantled 18 settlements in the Sinai Peninsula in 1982, while in 2005 all 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip were dismantled, but only four in the West Bank. In the West Bank, however, Israel continues to expand its remaining settlements as well as settling new areas, the International Court of Justice also says these purportedly annexed settlements are illegal in a 2004 advisory opinion. Similar criticism was advanced by the EU and the US, Israel disputes the position of the international community and the legal arguments that were used to declare the settlements illegal. Most of the spending goes to the security of the Israeli citizens living there, on 30 June 2014, according to the Yesha Council,382,031 Israeli citizens lived in the 121 officially recognised Israeli settlements in the West Bank, almost exclusively Jewish citizens of Israel. In January 2015 the Israeli Interior Ministry gave figures of 389,250 Israeli citizens living in the West Bank, settlements range in character from farming communities and frontier villages to urban suburbs and neighborhoods. The four largest settlements, Modiin Illit, Maale Adumim, Beitar Illit, Ariel has 18,000 residents, while the rest have around 37,000 to 55,500 each. The 1967 Six-Day War left Israel in control of the entire West Bank of the Jordan River, the entire Sinai Peninsula up to the Suez Canal, and the Gaza strip. Most of the Golan Heights, since 1981, administered under the Golan Heights Law, as early as 1967, Israeli settlement policy was started by the Labor government of Levi Eshkol. The basis for Israeli settlement in the West Bank became the Allon Plan and it implied Israeli annexation of major parts of the Israeli-occupied territories, especially East Jerusalem, Gush Etzion and the Jordan Valley. The settlement policy of the government of Yitzhak Rabin, was derived from the Allon Plan. The first settlement was Kfar Etzion, in the southern West Bank, many settlements began as Nahal settlements. They were established as military outposts and later expanded and populated with civilian inhabitants, Ariel Sharon declared in the same year that there was a plan to settle 2 million Jews in the West Bank by 2000. Since 1967, government-funded settlement projects in the West Bank are implemented by the Settlement Division of the World Zionist Organization, though formally a non-governmental organization, it is funded by the Israeli government and leases lands from the Civil Administration to settle in the West Bank. It is authorized to create settlements in the West Bank on lands licensed to it by the Civil Administration, traditionally, the Settlement Division has been under the responsibility of the Agriculture Ministry. Since the Olso Accords, it was housed within the Prime Ministers Office. In 2007, it was moved back to the Agriculture Ministry, in 2009, the Netanyahu Government decided to subject all settlement activities to additional approval of the Prime Minister and the Defense Minister. In 2011, Netanyahu sought to move the Settlement Division again under the control of PMO
42.
West Bank
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The West Bank shares boundaries to the west, north, and south with Israel, and to the east, across the Jordan River, with Jordan. The West Bank also contains a significant section of the western Dead Sea shore, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, has a land area of 5,640 km2 plus a water area of 220 km2, consisting of the northwest quarter of the Dead Sea. As of July 2015 it has an population of 2,785,366 Palestinians, and approximately 371,000 Israeli settlers. The international community considers Israeli settlements in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, illegal under international law and this annexation was recognized only by Britain, Iraq and Pakistan. The term was chosen to differentiate the west bank of the River Jordan from the east bank of this river, the neo-Latin name Cisjordan or Cis-Jordan is the usual name for the territory in the Romance languages and Hungarian. The name West Bank, however, has become the standard usage for this entity in English. The analogous Transjordan has historically used to designate the region now roughly comprising the state of Jordan. From 1517 through 1917, the now known as the West Bank was under Ottoman rule as part of the provinces of Syria. At the 1920 San Remo conference, the victorious Allied powers allocated the area to the British Mandate of Palestine, the San Remo Resolution adopted on 25 April 1920 incorporated the Balfour Declaration of 1917. It and Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations were the basic documents upon which the British Mandate for Palestine was constructed. Faced with the determination of Emir Abdullah to unify Arab lands under the Hashemite banner, the West Bank area, was conquered by Jordan during the 1948 war with the new state of Israel. In 1947, it was designated as part of a proposed Arab state by the United Nations partition plan for Palestine. 1949 Armistice Agreements defined the boundary between Israel and Jordan. In 1950, Transjordan annexed the area west of the Jordan River, naming it West Bank or Cisjordan, Jordan ruled over the West Bank from 1948 until 1967. Jordans annexation was never recognized by the international community, with the exception of the United Kingdom. King Abdullah of Jordan had been crowned King of Jerusalem by the Coptic Bishop on 15 November 1948. and granted Palestinian Arabs in the West Bank, in June 1967, the West Bank and East Jerusalem were captured by Israel as a result of the Six-Day War. With the exception of East Jerusalem and the former Israeli-Jordanian no mans land, the Israeli settlements were, on the other hand, administered subsequently as Judea and Samaria Area directly by Israel. Since the 1993 Oslo Accords, the Palestinian Authority officially controls a geographically non-contiguous territory comprising approx, 11% of the West Bank which remains subject to Israeli incursions
43.
Gershom Gorenberg
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Gershom Gorenberg is an American-born Israeli historian, journalist and blogger, specializing in Middle Eastern politics and the interaction of religion and politics. He is currently a correspondent for The American Prospect, a monthly American political magazine. Gorenberg self-identifies as a left-wing, skeptical Orthodox Zionist Jew, Gorenberg was born in St. Louis and grew up in California. In 1977, he traveled to Israel to study and ultimately decided to immigrate to the country, Gorenberg graduated from the University of California at Santa Cruz and earned his M. A. in education from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He currently lives in Jerusalem, Israel with his wife, journalist Myra Noveck, for many years Gorenberg served as an associate editor of The Jerusalem Report, an Israeli biweekly news magazine. Gorenberg is now a correspondent for The American Prospect, an American political monthly. In 2000 he published The End of Days, Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount, in 2011, Gorenberg published The Unmaking of Israel, in which he decries the settler movement and how government support for the haredi is undermining Israeli democracy. Gorenberg blogs at South Jerusalem together with Haim Watzman and he is a frequent guest on BloggingHeads. tv, particularly in discussions related to Israel. Gorenberg was an associate of the now-defunct Center for Millennial Studies at Boston University, ISBN 0-06-198508-2 See also, Israeli settlements, Israeli culture, Israel Defense Forces The Accidental Empire, Israel and the Birth of the Settlements, 1967-1977. ISBN 0-8050-7564-X Reviews, See also, Israeli settlements The End of Days, Fundamentalism, ISBN 0-7567-5386-4 Reviews, See also, Christian Zionism, Temple Mount Seventy Facets, A Commentary on the Torah from the Pages of the Jerusalem Report. ISBN 1-56821-904-0 See also, Torah Shalom, Friend, The Life and Legacy of Yitzhak Rabin
44.
Dominique Lapierre
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Dominique Lapierre is a French author. Dominique Lapierre was born in Châtelaillon-Plage, Charente-Maritime, France, at the age of thirteen, he travelled to America with his father who was a diplomat. He attended the Jesuit school in New Orleans and became a boy for the New Orleans Item. He developed interests in travelling, writing and cars, Lapierre renovated a 1927 Nash that his mother gave him and decided to travel across America during his summer holidays. To earn his way he painted mail boxes, later, he received a scholarship to study the Aztec civilization in Mexico. He hitch-hiked throughout America living an existence, wrote articles, washed windows in churches, gave lectures. One day a truck driver who picked him up on the road to Chicago stole his suitcase and he found the driver before the police did. The Chicago Tribune paid him $100 for his exclusive story and his twenty thousand miles of adventure beginning with just thirty dollars in his pocket led to his first book A Dollar for a Thousand Kilometers. It became one of the best sellers of postwar France and other European countries, when Lapierre was eighteen, he received a Fulbright Scholarship to study economics at Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania. He bought a 1937 Chrysler convertible for $30 and fell in love with a fashion editor and they were married in New York City Hall on his 21st birthday and drove to Mexico in the old Chrysler for their honeymoon. With only $300 in their pockets, they had just enough to buy gas, sandwiches, in Los Angeles, they won another $300 in a radio game show for Campbell Soup. The prize included a case of soup, which was their only food for three weeks, Lapierre sold the Chrysler for $400 in San Francisco and bought two tickets on the SS Presidential Cleveland for Japan. The honeymoon lasted for a year and they worked their way across Japan, Hong Kong, Thailand, India, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey and Lebanon. When they returned to France, Lapierre wrote his second book, on his return to Paris after his honeymoon, he was conscripted into the French army. After one year in the regiment, he was transferred to the SHAPE headquarters to serve as an interpreter. One day in the cafeteria he met a young American corporal, Larry Collins, when Collins was discharged he was offered a job with Procter & Gamble. Two days before reporting to the new job, the United Press offered him a job as writer at their Paris office. Collins took the offer from United Press and was picked up by Newsweek to be their correspondent in the Middle East
