1.
IUCN
–
The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
IUCN
–
Julian Huxley, the first Director General of UNESCO, took the initiative to set up IUCN
IUCN
IUCN
–
Africa was the first regional focus of IUCN conservation action
IUCN
–
Stopping illegal trade of wildlife is one of IUCN's priorities
2.
National park
–
A national park is a park in use for conservation purposes. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns, although individual nations designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea, the conservation of wild nature for posterity and as a symbol of national pride. An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although Yellowstone was not officially termed a national park in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. The first area to use national park in its legislation was the USs Mackinac Island. Australias Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the third official national park. In 1895 ownership of Mackinac Island was transferred to the State of Michigan as a state park, as a result, Australias Royal National Park is by some considerations the second oldest national park now in existence. The largest national park in the meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park. According to the IUCN,6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006, IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. National parks are almost always open to visitors, in 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a sort of property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877, John Muir is today referred to as the Father of the National Parks due to his work in Yosemite. He published two articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on July 1,1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley, according to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for use, resort. Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation, a public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone at its establishment six years later was put under national control, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States first national park, being also the worlds first national park. In some European countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed, such as Drachenfels, Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory
National park
–
An elephant safari through the
Jaldapara National Park in
West Bengal,
India
National park
–
The
Teide National Park in
Tenerife,
Spain
National park
–
Manuel Antonio National Park in
Costa Rica was listed by
Forbes as one of the world's 12 most beautiful national parks.
National park
–
A
salt marsh in
Schiermonnikoog National Park,
Netherlands
3.
Kilimanjaro Region
–
Kilimanjaro Region is one of Tanzanias 30 administrative regions. The regional capital is the municipality of Moshi, according to the 2012 national census, the region had a population of 1,640,087, which was lower than the pre-census projection of 1,702,207. For 2002-2012, the regions 1.8 percent average annual growth rate was the 24th highest in the country. It was also the eighth most densely populated region with 124 people per square kilometer, the region is home to a portion of Kilimanjaro National Park. The region is bordered to the north and east by Kenya, to the south by the Tanga Region, to the southwest by the Manyara Region, and to the west by the Arusha Region. The region is divided into seven districts, The Kilimanjaro Region borrowed its name from the tallest mountain in Africa. The other two, Mwanga District Council and Same District Council, have historically included Pare settlements, the region, from earlier times, had been settled by the people collectively called the Chagga, the Maasai, Wakwavi, and Waarusha, and the Pare on the Pare mountains. These have been intermingling, trading, and even fighting from time to time for various socio-political reasons, later, other tribes also migrated to the area. Mount Kilimanjaro lies on a tectonic line intersection 80 kilometres east of the tectonically active Rift Valley, the activity that created this stratovolcano dates back less than a million years. Steam and sulphur fumaroles here are indicative of residual activity, at one stage, most of the summit of Kilimanjaro was covered by an ice cap, probably more than 100 metres deep. Glaciers extended well down the mountain forming moraine ridges, clearly visible now on the southern flanks down to about 4,000 metres, at present only a small fraction of the glacial cover remains. Chaga people Kilimanjaro National Park Marangu Mkomazi National Park Moshi, Tanzania Pare people Kilimanjaro Official page
Kilimanjaro Region
–
An elephant passing by the north side of
Mount Kilimanjaro, in
Kenya
Kilimanjaro Region
–
The snowcapped Uhuru Peak
4.
Tanzania
–
Tanzania /ˌtænzəˈniːə/, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in Eastern Africa within the African Great Lakes region. Parts of the country are in Southern Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro, Africas highest mountain, is in northeastern Tanzania. Tanzanias population of 51.82 million is diverse, composed of ethnic, linguistic. Dar es Salaam, the capital, retains most government offices and is the countrys largest city, principal port. Tanzania is a one party dominant state with the Chama Cha Mapinduzi party in power, from its formation until 1992, it was the only legally permitted party in the country. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats were last held in October 2015, the CCM holds approximately 75% of the seats in the assembly. Prehistoric population migrations include Southern Cushitic speakers, who are ancestral to the Iraqw, Gorowa, and Burunge and who moved south from Ethiopia into Tanzania. Based on linguistic evidence, there may also have two movements into Tanzania of Eastern Cushitic people at about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago. These movements took place at about the time as the settlement of the iron-making Mashariki Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria. They brought with them the west African planting tradition and the staple of yams. They subsequently migrated out of these regions across the rest of Tanzania, European colonialism began in mainland Tanzania during the late 19th century when Germany formed German East Africa, which gave way to British rule following World War I. The mainland was governed as Tanganyika, with the Zanzibar Archipelago remaining a separate colonial jurisdiction, following their respective independence in 1961 and 1963, the two entities merged in April 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. Tanzania is mountainous and densely forested in the northeast, where Mount Kilimanjaro is located, three of Africas Great Lakes are partly within Tanzania. To the north and west lie Lake Victoria, Africas largest lake, and Lake Tanganyika, the eastern shore is hot and humid, with the Zanzibar Archipelago just offshore. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibars largest marine protected area, over 100 different languages are spoken in Tanzania, making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa. Among the languages spoken in Tanzania are all four of Africas language families, Bantu, Cushitic, Nilotic, Swahili and English are Tanzanias official languages. In connection with his Ujamaa social policies, President Nyerere encouraged the use of Swahili, approximately 10% of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language, and up to 90% speak it as a second language. Most Tanzanians thus speak both Swahili and a language, many educated Tanzanians are trilingual, also speaking English
Tanzania
–
An ancient stone chopping tool discovered at
Olduvai Gorge and currently on display at the
British Museum
Tanzania
–
Flag
Tanzania
–
General
Lettow-Vorbeck in
Dar es Salaam with a British Officer (left) and German Officer (right), March 1919
Tanzania
–
Arusha Declaration Monument
5.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
6.
Tanzania National Parks Authority
–
The Tanzania National Parks Authority commonly known as TANAPA is responsible for the management of Tanzanias national parks. TANAPA is a corporation and all its income is reinvested into the organization. It is governed by a number of instruments including the National Parks Act, Chapter 282 of the 2002 and the Wildlife Conservation Act No.5 of 2009. TANAPA manages the nations 17 National parks which cover ~15% of the area and has the mandate to conserve and manage wildlife in Tanzania. It manages the biodiversity of the country, protecting and conserving the flora, currently TANAPA is governed by the National Parks Ordinance Chapter 282 of the 2002 and manages 17 national parks. TANAPA manages 17 national parks covering an area of 57,024 km2 approximately the area of Croatia. TANAPA is responsible for the parks, TANAPAs main source of revenue is sourced from tourist arrivals. TANAPA in collaboration with the Tanzania Tourist Board markets the national parks locally and internationally to attract visitors, TANAPA has also been mandated to promote domestic tourism. It is TANAPAs first and foremost goal to protect the wildlife and natural living in the park. The organization has received donations of vehicles and aircraft to help train rangers with modern technology. TANAPA also pays to maintain the facilities for tourists and conservation activities such as Roads, Gates, Boundaries. TANAPA currently manages 26 airstrips throughout its network of national parks, often forest fires break out in the parks and it is under TANAPAs mandate to put them out. List of protected areas of Tanzania Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute Official Website
Tanzania National Parks Authority
–
TANAPA vehicle
Tanzania National Parks Authority
–
TANAPA aircraft
7.
World Heritage Site
–
A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
World Heritage Site
–
Site #252:
Taj Mahal, an example of cultural heritage site
World Heritage Site
–
Logo of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Heritage Committee
World Heritage Site
–
Site #156:
Serengeti National Park, an example of natural heritage site
World Heritage Site
–
Site #274:
Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, an example of mixed heritage site
8.
Moshi, Tanzania
–
Moshi is a Tanzanian municipality with a population of 184,292 according to the 2012 census. The municipality is in the Kilimanjaro Region and is situated on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. The municipality covers about 59 square kilometres and is the smallest municipality in Tanzania by area, many people from the Chagga and Pare ethnic groups live in Moshi, which lies on the east-west A23 Arusha–Himo road connecting Arusha and Voi, Kenya. Just to the east of Moshi is the intersection with the B1 north–south road eventually connecting with Tanga, Moshi is always considered the cleanest town in Tanzania. Germany established a camp in Moshi in August 1893. The northern line railroad reached Moshi in 1912, Moshi attained the status of a town in 1956. In 1988, it became a municipality under Tanzanian law, but as of 31 October 2014, Moshi is divided administratively into 21 wards and then subdivided into 60 hamlets. The municipal budget of Moshi in fiscal year 2012/2013 was estimated to be 22.2 billion Tanzanian shillings or US $14.1 million at a rate of 1,575 shillings per dollar. Actual expenditures for that year were 20.3 billion shillings, the budget for the 2014/2015 fiscal year is 57.3 billion Tanzanian shillings or US $33.7 million at an exchange rate of 1,700 shillings per dollar. Like all of Tanzania, Moshi has universal primary education, Moshi hosts a number of higher education facilities. KCMCo is a campus of Tumaini University and it was started in 1997 and offers a number of medical courses. The college is located within the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre complex, SMMUCo is also a campus of Tumaini University. It was developed from the Masoka Management Training Institute and the Mwika Lutheran Bible College and it belongs to the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania - Northern Diocese, and it is a multi-campus university college. Currently, SMMUCo has campuses in Masoka, Mwika and Moshi, with future campuses planned for Machame, Siha, MWECAU formerly a constituent college of the Saint Augustine University of Tanzania. MWECAU is located 10 kilometres north of Moshi, since May 2004, the Moshi Co-operative University has been a constituent college of the Sokoine University of Agriculture. Formerly known as the Ushirika College, it is the oldest training institution in Tanzania and is located along Sokoine Road in Moshi, Moshi Co-operative University grew from a college enrolling only 150 students, conducting tailored courses, to a university college with a capacity of 1500 students. CAWM is commonly known as Mweka College and it was established in 1963 following the Arusha Manifesto as a pioneer institution for the training of African wildlife managers. The majority of the CAWMs students come from the SADC region, KSP is owned by the Saint Luke Foundation, a registered trust founded to provide broad spectrum services to an African population that faces serious deficiencies in pharmaceutical and health systems
Moshi, Tanzania
–
Moshi panorama with
Mount Kilimanjaro in the background
Moshi, Tanzania
–
Districts of the
Kilimanjaro Region, including the
Moshi Urban District but excluding the
Siha District
Moshi, Tanzania
–
Moshi Town as seen from Lower Moshi rice fields
Moshi, Tanzania
–
From top:
Kilimanjaro Mountain, Moshi Hotel (formerly the Livingstone Hotel), A23 Arusha-Himo road, Clock Tower
9.
Mount Kilimanjaro
–
Mount Kilimanjaro, with its three volcanic cones, Kibo, Mawenzi, and Shira, is a dormant volcano in Tanzania. It is the highest mountain in Africa, and rises approximately 4,900 m from its base to 5,895 metres above sea level, the first recorded ascent to the summit of the mountain was by Hans Meyer and Ludwig Purtscheller in 1889. The mountain is part of the Kilimanjaro National Park and is a major climbing destination, the mountain has been the subject of many scientific studies because of its shrinking glaciers. Kilimanjaro rises approximately 4,900 m from its base in the plains near the municipality of Moshi to its summit height of 5,895 metres. Kilimanjaro is the highest volcano outside South America, Kilimanjaro is a large stratovolcano and is composed of three distinct volcanic cones, Kibo, the highest, Mawenzi at 5,149 metres, and Shira, the shortest at 4,005 metres. Mawenzi and Shira are extinct, while Kibo is dormant and could erupt again, Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibos crater rim. The Tanzania National Parks Authority, a Tanzanian governmental agency, and that height is based on a British Ordnance Survey in 1952. Since then, the height has been measured as 5,892 metres in 1999,5,891 metres in 2008, the interior of the volcanic edifice is poorly known, given the lack of large scale erosion that could have exposed the interiors of the volcano. Shira is topped by a plateau at 3,800 metres. The remnant caldera rim has been degraded deeply by erosion, before the caldera formed and erosion began, Shira might have been between 4,900 m and 5,200 m high. It is mostly composed of lavas with some pyroclastics. The formation of the caldera was accompanied by lava emanating from ring fractures, two cones formed subsequently, the phonolitic one at the northwest end of the ridge and the doleritic Platzkegel in the caldera centre. Both Mawenzi and Kibo began erupting about 1 million years ago and they are separated by the Saddle Plateau at 4,400 metres elevation. The youngest dated rocks at Mawenzi are about 448,000 years old, Mawenzi forms a horseshoe shaped ridge with pinnacles and ridges opening to the northeast which has a tower like shape resulting from deep erosion and a mafic dyke swarm. Several large cirques cut into the ring, the largest of these sits on top of the Great Barranco gorge, also notable are the Ost and West Barrancos on the northeastern side of the mountain. Most of the side of the mountain has been removed by erosion. Mawenzi has a peak named Neumann Tower. Kibo is the largest cone and is more than 15 miles wide at the Saddle Plateau altitude, the last activity here has been dated to between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago and created the current Kibo summit crater
Mount Kilimanjaro
–
Kibo summit of Kilimanjaro
Mount Kilimanjaro
–
Aerial view of Mount Kilimanjaro in December 2009
Mount Kilimanjaro
–
Historical map with " Kilima-Ndscharo " in
German East Africa, 1888
10.
Montane ecology
–
Montane ecosystems refers to any ecosystem found in mountains. These ecosystems are affected by climate, which gets colder as elevation increases. They are stratified according to elevation, dense forests are common at moderate elevations. However, as the elevation increases, the climate becomes harsher, as elevation increases, the climate becomes cooler, due to a decrease in the greenhouse effect. The characteristic flora and fauna in the mountains tend to depend on elevation. This dependency causes life zones to form, bands of similar ecosystems at similar altitude, one of the typical life zones on mountains is the montane forest, at moderate elevations, the rainfall and temperate climate encourages dense forests to grow. Holdridge defines the climate of montane forest as having a biotemperature of between 6 and 12 °C, where biotemperature is the mean temperature considering temperatures below 0 °C to be 0 °C. Above the elevation of the montane forest, the trees thin out in the zone, become twisted krummholz. Therefore, Montane forests often contain trees with twisted trunks and this phenomenon is observed due to the increase in the wind strength with the elevation. The elevation where trees fail to grow is called the tree line. The biotemperature of the zone is between 3 and 6 °C. Above the tree line the ecosystem is called the zone or alpine tundra, dominated by grasses. The biotemperature of the zone is between 1.5 and 3 °C. Many different plant species live in the environment, including perennial grasses, sedges, forbs, cushion plants, mosses. Alpine plants must adapt to the conditions of the alpine environment, which include low temperatures, dryness, ultraviolet radiation. Alpine plants display adaptations such as structures, waxy surfaces. Because of the characteristics of these zones, the World Wildlife Fund groups a set of related ecoregions into the montane grassland and shrubland biome. Climates with biotemperatures below 1.5 °C tend to consist purely of rock, Montane forests occur between the submontane zone and the subalpine zone. The elevation at which one habitat changes to another varies across the globe, the upper limit of montane forests, the forest line or timberline, is often marked by a change to hardier species that occur in less dense stands
Montane ecology
–
A subalpine lake in the
Goms district of the
Swiss Alps
Montane ecology
–
A stand of
mountain birch at around 750 m in
Trollheimen, typical of
Scandinavian subalpine forests
Montane ecology
–
Waimea Canyon, Hawaii is known for its montane vegetation.
Montane ecology
–
Pine forest in
Abkhazia
11.
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
–
The Ngorongoro Conservation Area is a protected area and a World Heritage Site located 180 km west of Arusha in the Crater Highlands area of Tanzania. The area is named after Ngorongoro Crater, a volcanic caldera within the area. It has been reported in 2009 that the government authority has proposed a reduction of the population of the area from 65,000 to 25,000. There are plans being considered for 14 more luxury tourist hotels, Ngorongoro was named by the Maasai as El-Nkoronkoro meaning Gift of Life. This was because they were migrating from Central Africa for a permanent settlement and that is why the Ngorongoro Conservation Area is mostly occupied by the Maasai. Based on fossil found at the Olduvai Gorge, various hominid species have occupied the area for 3 million years. Hunter-gatherers were replaced by pastoralists a few years ago. The Mbulu came to the area about 2,000 years ago and were joined by the Datooga around the year 1700, both groups were driven from the area by the Maasai in the 1800s. Massive fig trees in the northwest of the Lerai Forest are sacred to the Maasai, some of them may have been planted on the grave of a Datago leader who died in battle with the Maasai around 1840. No Europeans are known to have set foot in the Ngorongoro Crater until 1892, two German brothers farmed in the crater until the outbreak of World War I, after leasing the land from the administration of German East Africa. The brothers regularly organized shooting parties to entertain their German friends and they also attempted to drive the wildebeest herds out of the crater. In 1921, the first game preservation ordinance was passed, which restricted hunting to permit holders throughout Tanzania, in 1928, hunting was prohibited on all land within the crater rim, except the former Siedentopf farms. The National Park Ordinance of 1948 created the Serengeti National Park and this, however, caused problems with the Maasai and other tribes, resulting in the NCA Ordinance that separated the NCA from the SNP. The Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority was established by the Game Park Laws Act,1976 and owns the majority of NCA land, the area became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. Land in the area is multi-use and unique because it is the only conservation area in Tanzania that protects wildlife while allowing human habitation. Land use is controlled to prevent negative effects on the wildlife population, for example, cultivation is prohibited at all but subsistence levels. The area is part of the Serengeti ecosystem and, to the northwest and these plains also extend to the north into the unprotected Loliondo division and are kept open to wildlife through transhumance pastoralism practiced by the Maasai. The south and west of the area are volcanic highlands, including the famous Ngorongoro Crater, the southern and eastern boundaries are approximately defined by the rim of the East African Rift wall, which also prevents animal migration in these directions
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
–
View of the crater
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
–
Inside the crater
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
–
View of Ngorongoro from Inside the Crater
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
–
Lake Magadi
12.
Tree hyrax
–
The tree hyraxes or tree dassies are the three species in the genus Dendrohyrax. They are mammals in the family Procaviidae, the three species are, Southern tree hyrax, found in East and Southern Africa Eastern tree hyrax, found in East Africa. Western tree hyrax, found in West and Central Africa The tree hyrax is a nocturnal mammal that is distantly related to elephants. They have 4-toed front feet and 3-toed back feet with rounded nails, colouring, Dependent on geographical location, their soft dense coats can range from a pale gray to light or dark brown. Territorial call, The male has a territorial call that starts with a series of loud measured cracking sounds. This is then followed by a series of screams, ending in a descending series of expiring shrieks. Females also call, but lack the air pouches and enlarged larynx of the male, on average there are two peak calling periods per night. Times vary, but the first period is often 2 –3 hours after dark, and the second at some point after midnight
Tree hyrax
–
Tree hyraxes
13.
Common duiker
–
Generally, they are found in habitats with sufficient vegetation cover to allow them to hide—savanna and hilly areas, including the fringes of human settlements. Colouration of this varies widely over its vast geographic range. There are 14 subspecies described, ranging from chestnut in forested areas of Angola to grizzled gray in northern savannas and it grows to about 50 cm in height and generally weighs 12 to 25 kg, although females are generally larger and heavier than the males. Only the male has horns and these can grow to 11 cm long, breeding is year round and the female gives birth to one fawn after a gestation period of 6 to 7.5 months. The common duiker has a diet, beyond herbivorous browsing for leaves, flowers, fruits and tubers, they will also eat insects, frogs, small birds and mammals. As long as they have vegetation to eat, they can go without drinking for very long periods, in the rainy season, they will frequently not drink water at all, instead obtaining fluids from fruits. They will often scavenge for these fruits below trees in which monkeys are feeding and they are active both day and night, but become more nocturnal near human settlements. Females, by contrast, prefer deeper cover, the overall success of this species stems from its ability to inhabit a wide variety of habitats, as well as from its adaptable, generalist diet. Smithsonian Institution,2005, pg.250 Alden, P. C. et al. Collins Guide to African Wildlife, clutton-Brock, J. ed. Dorling Kindersley Mammal Handbook
Common duiker
–
Common duiker
Common duiker
–
Common duiker in
Kruger National Park
Common duiker
–
Juvenile male common duiker in
Kidepo Valley National Park, Uganda
14.
Bushbuck
–
Bushbuck Charms, Viking Ships & Dodo Eggs, also known as Bush Buck, Global Treasure Hunter, is an educational computer game released in 1991. Designed by the Australian company Reckon, the game was published by PC Globe, in the tradition of Brøderbunds Carmen Sandiego games, Bushbuck Charms, Viking Ships and Dodo Eggs taught geography through a storyline that involved a global scavenger hunt for unusual items. Each game, the player had to find fifteen items which the game chose from a selection of hundreds of possible items, a few of the possible items were a hemlock leaf, a lava-lava, and an alpaca poncho. The game ran on the Amiga and DOS platforms, the game is played by flying from city to city seeking treasures as laid out at the beginning of the round. The game has three modes, one player with no computer player, one player with computer player. The game starts in a selected city which becomes the home base for that rounds competition, to which the player must return to redeem treasures for points. If the player collects all items, a one way flight back to the home base city is rewarded. Five items are available at any one time with a total of fifteen items available for the entire round. Eight different buttons are available on screen at all times, as well as the exit button, city On/Off Toggle Allows the player to choose whether or not to have the cities show on the map. Does not affect cities with clues, Toggle When lit up, give player hints during play. If clicked, will pull up a red screen explaining the in-game menu options, pointer Mode Toggle Gives the player control of a pointer which will, when placed over a city, indicates the city name. Key Toggle When clicked, brings up a legend to indicate what on the map is what, magnifying Glass Toggle Allows the player to choose between a close up view of the region he/she is currently in, or a full world map view. When lit up, indicates that zoomed in mode is in use, music Note Toggle Switches music on/off. Airplane Toggle Puts player in flight mode, allowing the player to choose which of the available cities he/she would like to fly to. Item Toggle Opens the item menu, allowing the player to see what items are on board, what items are available, different weather-related obstacles are presented while heading from city to city. At times the player may have to choose to fly through a blizzard, typhoon, hailstorm, rain storm, hurricane. If the player chooses to go through the storm, they may make it, if there are any items on board when flying through inclement weather, they will be roughed up, and be worth less points when turned in. The player starts with a set number of tickets at the beginning of the round, when the player returns items to the home base,10 additional tickets are given per item returned
Bushbuck
15.
African buffalo
–
The African buffalo or Cape buffalo is a large African bovine. It is not closely related to the larger wild water buffalo of Asia. Syncerus caffer caffer, the Cape buffalo, is the subspecies. S. c. nanus is the smallest subspecies, common in forest areas of Central and West Africa, while S. c. brachyceros is in West Africa and S. c. aequinoctialis is in the savannas of Central Africa. The adult buffalos horns are its characteristic feature, they have fused bases and they are widely regarded as very dangerous animals, as they gore and kill over 200 people every year. The African buffalo is not an ancestor of cattle and is only distantly related to other larger bovines. Owing to its nature, which makes it highly dangerous to humans, the African buffalo has never been domesticated, unlike its Asian counterpart. Other than humans, African Cape buffaloes have few predators aside from lions and large crocodiles, being a member of the big five game, the Cape buffalo is a sought-after trophy in hunting. The African buffalo is a very robust species and its shoulder height can range from 1.0 to 1.7 m and its head-and-body length can range from 1.7 to 3.4 m. Compared with other bovids, it has a long but stocky body and short but thickset legs. The tail can range from 70 to 110 cm long, savannah-type buffaloes weigh 500 to 1,000 kg, with males normally larger than females, reaching the upper weight range. In comparison, forest-type buffaloes, at 250 to 450 kg, are half that size. Its head is carried low, its top is located below the backline. The front hooves of the buffalo are wider than the rear, which is associated with the need to support the weight of the front part of the body, savannah-type buffaloes have black or dark brown coats with age. Old bulls have whitish circles around their eyes, females tend to have more-reddish coats. Forest-type buffaloes are reddish brown in colour with horns that curve back, calves of both types have red coats. A characteristic feature of the horns of adult male African buffalo is fusion of their bases, from the base, the horns diverge downwards, then smoothly curve upwards and outwards. In large bulls, the distance between the ends of the horns can reach upwards of one metre, the horns form fully when the animal reaches the age of five or six years
African buffalo
African buffalo
–
Skull of an African buffalo
African buffalo
–
Syncerus caffer caffer in the
Kalahari desert,
South Africa
African buffalo
–
African forest buffalo at the
San Diego Zoo
16.
African bush elephant
–
The African bush elephant is the larger of the two species of African elephant. The African bush elephant is the largest and heaviest land animal on earth, being up to 3.96 m tall at the shoulder and 10.4 tonnes in weight. On average, males are 3.2 metres tall at the shoulder and 6 tonnes in weight, the trunk is used for communication and handling objects and food. African elephants also have bigger tusks, large modified incisors that grow throughout an elephants life and they occur in both males and females and are used in fights and for marking, feeding, and digging. The African bush elephant is herbivorous and its diet varies according to its habitat, elephants living in forests, partial deserts, and grasslands all eat different proportions of herbs and tree or shrubbery leaves. Elephants inhabiting the shores of Lake Kariba have been recorded eating underwater plant life, to break down the plants it consumes, the African bush elephant has four large molars, two in each mandible of the jaw. Each of these molars is 10 centimetres wide and 30 centimetres long, over time, these molars are worn away, and new ones are grown to replace them as the elephant ages. Not much later, the dies of starvation from not being able to feed correctly. Specimens over 80 years old are known in captivity and this species typically ingests an average of 225 kilograms of vegetable matter daily, which is defecated without being fully digested. Elephants rip apart all kind of plants, and knock down trees with the if they are not able to reach the tree leaves. Elephants also drink great quantities of water, over 190 liters per day, herds are made up of related females and their young, led by the eldest female, called the matriarch. Infrequently, an adult goes with them, but those usually leave the herd when reaching adolescence to form bachelor herds with other elephants of the same age. Later, they lead a life, approaching the female herds only during the mating season. Nevertheless, elephants do not get too far from their families, sometimes, several female herds can blend for a time, reaching even hundreds of individuals. The matriarch decides the route and shows the members of the herd all the water sources she knows. The relations among the members of the herd are very tight, when a female gives birth, when an old elephant dies, the rest of the herd stays by the corpse for a while. Mating happens when the female receptive, an event that can occur anytime during the year. When she is ready, she starts emitting infrasounds to attract the males, sometimes from kilometers away, the adult males start arriving at the herd during the following days and begin fighting, causing some injuries and even broken tusks
African bush elephant
–
African bush elephant
African bush elephant
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A female African bush elephant skeleton on display at the
Museum of Osteology,
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
African bush elephant
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A male African bush elephant skull on display at the Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City
African bush elephant
–
Skull of a baby African bush elephant
17.
Blue monkey
–
It sometimes includes the Sykes, silver, and golden monkey as subspecies. It is mainly olive or grey apart from the face, the cap, feet and front legs, and the mantle. Typical sizes are from 50 to 65 cm in length, with females weighing a little over 4 kg, the blue monkey is found in evergreen forests and montane bamboo forests, and lives largely in the forest canopy, coming to the ground infrequently. It is very dependent on humid, shady areas with plenty of water and it eats mainly fruit and leaves, but will take some slower-moving invertebrates. It prefers to live in trees which provide both food and shelter, and is therefore, like almost all guenons, suffering from the loss of its natural habitat. Where pine plantations replace natural forest, the monkey may be treated as a threat by foresters and it is also hunted for bushmeat. The blue monkeys live in social systems where females stay in their natal groups while males disperse once they reach adulthood. As a result, blue monkey groups usually consist of one male with females and infants. Occasionally, solitary males are observed which are transient, having left their natal group in search of a new group. In these female-bonded societies, only 5–15% of monkeys activity budget is occupied by social interactions, relationships between group members vary, infants interact most frequently with their peers and adult or juvenile females and are rarely seen near adult males. Alloparenting is common among blue monkeys, the most common infant handlers are juvenile females and usually one infant is carried by a number of alloparents. One hypothesis is that allows the infant to learn to socialise at an early stage in life. Interesting female-female relationships exist among blue monkeys and this relationship is believed to be shaped by their feeding ecology, which, in turn, is shaped by between-group and within-group competition. Blue monkey females exhibit strong, aggressive competition between groups and between other species because of their character but milder though more frequent competition within groups. Moreover, overall agonism rates in blue monkeys are very low, within group conflicts are mild and infrequent because females tend to distance themselves from one another and feed at different sites, thus avoiding competition. Cercopithecus mitis joins with the Cercopithecus ascanius for extra protection, “Cercopithecus mitis social system is mainly female because the males leave once they are mature. The male Cercopithecus mitis have little to no interaction with the young, Cercopithecus mitis are very territorial so the young males have to leave pretty quick, so the young males help themselves become more successful. They will challenge the dominant male of another family, if they defeat the dominant male they take over the leadership of that family, and this offers a place to live, socialization and food supplies for the young males
Blue monkey
–
Blue monkey
Blue monkey
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By stream in
Lake Manyara National Park,
Tanzania
18.
Black and white colobus
–
Black-and-white colobuses are Old World monkeys of the genus Colobus, native to Africa. They are closely related to the brown colobus monkeys of genus Piliocolobus, the word colobus comes from Greek κολοβός kolobós, and is so named because in this genus, the thumb is a stump. Colobuses are herbivorous, eating leaves, fruit, flowers, and their habitats include primary and secondary forests, riverine forests, and wooded grasslands, they are found more in higher-density logged forests than in other primary forests. Their ruminant-like digestive systems have enabled these leaf-eaters to occupy niches that are inaccessible to other primates, colobuses live in territorial groups of about nine individuals, based upon a single male with a number of females and their offspring. Cases of allomothering are documented, which members of the troop other than the infants biological mother care for it. Colobuses are important for seed dispersal through their sloppy eating habits and they are prey for many forest predators, and are threatened by hunting for the bushmeat trade, logging, and habitat destruction
Black and white colobus
–
Black-and-white colobus
Black and white colobus
–
Angolan black-and-white colobus (Colobus angolensis) seen in Tanzania.
19.
Bushbaby
–
Galagos /ɡəˈleɪɡoʊz/, also known as bushbabies, bush babies, or nagapies, are small nocturnal primates native to continental Africa, and make up the family Galagidae. They are sometimes included as a subfamily within the Lorisidae or Loridae, according to some accounts, the name bushbaby comes from either the animals cries or its appearance. The Afrikaans name nagapie is because they are almost exclusively seen at night, in both variety and abundance, the bushbabies are the most successful strepsirrhine primates in Africa, according to the African Wildlife Foundation. Galagos have large eyes give them good night vision, strong hind limbs, acute hearing. Their ears are bat-like and allow them to insects in the dark. They catch insects on the ground or snatch them out of the air, as they bound through the thick bushes, they fold their delicate ears back to protect them. They also fold them during rest and they have nails on most of their digits, except for the second toe of the hind foot, which bears a grooming claw. Their diet is a mixture of insects and other animals, fruit. After a few days, the mother carries the infant in her mouth, females may have singles, twins, or triplets, and may become very aggressive. Each newborn weighs less than half an ounce, for the first three days, the infant is kept in constant contact with the mother. The young are fed by the mother for six weeks and can feed themselves at two months, the young grow rapidly, often causing the mother to walk awkwardly as she transports them. Females maintain a territory, but share them with their offspring, males leave their mothers territories after puberty, but females remain, forming social groups consisting of closely related females and their young. Adult males maintain separate territories, which overlap with those of the social groups, generally. Males that have not established such territories sometimes form small bachelor groups, while keeping them as pets is not advised, it is certainly done. Equally, they are likely to attract attention from customs officials on importation into many countries. Reports from veterinary and zoological sources indicate captive lifetimes of 12.0 to 16.5 years, galagos communicate both by calling to each other, and by marking their paths with urine. By following the scent of urine, they can land on exactly the same every time. All species of galago produce species-specific loud calls or advertisement calls and these calls have multiple different functions
Bushbaby
–
Galagos
Bushbaby
–
Garnetts Galago, Otolemur garnettii
Bushbaby
20.
African leopard
–
The African leopard is the leopard nominate subspecies native to many countries in Africa. It is widely distributed in most of sub-Saharan Africa, but the range has been fragmented in the course of habitat conversion. African leopards exhibit great variation in color, depending on location. Coat colour varies from yellow to deep gold or tawny, and sometimes black. Male leopards are larger, averaging 60 kg with 91 kg being the maximum weight attained by a male, females weigh about 35 to 40 kg on average. Between 1996 and 2000,11 adult leopards were radio-collared on Namibian farmlands, males weighed 37.5 to 52.3 kg only, and females 24 to 33.5 kg. Leopards inhabiting the mountains of the Cape Provinces appear physically different from leopards further north and their average weight may be only half that of the more northerly leopard. African leopards used to occur in most of sub-Saharan Africa, occupying both rainforest and arid desert habitats and they were found in all habitats with annual rainfall above 50 mm, and can penetrate areas with less than this amount of rainfall along river courses. They range exceptionally up to 5,700 m, have been sighted on high slopes of the Ruwenzori and Virunga volcanoes and they appear to be successful at adapting to altered natural habitat and settled environments in the absence of intense persecution. There were many records of their presence near major cities, but already in the 1980s, they have become rare throughout much of West Africa. Now, they remain patchily distributed within historical limits, in North Africa, a tiny relict population, the Barbary leopard, persists in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. African leopards inhabited a wide range of habitats within Africa, from forests to grasslands and savannahs. They are most at risk in areas of semi-desert, where scarce resources often result in conflict with nomadic farmers, Leopards are generally most active between sunset and sunrise, and kill more prey at this time. In Kruger National Park, male leopards and female leopards with cubs were relatively more active at night than solitary females, the highest rates of daytime activity were recorded for leopards using thorn thickets during the wet season, when impala also used them. They have an ability to adapt to changes in prey availability. Small prey are taken where large ungulates are less common, the known prey of leopards ranges from dung beetles to adult elands, which can reach 900 kg. In sub-Saharan Africa, at least 92 prey species have been documented in their diet including rodents, birds, small and large antelopes, hyraxes and hares, and arthropods. They generally focus their hunting activity on locally abundant medium-sized ungulate species in the 20 to 80 kg range, average intervals between ungulate kills range from seven to 12–13 days
African leopard
–
African leopard
African leopard
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Dark-coloured leopard skin from Central Africa (Kongo)
African leopard
–
An African leopard in
Kruger National Park,
South Africa
African leopard
–
Leopard in the
Serengeti,
Tanzania
21.
List of protected areas of Tanzania
–
Protected areas in Tanzania are extremely varied, ranging from sea habitats over grasslands to the top of the Kilimanjaro, the tallest mountain in Africa. About a third of the total area is protected to a certain degree as a national park, game reserve, marine park. The following list gives an overview on the protected areas in Tanzania including their predominant habitat, wildlife. Especially remarkable species are set in bold, all 16 national parks together comprise an area of more than 42,000 km2. They are administered by the Tanzania National Parks Authority, names like Arusha and Serengeti are well known, partly due to films about African wildlife. List of national parks Maziwi Island Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism UNEP WCMC Tanzania National Parks Marine Parks in Tanzania
List of protected areas of Tanzania
–
Arusha National Park established: 1960 renamed: 1967 enlarged: 1973 area: 137 km²
List of protected areas of Tanzania
–
Contents
List of protected areas of Tanzania
–
Katavi National Park established: 1951 gazetted: 1974 area: 4,471 km²
List of protected areas of Tanzania
–
Kilimanjaro National Park established: 1910s, 1921 gazetted: 1973
world heritage: 1987 area: 753 km²
22.
Marangu
–
Marangu is a town located in Kilimanjaro Region. The four and half day Marangu Route climb is considered the least arduous and it is believed that the first man in history to have climbed Kibo peak on Kilimanjaro was Kinyala Johannes Lauwo of Ashira Marangu. The word Marangu means a place with too many water streams and it is one of the most popular places in Tanzania. One of the proverbs of Chagga is Ulamine kilahu ulyemkiwoa which means do not despise something/somebody from which you once received support, many Marangu residents are farmers growing bananas, vegetables and coffee. However, the biggest source of income is tourism, the Marangu route is the most popular hiking route in Africa. The town has world class hotels like Babylon Lodge, hosting local and international guests wanting to climb Mount Kilimanjaro, new Marangu residents are young men from all over Tanzania looking to work in the tourism industry as porters and guides
Marangu
–
Marangu Gate entrance to Kilimanjaro National park
Marangu
–
Marangu Waterfalls
23.
Chaga people
–
The Chaga are Bantu-speaking indigenous Africans and the third largest ethnic group in Tanzania. They traditionally live on the southern and eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru and they were one of the first tribes in the area to convert to Christianity. This may have given them an advantage over other ethnic groups, as they had better access to education. The Chaga descended from various Bantu groups who migrated from elsewhere in Africa to the foothills of Mount Kilimanjaro, a migration that began around the start of the eleventh century. While the Chaga are Bantu-speakers, their language has a number of related to Kamba, which is spoken in northeast Kenya. The Chaga area is divided into a number of chiefdoms. They are culturally related to the Pare, Taveta, and Taita peoples and they follow a patrilineal system of descent and inheritance. Their way of life is based primarily on agriculture, using irrigation on terraced fields, although bananas are their staple food, they also cultivate various crops, including yams, beans, and maize. In agricultural exports, they are best known for their Arabica coffee, in the nineteenth century the Kichagga-speaking people on Mount Kilimanjaro were divided into many small, autonomous chiefdoms. Early accounts frequently identify the inhabitants of each chiefdom as a separate tribe, although the Chaga are principally located on Mount Kilimanjaro in northern Tanzania, numerous families have migrated elsewhere over the course of the twentieth century. Around the beginning of the century, the German colonial government estimated that there were about 28,000 households on Kilimanjaro. The 1988 Tanzanian census counted 744,271 individuals, obviously, the mountain population has increased at a rapid rate during the twentieth century, and the high rate of increase seems to be continuing. Bantu peoples came to Kilimanjaro in a succession of migrations that started at least five or six hundred years ago and it is likely that there were other peoples on the mountain for hundreds of years before they arrived. Reliable written historical accounts of the Chaga date from the nineteenth century, the first European to reach the mountain was a missionary, Johannes Rebmann, who arrived there in 1848. At that time, Rebmann found that Kilimanjaro was so involved in far-reaching trading connections that a chief whose court he visited had a coastal Swahili resident in his entourage. Chaga chiefdoms traded with other, with the peoples of the regions immediately surrounding the mountain. Some of this trading was hand to hand, some of it at markets, many chiefdoms had several produce markets largely run by women, just as they are today. As far back into history as the accounts go, Chaga chiefdoms were chronically at war with one another
Chaga people
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Chaga
Chaga people
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Ngata for protecting the head when carrying bananas
Chaga people
–
A Chagan cave (modified) to hide during tribal wars
Chaga people
–
Chaga suprime council during Colonial Era
24.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
–
Wayback Machine
25.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
26.
Kondoa Irangi Rock Paintings
–
The Kondoa Irangi Rock Paintings are a series of caves carved into the side of a hill looking out over the steppe. They are located nine kilometres east of the main highway from Dodoma to Babati, about 20 km north of Kondoa town, in Kondoa District of Dodoma Region. The caves contain paintings, some of which are believed by the Tanzania Antiquities Department to date more than 50,000 years. The exact number of art sites in the Kondoa area is currently uncertain, however. The paintings depict elongated people, animals, and hunting scenes, tourists are asked to report to the Antiquities Department office on the highway at the village of Kolo and ask for the cave paintings guide. Roughguides. com UNESCO. org World Heritage Tentative List Leakey, Mary D. Tanzanias Stone Age Art
Kondoa Irangi Rock Paintings
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Kondoa Irangi Rock Paintings
–
Close-up view
27.
Kilwa Kisiwani
–
Kilwa Kisiwani is a community on an island off the southern coast of present-day Tanzania in eastern Africa. Historically, it was the center of the Kilwa Sultanate, a medieval sultanate whose authority at its height in the 13th-15th centuries AD stretched the length of the Swahili Coast. Kilwa Kisiwani has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the nearby stonetown Songo Mnara, Kilwa Kisiwani is an archaeological city-state site located along the Swahili Coast on the Kilwa archipelago. It was occupied from at least the 8th century AD and became one of the most powerful settlements along the coast, the seasonal wind reversals would affect trade circulations. Many of the Swahili settlements showed complex layouts that reflected social relations between groups, however at Kilwa, there are many questions left unanswered about the town layout. The cemeteries were located on the edge of the town, which was common for the region, an important city for trade, around the 13th century there were increased fortifications and a greater flow of goods. For these to take place, there would need to be a form of political administration overseeing the city, much of the trade networks were with the Arabian peninsula. Kilwa Kisiwani reached its highest point in wealth and commerce between 13th and 15th centuries AD, evidence of growth in wealth can be seen with the appearance of stone buildings around the 13th century AD, before which all of the buildings were wattle-and-daub. The socio-economic status of the individuals residing there could be seen in the type of structure they were living in. Among Kilwas exports were spices, tortoise shell, coconut oil, ivory, at around this time, Kilwa had seized control over the trade of gold at Sofala. The wealthy also possessed more commercial goods than the individuals who were of lower class did, luxury cloths and foreign ceramics were among a few of the items they would have owned, though some items, such as luxury cloths, do not preserve in the archaeological record. For approximately 500 years, Kilwa was minting coins and this lasted from about A. D 1100-1600 and the coins have been found across the region, including Great Zimbabwe. Marine resources were abundant and utilized for food, food sources would also come from the surrounding land. But because of the impact the sea, with all of the resources and trade opportunities, had on Kilwa. The soil at Kilwa that was found over the limestone was of poor quality, however, the soil in the Kilwa region would have been suitable for growing cotton, which could be used in sail manufacture. 12th century spindle whorls have been found, indicating that cotton was used and processed in this area, at first, most of the focus was placed on the archaeology of Kilwas ports and harbors, however, more and more emphasis is being placed on Kilwas hinterlands. Ceramic artifacts are plentiful at the site and can be divided into two groups, regional and coastal, all of the ceramics with regional distribution were locally produced, but the area of distribution is limited. These unglazed ceramics were referred to as Kitchen Wares, though their uses were not necessarily just as cooking vessels and it is important to note that all of the varieties of locally produced pottery found in the region were also uncovered at the site of Kilwa itself
Kilwa Kisiwani
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Kilwa Kisiwani
–
A 1572 depiction of the city of Kilwa from
Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum.
Kilwa Kisiwani
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The fort on the banks of Kilwa Kisiwani.
28.
Selous Game Reserve
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The Selous Game Reserve is one of the largest faunal reserves of the world, located in the south of Tanzania. Scottish explorer and cartographer Keith Johnston also died at Beho Beho in 1879 while leading a RSGS expedition to the Great Lakes of Africa with Joseph Thomson, the Selous was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982 due to the diversity of its wildlife and undisturbed nature. The reserve covers a area of 54,600 km2 and has additional buffer zones. Within the reserve no permanent human habitation or permanent structures are permitted, all entry and exit is carefully controlled by the Wildlife Division of the Tanzanian Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. Some of the animals of the savanna can be found in this park in larger numbers than in any other African game reserve or national park. The area was first designated an area in 1896 by the German Governor Hermann von Wissmann. There are several high end lodges and camps mainly situated along the river, rather difficult road access means most visitors arrive by small aircraft from Dar es Salaam, though train access is also possible. Interesting places in the include the Rufiji River, which flows into the Indian Ocean opposite Mafia Island and the Stiegler Gorge. Habitats include grassland, typical Acacia savanna, wetlands and extensive Miombo woodlands, although total wildlife populations are high, the reserve is large and densities of animals are lower than in the more regularly visited northern tourist circuit of Tanzania. Walking safaris are permitted in the Selous, and boat trips on the Rufiji are a popular activity, a boundary change to allow the use of uranium deposits has been approved. The approval for the change was given by the UNESCO and seriously criticized by environmentalists and organizations e. g. Uranium-Network. In 1976, the Selous Game Reserve contained about 109,000 elephants, by 2013, the numbers had dropped to about 13,000 - including a 66% drop from 2009 to 2013. Sources blame corrupt politicians, officials and businessmen who help poachers, peter Matthiessen and Hugo van Lawick, Sand Rivers. Aurum Press, London 1981, ISBN 0-906053-22-6. wildlife-baldus. com/selous_game. html Selous Game Reserve Information in the United Nations Environment Programme
Selous Game Reserve
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Elephants in the Selous Game Reserve
Selous Game Reserve
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Aerial photo of the reserve
Selous Game Reserve
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Giraffes and gnu at Selous
Selous Game Reserve
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Elephants
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Serengeti National Park
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The Serengeti National Park is a Tanzanian national park in the Serengeti ecosystem in the Mara and Simiyu regions. It is famous for its annual migration of over 1.5 million white-bearded wildebeest and 250,000 zebra and for its numerous Nile crocodile and honey badger. The name Serengeti is an approximation of the used by the Maasai to describe the area, siringet. The first American to enter the Serengeti, Stewart Edward White and he returned to the Serengeti in the 1920s and camped in the area around Seronera for three months. During this time, he and his companions shot 50 lions, because the hunting of lions made them scarce, the British colonial administration made a partial game reserve of 800 acres in the area in 1921 and a full one in 1929. These actions were the basis for Serengeti National Park, which was established in 1951, the Serengeti gained more fame after the initial work of Bernhard Grzimek and his son Michael in the 1950s. Together, they produced the book and film Serengeti Shall Not Die, to preserve wildlife, the British evicted the resident Maasai from the park in 1959 and moved them to the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. There is still controversy surrounding this move, with claims made of coercion. It has over 2,500 lions and more than 1 million wildebeest, the park covers 14,750 square kilometres of grassland plains, savanna, riverine forest, and woodlands. The park lies in northwestern Tanzania, bordered to the north by the Kenyan border, together, these areas form the larger Serengeti ecosystem. The park is described as divided into three regions- Serengeti plains, the almost treeless grassland of the south is the most emblematic scenery of the park. This is where the wildebeest breed, as remain in the plains from December to May. Other hoofed animals - zebra, gazelle, impala, hartebeest, topi, buffalo, kopjes are granite florations that are very common in the region, and they are great observation posts for predators, as well as a refuge for hyrax and pythons. Western corridor, the clay soil covers the savannah of this region. The Grumeti River and its gallery forests is home to Nile crocodiles, patas monkeys, hippopotamus, the migration passes through from May to July. Northern Serengeti, the landscape is dominated by open woodlands and hills, apart from the migratory wildebeest and zebra, this is the best place to find elephant, giraffe, and dik dik. The main settlement is Seronera, which houses the majority of research staff, the park is worldwide known for its incredible scenery and magnificent wildlife. Some of the most popular animals among tourists include, Masai lion, more than 3,000 lions live in this ecosystem
Serengeti National Park
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Landscape in Serengeti National Park
Serengeti National Park
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A group of lions on the tree in the Serengeti prairies.
Serengeti National Park
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A group of flamingo in a small lake inside Serengeti plain. This photo has been taken by Prof. Chen Hualin.
Serengeti National Park
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A leopard and her baby on the tree in the Serengeti Plain.
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