1.
Eton College
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Eton College /iːtən/ is an English independent boarding school for boys in Eton, Berkshire, near Windsor. It educates more than 1,300 pupils, aged 13 to 18 years and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as The Kings College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor, making it the 18th oldest Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference school. Eton is one of the seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Eton has educated 19 British prime ministers and generations of the aristocracy and has referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The school is headed by a Provost and Fellows, who appoint the Head Master and it contains 25 boys houses, each headed by a housemaster, selected from the more senior members of the teaching staff, which numbers some 155. Almost all of the pupils go on to universities, about a third of them to Oxford or Cambridge. The Head Master is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, Eton has a long list of distinguished former pupils. David Cameron was the 19th British prime minister to have attended the school, about 20% of pupils at Eton receive financial support, through a range of bursaries and scholarships. In early 2014, this figure had risen to 263 pupils receiving the equivalent of around 60% of school fee assistance, Eton has been described as the most famous public school in the world, and been referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The Good Schools Guide called the school the number one public school, adding that The teaching. The school is a member of the G20 Schools Group, Eton today is a larger school than it has been for much of its history. In 1678, there were 207 boys, in the late 18th century, there were about 300, while today, the total has risen to over 1,300. Eton College was founded by King Henry VI as a charity school to free education to 70 poor boys who would then go on to Kings College, Cambridge. Henry took Winchester College as his model, visiting on many occasions, borrowing its Statutes and removing its Headmaster, when Henry VI founded the school, he granted it a large number of endowments, including much valuable land. He persuaded the then Pope, Eugene IV, to grant him a privilege unparalleled anywhere in England, the school also came into possession of one of Englands Apocalypse manuscripts. Legend has it that Edwards mistress, Jane Shore, intervened on the schools behalf and she was able to save a good part of the school, although the royal bequest and the number of staff were much reduced. Construction of the chapel, originally intended to be slightly over twice as long, only the Quire of the intended building was completed. Etons first Headmaster, William Waynflete, founder of Magdalen College, Oxford and previously Head Master of Winchester College, as the school suffered reduced income while still under construction, the completion and further development of the school has since depended to some extent on wealthy benefactors
2.
The King's School, Canterbury
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The Kings School is a British co-educational independent school for both day and boarding pupils in the English city of Canterbury in Kent. It is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference and the Eton Group and it is held to be the oldest continuously operating school in the world, having been founded in 597 AD. This is based on the fact that St Augustine founded an abbey where it is known that teaching took place, during the 17th and 18th centuries, the school remained a grammar school. During the Victorian era the school began to establish itself as a public school, the school evacuated to Cornwall following the outbreak of World War II and received a new Royal Charter at the end of the war. Girls were admitted for the first time when the form became coeducational during the 1970s. In 1990, the school became fully coeducational, the school is also the oldest charity in the UK. In 2011, the school was subject to its latest regular, in summary, the inspection team praised the pastoral care system, the high academic achievements of all its pupils — irrespective of their age, aptitude or ability — and the happiness of the pupils. According to the Good Schools Guide the school is Highly successful, the Guide also stated that You need to be creative, academically able and hard-working, as everything moves fast here. There are 16 houses at Kings,13 boarding and 3 day, most are named after past headmasters or people of interest in the schools history, with the exception of School House, The Grange and Carlyon. The Houses of the School are, School House, founded 1860 The Grange, founded 1928, reopened 2007 Walpole, named after the novelist Sir Hugh Walpole Meister Omers, founded 1936. Named after the poet and dramatist Christopher Marlowe Luxmoore, founded 1945, named after Sir Arthur Fairfax Coryndon Luxmoore, Lord Justice of Appeal Galpins, founded 1952. Named after The Reverend Arthur Galpin, Headmaster from 1897-1910, named after Thomas Linacre, founder of the Royal College of Physicians Broughton, founded 1976. Named after William Broughton, the first Bishop of Australia Tradescant, named after John Tradescant, the distinguished gardener and collector Mitchinsons, founded 1982. Named after John Mitchinson, Headmaster 1859-73 and co-founder of the Headmasters Conference Jervis, named after Douglas Jervis OKS Harvey, founded 1996. Named after William Harvey Bailey, first founded 1990, named after Henry Bailey, second warden of St Augustines College between 1850 and 1875 and an honorary Canon of the Cathedral Carlyon, founded 2005. Named after evacuation of the School to Carlyon Bay in Cornwall during the Second World War Lady Kingsdown House, founded 2015. A new pavilion was opened by David Gower on 17 September 2005 Blackfriars The Cleary Foundation donated the refectory of the 13th-century friary by the Marlowe Theatre as an art school and gallery. Built as a synagogue in 1847–8 by architect Hezekiah Marshall, the Old Synagogue is used as a hall by the music department
3.
Durham School
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Durham School is an English independent boarding school for pupils aged between 3 and 18 years. Founded by the Bishop of Durham, Thomas Langley, in 1414 and it is the citys oldest institution of learning. The School is located in Durham, North East England and was an institution until becoming fully coeducational in 1985. A member of The Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, it enrolls 650 day and its preparatory institution, known as Bow, Durham School, enrolls a further 160 pupils. Durham and Bows former pupils include politicians, clergy and British aristocracy, former students are known as Old Dunelmians. The school celebrated its 600th Anniversary in 2014, the history of Durham School can be divided into three sections. The school is referred to in histories and the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as Durham Grammar School. It should not be confused with the Chorister School, Durham, Durham School was founded by Thomas Langley in 1414, which was the foundation date accepted by the Clarendon Commission into public schools in 1861, making it the 18th oldest in Britain. The school was in Langleys time situated on the east side of Palace Green to the north of the cathedral, at the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries during the Protestant Reformation in 1541, the school was refounded by Henry VIII. It remained in the location, indeed the Headmaster Henry Stafford remained in post. Homeless due to the burning down of its buildings, the school continued in various houses in the city and it was in 1661 that the school moved to the building currently occupied by the Durham University Music School to the north west of Palace Green. There was some zeal for education in Durham during the 18th century, Durham School, rebuilt in 1661, on the Palace Green, soon became, instead of a local grammar school, a north-country public school of repute and wide influence. We can trace from the Restoration onwards not only the city names such as Salvin, Wilkinson, Hutchinson, Blakiston, Fawcett, Bowes, Calverley. One of the distinctions of the school is the succession of local historians. Most famous of these is James Mickleton, without whom no history of mediaeval or 17th-century Durham would be possible, later than these comes Thomas Randall, who made a large collection of manuscript material for local history books. From its location on Palace Green outside Durham Cathedral, whilst Edward Elder was Headmaster the school moved to its present site in 1844, the School has been steadily expanded and updated since then. For example, Henry Holden, Headmaster 1853 to 1882, instigated new classrooms, dormitories, kitchens, sickroom then a sanatorium, bell tower and library. William Fearon, Headmaster 1882 to 1884, introduced the three term system used today and enlarged the playing fields and built an open air swimming pool
4.
Westminster School
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Westminster School is an English independent day and boarding school located within the precincts of Westminster Abbey. It has the highest Oxford and Cambridge university acceptance rates of any school or college in the world. With origins before the 12th century, the tradition of Westminster probably dates back as far as AD960. Boys are admitted to the Under School at age seven and to the school at age thirteen. The school has around 750 pupils, around a quarter are boarders, most of whom go home at weekends and it is one of the original seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Charging up to £7,800 per term for day pupils and £11,264 for boarders in 2014/15, Westminster is the 13th most expensive HMC day school and 10th most expensive HMC boarding school in the UK. In 1540, Henry VIII ordered the dissolution of the monasteries in England, including that of the powerful Abbots of Westminster, the Royal College of St. Peter carried on with forty Kings Scholars financed from the royal purse. By this point Westminster School had certainly become a public school, during Mary Is brief reign the Abbey was reinstated as a Roman Catholic monastery, but the school continued. Elizabeth I refounded the School in 1560, with new statutes to select 40 Queens Scholars from boys who had attended the school for a year. Queen Elizabeth frequently visited her scholars, although she never signed the statutes nor endowed her scholarships, Elizabeth I appointed William Camden as headmaster, and he is the only layman known to have held the position until 1937. Regardless of politics, he thrashed Royalist and Puritan boys alike without fear or favour, Busby also took part in Oliver Cromwells funeral procession in 1658, when Robert Uvedale, a Westminster schoolboy, succeeded in snatching the Majesty Scutcheon draped on the coffin. Busby remained in office throughout the Civil War and the Commonwealth, when the school was governed by Parliamentary Commissioners, and well into the Restoration. In 1679, a group of scholars killed a bailiff, ostensibly in defence of the Abbeys traditional right of sanctuary, dr Busby obtained a royal pardon for his scholars from Charles II and added the cost to the school bills. Until the 19th century, the curriculum was made up of Latin and Greek. After the Public Schools Act 1868, in response to the Clarendon Commission on the financial and other malpractices at nine pre-eminent public schools, the school began to approach its modern form. It was legally separated from the Abbey, although the organisations remain close, there followed a scandalous public and parliamentary dispute lasting a further 25 years, to settle the transfer of the properties from the Canons of the Abbey to the School. School statutes have been made by Order in Council of Queen Elizabeth II, the Dean of Christ Church, Oxford and the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge are ex officio members of the schools governing body. Westminster Under School was formed in 1943 in the school buildings in Westminster
5.
Henry VI of England
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Henry VI was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. Henry inherited the long-running Hundred Years War, where Charles VII contested his claim to the French throne. Henry married Charless niece, Margaret of Anjou, partially in the hope of achieving peace in 1445, the war recommenced, with France taking the upper hand, by 1453, Calais was Henrys only remaining territory on the continent. Henry experienced a breakdown after the failure of the war. Civil war broke out in 1460, leading to a period of dynastic conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. Henry was taken prisoner by Richard of York at Northampton on 10 July 1460 but was rescued that December by forces loyal to Margaret and he was deposed on 29 March 1461 following the victory at Towton by Richards son, who took the throne as Edward IV. Henry suffered another breakdown and, despite Margaret continuing to lead a resistance to Edward, he was captured by Edwards forces in 1465 and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick, restored Henry to the throne in 1470, Henry died in the Tower during the night of 21 May 1471, possibly killed on the orders of Edward. He was buried at Chertsey Abbey, before being moved to Windsor Castle in 1484, miracles were attributed to Henry after his death, and he was informally regarded as a saint and martyr until the 16th century. He left a legacy of educational institutions, having founded Eton College, Kings College and All Souls College, William Shakespeare wrote a trilogy of plays about his life, depicting him as weak-willed and easily influenced by his wife, Margaret. Henry was the child and heir of King Henry V. He was born on 6 December 1421 at Windsor Castle and he succeeded to the throne as King of England at the age of nine months upon his fathers death on 31 August 1422, he was the youngest person ever to succeed to the English throne. A few weeks later on 21 October 1422 in accordance with the Treaty of Troyes of 1420 and his mother, Catherine of Valois, was then 20 years old. As Charles VIs daughter, she was viewed with suspicion by English nobles and was prevented from playing a full role in her sons upbringing. On 28 September 1423, the nobles swore loyalty to Henry VI and they summoned Parliament in the Kings name and established a regency council to govern until the King should come of age. One of Henry Vs surviving brothers, John, Duke of Bedford, was appointed regent of the realm and was in charge of the ongoing war in France. During Bedfords absence, the government of England was headed by Henry Vs other surviving brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester and his duties were limited to keeping the peace and summoning Parliament. Henry Vs half-uncle Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, had an important place on the Council, after the Duke of Bedford died in 1435, the Duke of Gloucester claimed the Regency himself, but was contested in this by the other members of the Council
6.
King's College, Cambridge
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Kings College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. Formally The Kings College of Our Lady and Saint Nicholas in Cambridge, Kings was founded in 1441 by Henry VI, soon after he had founded its sister college in Eton. However, the Kings plans for the college were disrupted by the Wars of the Roses and resultant scarcity of funds, and his eventual deposition. Little progress was made on the project until in 1508 Henry VII began to take an interest in the college, the building of the colleges chapel, begun in 1446, was finally finished in 1544 during the reign of Henry VIII. Kings College Chapel is regarded as one of the greatest examples of late Gothic English architecture and it has the worlds largest fan-vault, and the chapels stained-glass windows and wooden chancel screen are considered some of the finest from their era. The building is seen as emblematic of Cambridge, the chapels choir, composed of male students at Kings and choristers from the nearby Kings College School, is one of the most accomplished and renowned in the world. Every year on Christmas Eve the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols is broadcast from the chapel to millions of listeners worldwide, on 12 February 1441 King Henry VI issued letters patent founding a college at Cambridge for a rector and twelve poor scholars. This college was to be named after Saint Nicholas, upon whose saint day Henry had been born, William Millington, a fellow of Clare College was installed as the rector. Henry directed the publication of the colleges first governing statutes in 1443 and his original modest plan for the college was abandoned, and provision was instead made for community of seventy fellows and scholars headed by a provost. Henry had belatedly learned of William of Wykehams 1379 twin foundation of New College, Oxford and Winchester College, the King had in fact founded Eton College on 11 October 1440, but up until 1443 Kings and Eton had been unconnected. However, that year the relationship between the two was remodelled upon Wykehams successful institutions and the sizes of the colleges scaled up to surpass Wykehams. A second royal charter which re-founded the now much larger Kings College was issued on 12 July 1443, members of Kings were to be recruited entirely from Eton. Membership of Kings was a vocation for life, scholars were eligible for election to the fellowship after three years of probation, irrespective of whether they had achieved a degree or not. In fact, undergraduates at Kings – unlike those other colleges – did not even have to pass university examinations to achieve their BA degree. The gateway and south range of Old Court had already been built, Henrys grand design for the new college buildings survives in the 1448 Founders Will which describes his vision in detail. Behind the hall and buttery was to be another courtyard, the first stone of the chapel was laid by the King on St James Day,25 July 1446. However, within a decade Henrys engagement in the Wars of the Roses meant that funds began to dry up, work proceeded sporadically until a generation later in 1508 when the Founders nephew Henry VII was prevailed upon to finish the shell of the building. The interior had to wait a further generation until completion by 1544 with the aid of Henry VIII, the chapel would be the only part of Henry VIs Founders Will to be realised
7.
Toga
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The toga, a distinctive garment of Ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between 12 and 20 feet in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historical tradition, it is said to have been the favoured dress of Romulus, Romes founder, as Roman women gradually adopted the stola, the toga was recognised as formal wear for Roman citizen men. Women engaged in prostitution might have provided the main exception to this rule, the type of toga worn reflected a citizens rank in the civil hierarchy. Various laws and customs restricted its use to citizens, who were required to wear it for public festivals, from its probable beginnings as a simple, practical work-garment, the toga became more voluminous, complex and costly, increasingly unsuited to anything but formal and ceremonial use. When circumstances allowed, those otherwise entitled or obliged to wear it opted for more comfortable and it gradually fell out of use, firstly among citizens of the lower class, then those of the middle class. Eventually, it was only by the highest classes for ceremonial occasions. The toga was an approximately semi-circular woolen cloth, usually white, worn draped over the shoulders and around the body and it was considered formal wear, and was generally reserved for citizens. Toga virilis also known as toga alba or toga pura, A plain white toga, worn on occasions by adult male commoners. It represented adult male citizenship and its attendant rights, freedoms, toga praetexta, a white toga with a broad purple stripe on its border, worn over a tunic with two broad, vertical purple stripes. It was formal costume for, Curule magistrates in their functions, and traditionally. Freeborn boys, and some girls, before they came of age. It marked their protection by law from sexual predation and immoral or immodest influence, a praetexta was thought effective against malignant magic, as were a boys bulla, and a girls lunula. Some priesthoods, including the Pontifices, Tresviri Epulones, the augurs, toga candida, Bright toga, a toga rubbed with chalk to a dazzling white, worn by candidates for public office. Thus Persius speaks of a cretata ambitio, chalked ambition, toga candida is the etymological source of the word candidate. It was worn mainly by mourners, but could also be worn in times of danger or public anxiety. It was sometimes used as a protest of sorts—when Cicero was exiled, mourners with a toga praetexta could turn it inside out, to conceal the stripe, or wear a toga pura. Toga picta, Dyed solid purple, embroidered with gold, and worn over a similarly decorated tunica palmata, during the Empire, it was worn by consuls and emperors
8.
George Orwell
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Eric Arthur Blair, better known by the pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic. His work is marked by lucid prose, awareness of injustice, opposition to totalitarianism. Orwell wrote literary criticism, poetry, fiction, and polemical journalism and he is best known for the allegorical novella Animal Farm and the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. In 2008, The Times ranked him second on a list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, Eric Arthur Blair was born on 25 June 1903, in Motihari, Bengal Presidency, in British India. His grandfather, Thomas Richard Arthur Blair, was a clergyman, although the gentility passed down the generations, the prosperity did not, Eric Blair described his family as lower-upper-middle class. His father, Richard Walmesley Blair, worked in the Opium Department of the Indian Civil Service and his mother, Ida Mabel Blair, grew up in Moulmein, Burma, where her French father was involved in speculative ventures. Eric had two sisters, Marjorie, five years older, and Avril, five years younger, when Eric was one year old, his mother took him and his sister to England. His birthplace and ancestral house in Motihari has been declared a monument of historical importance. In 1904, Ida Blair settled with her children at Henley-on-Thames in Oxfordshire, Eric was brought up in the company of his mother and sisters, and apart from a brief visit in mid-1907, they did not see the husband and father Richard Blair until 1912. His mothers diary from 1905 describes a lively round of social activity, before the First World War, the family moved to Shiplake, Oxfordshire where Eric became friendly with the Buddicom family, especially their daughter Jacintha. When they first met, he was standing on his head in a field, on being asked why, he said, You are noticed more if you stand on your head than if you are right way up. Jacintha and Eric read and wrote poetry, and dreamed of becoming famous writers and he said that he might write a book in the style of H. G. Wellss A Modern Utopia. During this period, he enjoyed shooting, fishing and birdwatching with Jacinthas brother and sister. At the age of five, Eric was sent as a day-boy to a convent school in Henley-on-Thames and it was a Roman Catholic convent run by French Ursuline nuns, who had been exiled from France after religious education was banned in 1903. His mother wanted him to have a school education, but his family could not afford the fees. Ida Blairs brother Charles Limouzin recommended St Cyprians School, Eastbourne, Limouzin, who was a proficient golfer, knew of the school and its headmaster through the Royal Eastbourne Golf Club, where he won several competitions in 1903 and 1904. The headmaster undertook to help Blair to win a scholarship, in September 1911 Eric arrived at St Cyprians. He boarded at the school for the five years, returning home only for school holidays
9.
J. B. S. Haldane
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His article on abiogenesis in 1929 introduced the Primordial Soup Theory, and it became the foundation to build physical models for the chemical origin of life. Haldane established human gene maps for haemophilia and colour blindness on the X chromosome and he correctly proposed that sickle-cell disease confers some immunity to malaria. In 1957 he articulated Haldanes dilemma, a limit on the speed of evolution which subsequently proved incorrect. He willed his body for medical studies, as he wanted to remain even in death. Arthur C. Clarke credited him as perhaps the most brilliant science populariser of his generation, nobel laureate Peter Medawar called Haldane the cleverest man I ever knew. Haldane was born in Oxford to John Scott Haldane, a physiologist, scientist, a philosopher and a Liberal, and Louisa Kathleen Trotter and his younger sister, Naomi Mitchison, became a writer, and his uncle was Viscount Haldane and his aunt the author Elizabeth Haldane. Descended from an aristocratic and secular family of the Clan Haldane and he grew up at 11 Crick Road, North Oxford. He learnt to read at the age of three, and at four, after injuring his forehead he asked the doctor, Is this oxyhaemoglobin or carboxyhaemoglobin. From age eight he worked with his father in their home laboratory where he experienced his first self-experimentation and he and his father became their own human guinea pigs, such as in their investigation on the effects of poison gases. In 1899 his family moved to Cherwell, a late Victorian house at the outskirts of Oxford having its private laboratory and his formal education began in 1897 at Oxford Preparatory School, where he gained a First Scholarship in 1904 to Eton. In 1905 he joined Eton, where he experienced severe abuse from senior students for allegedly being arrogant, the indifference of authority left him with a lasting hatred for the English education system. However, the ordeal did not stop him from becoming Captain of the school and he studied mathematics and classics at New College at the University of Oxford and obtained first-class honours in mathematical moderations in 1912 and a first-class honours in 1914. With his father he published his first scientific paper, age 20 and he became engrossed in genetics and presented a paper on gene linkage in vertebrates in the summer of 1912. His first technical paper, a 30-page long article on function, was published. He was promoted to lieutenant on 18 February 1915 and to temporary captain on 18 October. He served in France and Iraq, where he was wounded and he relinquished his commission on 1 April 1920, retaining his rank of captain. For his ferocity and aggressiveness in battles, his commander called him the bravest and dirtiest officer in my Army, between 1919 and 1922 he was a Fellow of New College, Oxford, where he researched physiology and genetics. He then moved to the University of Cambridge, where he accepted a readership in Biochemistry, from 1927 until 1937 he was also Head of Genetical Research at the John Innes Horticultural Institution
10.
Julian Huxley
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Sir Julian Sorell Huxley FRS was a British evolutionary biologist, eugenicist, and internationalist. He was a proponent of natural selection, and a figure in the mid-twentieth century modern evolutionary synthesis. He was secretary of the Zoological Society of London, the first Director of UNESCO, a member of the World Wildlife Fund. Huxley was well known for his presentation of science in books and articles and he directed an Oscar-winning wildlife film. He was awarded UNESCOs Kalinga Prize for the popularisation of science in 1953, the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society in 1956, and the Darwin–Wallace Medal of the Linnaean Society in 1958. He was also knighted in that year,1958, a hundred years after Charles Darwin. In 1959 he received a Special Award of the Lasker Foundation in the category Planned Parenthood – World Population, Huxley was a prominent member of the British Eugenics Society and its president from 1959–1962. There is a house named after Sir Julian in Selsdon, Surrey. Huxley came from the distinguished Huxley family and his maternal grandfather was the academic Tom Arnold, his great-uncle was poet Matthew Arnold and his great-grandfather was Thomas Arnold of Rugby School. Huxley was born on 22 June 1887, at the London house of his aunt, Huxley grew up at the family home in Surrey, England, where he showed an early interest in nature, as he was given lessons by his grandfather, Thomas Henry Huxley. When he heard his grandfather talking at dinner about the lack of care in fish, Julian piped up with What about the stickleback. Also, according to Julian himself, his grandfather took him to visit J. D. Hooker at Kew, at Eton he developed an interest in ornithology, guided by science master W. D. Piggy Hill. Piggy was a genius as a teacher… I have always been grateful to him, in 1905 Huxley won a scholarship in Zoology to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1906, after a summer in Germany, Huxley took his place in Oxford, in the autumn term of his final year,1908, his mother died from cancer at only 46, a terrible blow for her husband, three sons, and eight-year-old daughter Margaret. That same year he won the Newdigate Prize for his poem Holyrood, in 1909 he graduated with first class honours, and spent that July at the international gathering for the centenary of Darwins birth, held at the University of Cambridge. Also, it was the anniversary of the publication of the Origin of species. Huxley was awarded a scholarship to spend a year at the Naples Marine Biological Station where he developed his interest in biology by investigating sea squirts. Bird watching in childhood had given Huxley his interest in ornithology and his particular interest was bird behaviour, especially the courtship of water birds
11.
Boris Johnson
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He had previously been an MP for the Henley constituency from 2001 to 2008 and was later Mayor of London from 2008 to 2016. Johnson was formerly a historian and journalist. A member of the Conservative Party, Johnson identifies as a conservative and has been associated with both economically and socially liberal policies. Born in New York City to wealthy upper-middle class English parents, Johnson was educated at the European School of Brussels, Ashdown House School and he studied Classics at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was elected president of the Oxford Union in 1986. He was assistant editor from 1994 to 1999 before taking the editorship of The Spectator from 1999 to 2005, joining the Conservatives, he was elected MP for Henley in 2001, and under Michael Howard and David Cameron he was in the Shadow Cabinet. Mostly adhering to the Conservatives party line, he adopted a more socially liberal stance on issues like LGBT rights in parliamentary votes. Making regular television appearances, writing books, and remaining active in journalism, selected as Conservative candidate for the London mayoral election of 2008, Johnson defeated Labour incumbent Ken Livingstone and resigned his seat in parliament. In 2012, he was re-elected mayor, again defeating Livingstone, in 2015 he was elected MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip, stepping down as mayor the following year. In 2016, Johnson became a prominent figure in the successful Vote Leave campaign to withdraw the United Kingdom from the European Union, Johnson is a controversial figure in British politics and journalism. Supporters have praised him as an entertaining, humorous, and popular figure with appeal beyond traditional Conservative voters, conversely, he has been criticised by figures on both the left and right, accused of elitism, cronyism and laziness, and using racist language. Johnson is the subject of biographies and a number of fictionalised portrayals. Johnson was born on 19 June 1964 at a hospital on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City and his birth was registered with both the US authorities and the citys British Consulate and he was granted both American and British citizenship. His father, Stanley Johnson, was studying economics at Columbia University. Stanleys paternal grandfather was Circassian–Turkish journalist Ali Kemal, while his other ancestry is English and French, Stanley had married Johnsons mother, Charlotte Johnson Wahl, in 1963, before they moved to the United States, she was an artist from a family of liberal intellectuals. She was the granddaughter of Americans Elias Avery Lowe, a palaeographer of Russian Jewish descent, and Helen Tracy Lowe-Porter, in reference to his varied ancestry, Johnson has described himself as a one-man melting pot – with a combination of Muslims, Jews, and Christians as great-grandparents. Johnson was given his name of Boris after a Russian émigré the couple had once met in Mexico. Johnsons parents were living in an apartment opposite the Chelsea Hotel, although they soon embarked on a tour of Canada. In September 1964, they returned to Britain, enabling Charlotte to study for a degree at the University of Oxford and she lived with her son in Summertown, Oxford and gave birth to a daughter, Rachel, in 1965
12.
John Maynard Keynes
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John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes CB FBA, was a British economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics and he instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. According to Keynesian economics, state intervention was necessary to moderate boom, Keynes advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. He and other economists had disputed the ability of government to regulate the business cycle favorably with fiscal policy. When Time magazine included Keynes among its Most Important People of the Century in 1999, the Economist has described Keynes as Britains most famous 20th-century economist. In addition to being an economist, Keynes was also a servant, a director of the Bank of England. John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England and his father, John Neville Keynes, was an economist and a lecturer in moral sciences at the University of Cambridge and his mother Florence Ada Keynes a local social reformer. Keynes was the first born, and was followed by two more children – Margaret Neville Keynes in 1885 and Geoffrey Keynes in 1887, Geoffrey became a surgeon and Margaret married the Nobel Prize-winning physiologist Archibald Hill. According to the economist and biographer Robert Skidelsky, Keyness parents were loving and they remained in the same house throughout their lives, where the children were always welcome to return. Keyness mother made her childrens interests her own, and according to Skidelsky, because she could grow up with her children, they never outgrew home. In January 1889, at the age of five and a half and he quickly showed a talent for arithmetic, but his health was poor leading to several long absences. He was tutored at home by a governess, Beatrice Mackintosh, in January 1892, at eight and a half, he started as a day pupil at St Faiths preparatory school. By 1894, Keynes was top of his class and excelling at mathematics, in 1896, St Faiths headmaster, Ralph Goodchild, wrote that Keynes was head and shoulders above all the other boys in the school and was confident that Keynes could get a scholarship to Eton. In 1897, Keynes won a scholarship to Eton College, where he displayed talent in a range of subjects, particularly mathematics, classics. At Eton, Keynes experienced the first love of his life in Dan Macmillan, despite his middle-class background, Keynes mixed easily with upper-class pupils. In 1902 Keynes left Eton for Kings College, Cambridge, after receiving a scholarship for this also to read mathematics, Alfred Marshall begged Keynes to become an economist, although Keyness own inclinations drew him towards philosophy – especially the ethical system of G. E. Moore. Keynes joined the Pitt Club and was an member of the semi-secretive Cambridge Apostles society. Like many members, Keynes retained a bond to the club after graduating, before leaving Cambridge, Keynes became the President of the Cambridge Union Society and Cambridge University Liberal Club
