1.
Public school (United Kingdom)
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A public school in England and Wales is an older, student selective and expensive fee-paying independent secondary school which caters primarily for children aged between 11 or 13 and 18. The term public should not be misunderstood to mean that these are public sector schools, traditionally, public schools were all-male boarding schools, although most now allow day pupils, and many have become either partially or fully co-educational. The origins of schools in the UK were primarily religious until 1640 and it was intended that by-products of this would be the publication of universal books and the setting up of schools for boys and girls. Henceforth each of these schools was to be managed by a board of governors, Public schools have had a strong association with the ruling classes. Historically they educated the sons of the English upper and upper-middle classes, the sons of officers and senior administrators of the British Empire were educated in England while their parents were on overseas postings. In 2010, over half of Cabinet Ministers had been educated at public schools, in 2014, annual fees at Canford School and Eton College were more than £33,000 for boarders. The name dates back to the time when schools founded for local children went public and it is also used to describe the some 230 girls senior schools belonging to the Girls Schools Association. Until the late medieval period most schools were controlled by the church and had specific entrance criteria, others were restricted to the sons of members of guilds, trades or livery companies. The need for professional trades in an increasingly secularised society required schools for the sons of the gentry that were independent from ecclesiastical authority, from the 16th century onward, boys boarding schools were founded or endowed for public use. Traditionally, most of public schools were all boys and full boarding. Separate preparatory schools for younger boys developed from the 1830s, with entry to the schools becoming limited to boys of at least 12 or 13 years old. The first of these was Windlesham House School, established with support from Thomas Arnold, many of the schools, including Rugby School, Harrow School and the Perse School fell into decline during the 18th century and nearly closed in the early 19th century. Protests in the local newspaper forced governors of the Perse School to keep it open, a Royal Commission, the Clarendon Commission, investigated nine of the more established schools, including seven boarding schools and two day schools. St Pauls School and the Merchant Taylors School claimed successfully that their constitutions made them private schools, in 1887 the Divisional Court and the Court of Appeal determined that the City of London School was a public school. In the first year only 12 headmasters attended, but in the following year 34 did, the Headmasters Conference has since grown steadily to over 200 schools. The Public Schools Yearbook was published for the first time in 1889, listing 30 schools, mostly boarding schools except for St Pauls School, some academically successful grammar schools were added in later editions. The 1902 edition included all schools whose principals qualified for membership of the Headmasters Conference, the Fleming Report defined a public school as a member of the Governing Bodies Association or the Headmasters Conference. Based on the recommendations of this report, the Education Act 1944 offered a new status to endowed grammar schools receiving a grant from central government
2.
Eton College
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Eton College /iːtən/ is an English independent boarding school for boys in Eton, Berkshire, near Windsor. It educates more than 1,300 pupils, aged 13 to 18 years and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as The Kings College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor, making it the 18th oldest Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference school. Eton is one of the seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Eton has educated 19 British prime ministers and generations of the aristocracy and has referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The school is headed by a Provost and Fellows, who appoint the Head Master and it contains 25 boys houses, each headed by a housemaster, selected from the more senior members of the teaching staff, which numbers some 155. Almost all of the pupils go on to universities, about a third of them to Oxford or Cambridge. The Head Master is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, Eton has a long list of distinguished former pupils. David Cameron was the 19th British prime minister to have attended the school, about 20% of pupils at Eton receive financial support, through a range of bursaries and scholarships. In early 2014, this figure had risen to 263 pupils receiving the equivalent of around 60% of school fee assistance, Eton has been described as the most famous public school in the world, and been referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The Good Schools Guide called the school the number one public school, adding that The teaching. The school is a member of the G20 Schools Group, Eton today is a larger school than it has been for much of its history. In 1678, there were 207 boys, in the late 18th century, there were about 300, while today, the total has risen to over 1,300. Eton College was founded by King Henry VI as a charity school to free education to 70 poor boys who would then go on to Kings College, Cambridge. Henry took Winchester College as his model, visiting on many occasions, borrowing its Statutes and removing its Headmaster, when Henry VI founded the school, he granted it a large number of endowments, including much valuable land. He persuaded the then Pope, Eugene IV, to grant him a privilege unparalleled anywhere in England, the school also came into possession of one of Englands Apocalypse manuscripts. Legend has it that Edwards mistress, Jane Shore, intervened on the schools behalf and she was able to save a good part of the school, although the royal bequest and the number of staff were much reduced. Construction of the chapel, originally intended to be slightly over twice as long, only the Quire of the intended building was completed. Etons first Headmaster, William Waynflete, founder of Magdalen College, Oxford and previously Head Master of Winchester College, as the school suffered reduced income while still under construction, the completion and further development of the school has since depended to some extent on wealthy benefactors
3.
The King's School, Canterbury
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The Kings School is a British co-educational independent school for both day and boarding pupils in the English city of Canterbury in Kent. It is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference and the Eton Group and it is held to be the oldest continuously operating school in the world, having been founded in 597 AD. This is based on the fact that St Augustine founded an abbey where it is known that teaching took place, during the 17th and 18th centuries, the school remained a grammar school. During the Victorian era the school began to establish itself as a public school, the school evacuated to Cornwall following the outbreak of World War II and received a new Royal Charter at the end of the war. Girls were admitted for the first time when the form became coeducational during the 1970s. In 1990, the school became fully coeducational, the school is also the oldest charity in the UK. In 2011, the school was subject to its latest regular, in summary, the inspection team praised the pastoral care system, the high academic achievements of all its pupils — irrespective of their age, aptitude or ability — and the happiness of the pupils. According to the Good Schools Guide the school is Highly successful, the Guide also stated that You need to be creative, academically able and hard-working, as everything moves fast here. There are 16 houses at Kings,13 boarding and 3 day, most are named after past headmasters or people of interest in the schools history, with the exception of School House, The Grange and Carlyon. The Houses of the School are, School House, founded 1860 The Grange, founded 1928, reopened 2007 Walpole, named after the novelist Sir Hugh Walpole Meister Omers, founded 1936. Named after the poet and dramatist Christopher Marlowe Luxmoore, founded 1945, named after Sir Arthur Fairfax Coryndon Luxmoore, Lord Justice of Appeal Galpins, founded 1952. Named after The Reverend Arthur Galpin, Headmaster from 1897-1910, named after Thomas Linacre, founder of the Royal College of Physicians Broughton, founded 1976. Named after William Broughton, the first Bishop of Australia Tradescant, named after John Tradescant, the distinguished gardener and collector Mitchinsons, founded 1982. Named after John Mitchinson, Headmaster 1859-73 and co-founder of the Headmasters Conference Jervis, named after Douglas Jervis OKS Harvey, founded 1996. Named after William Harvey Bailey, first founded 1990, named after Henry Bailey, second warden of St Augustines College between 1850 and 1875 and an honorary Canon of the Cathedral Carlyon, founded 2005. Named after evacuation of the School to Carlyon Bay in Cornwall during the Second World War Lady Kingsdown House, founded 2015. A new pavilion was opened by David Gower on 17 September 2005 Blackfriars The Cleary Foundation donated the refectory of the 13th-century friary by the Marlowe Theatre as an art school and gallery. Built as a synagogue in 1847–8 by architect Hezekiah Marshall, the Old Synagogue is used as a hall by the music department
4.
King's School, Worcester
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The Kings School, Worcester is an English independent school refounded by Henry VIII in 1541. It occupies an adjacent to Worcester Cathedral on the banks of the River Severn in the centre of the city of Worcester. It offers mixed-sex mainstream education that follows the UK National Curriculum to around 1,465 pupils aged 2 to 18, the Kings, Worcester group consists of three different schools. These are, Kings Hawford, formerly an autonomous fee-paying prep school named Hawford Lodge, purchased by Kings in 1992, hawfords Kindergarten department was deemed sufficiently impressive by Ofsted to receive no recommendations in the 2008 inspection. Kings St Albans, formerly the Cathedral Choir School, amalgamated with Kings in 1943, St Albans includes a pre-prep department for ages 4–7, opened September 2009. The senior school is situated on Worcesters College Green, a space between Worcester Cathedral and the east bank of the River Severn, the school and the cathedral maintain a close relationship, with the school providing cathedral choristers and enjoying the use of the cathedral for major services. The school owns extensive land next to New Road cricket ground across the river, used as sports pitches, the school also owns an outward bound centre, the Old Chapel near Crickhowell in Mid Wales. Kings has its roots in the forms of tuition offered by the monks at Worcester monastery. Although the novices studied religion at the monastery, grammar and Latin would have been learnt at the city school, hugh Cratford, for example, was the monastic Magister Scholarum, before he was transferred to the city school in 1504 by order of Bishop Silvestro de Gigli. The last monastic Prior, Henry Holbeach, became the first Dean of Worcester, similarly, the cathedral foundation included provision for a choir school for ten cathedral choristers and tuition for forty Kings Scholars. The school was one of seven Kings Schools established or re-endowed by Henry VIII following the dissolution, on 7 December 1541, Henry VIII personally appointed the schools first headmaster, John Pether, by means of a letter to Richard Rich. One early headmaster, Henry Bright is mentioned in Thomas Fuller’s Worthies of England, the school was managed by the cathedral Dean and Chapter until 1884, when Headmaster W. E. Bollands New Scheme introduced governance by a separate Governing Body, on which the Chapter nonetheless retained a majority, from its inception until the construction of School House in 1888, all teaching was conducted in College Hall, the former monastic refectory. From 1945 to 1976, the participated in the direct grant scheme. The school first admitted girls in small numbers to the form in 1971, prior to the establishment of College House by John and Caroline Roslington in 1977. In 1989 the decision was made to make the school fully co-educational, having accommodated boarders since its inception, the final boarders left in July 1999. Kings follows the GCSE and A-level curricula, in 2012,82. 9% of A-levels taken were graded A* to B,66. 4% of all GCSEs were graded A* or A. In the junior schools and up to level, the school follows the national curriculum
5.
Durham School
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Durham School is an English independent boarding school for pupils aged between 3 and 18 years. Founded by the Bishop of Durham, Thomas Langley, in 1414 and it is the citys oldest institution of learning. The School is located in Durham, North East England and was an institution until becoming fully coeducational in 1985. A member of The Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, it enrolls 650 day and its preparatory institution, known as Bow, Durham School, enrolls a further 160 pupils. Durham and Bows former pupils include politicians, clergy and British aristocracy, former students are known as Old Dunelmians. The school celebrated its 600th Anniversary in 2014, the history of Durham School can be divided into three sections. The school is referred to in histories and the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as Durham Grammar School. It should not be confused with the Chorister School, Durham, Durham School was founded by Thomas Langley in 1414, which was the foundation date accepted by the Clarendon Commission into public schools in 1861, making it the 18th oldest in Britain. The school was in Langleys time situated on the east side of Palace Green to the north of the cathedral, at the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries during the Protestant Reformation in 1541, the school was refounded by Henry VIII. It remained in the location, indeed the Headmaster Henry Stafford remained in post. Homeless due to the burning down of its buildings, the school continued in various houses in the city and it was in 1661 that the school moved to the building currently occupied by the Durham University Music School to the north west of Palace Green. There was some zeal for education in Durham during the 18th century, Durham School, rebuilt in 1661, on the Palace Green, soon became, instead of a local grammar school, a north-country public school of repute and wide influence. We can trace from the Restoration onwards not only the city names such as Salvin, Wilkinson, Hutchinson, Blakiston, Fawcett, Bowes, Calverley. One of the distinctions of the school is the succession of local historians. Most famous of these is James Mickleton, without whom no history of mediaeval or 17th-century Durham would be possible, later than these comes Thomas Randall, who made a large collection of manuscript material for local history books. From its location on Palace Green outside Durham Cathedral, whilst Edward Elder was Headmaster the school moved to its present site in 1844, the School has been steadily expanded and updated since then. For example, Henry Holden, Headmaster 1853 to 1882, instigated new classrooms, dormitories, kitchens, sickroom then a sanatorium, bell tower and library. William Fearon, Headmaster 1882 to 1884, introduced the three term system used today and enlarged the playing fields and built an open air swimming pool
6.
Westminster School
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Westminster School is an English independent day and boarding school located within the precincts of Westminster Abbey. It has the highest Oxford and Cambridge university acceptance rates of any school or college in the world. With origins before the 12th century, the tradition of Westminster probably dates back as far as AD960. Boys are admitted to the Under School at age seven and to the school at age thirteen. The school has around 750 pupils, around a quarter are boarders, most of whom go home at weekends and it is one of the original seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Charging up to £7,800 per term for day pupils and £11,264 for boarders in 2014/15, Westminster is the 13th most expensive HMC day school and 10th most expensive HMC boarding school in the UK. In 1540, Henry VIII ordered the dissolution of the monasteries in England, including that of the powerful Abbots of Westminster, the Royal College of St. Peter carried on with forty Kings Scholars financed from the royal purse. By this point Westminster School had certainly become a public school, during Mary Is brief reign the Abbey was reinstated as a Roman Catholic monastery, but the school continued. Elizabeth I refounded the School in 1560, with new statutes to select 40 Queens Scholars from boys who had attended the school for a year. Queen Elizabeth frequently visited her scholars, although she never signed the statutes nor endowed her scholarships, Elizabeth I appointed William Camden as headmaster, and he is the only layman known to have held the position until 1937. Regardless of politics, he thrashed Royalist and Puritan boys alike without fear or favour, Busby also took part in Oliver Cromwells funeral procession in 1658, when Robert Uvedale, a Westminster schoolboy, succeeded in snatching the Majesty Scutcheon draped on the coffin. Busby remained in office throughout the Civil War and the Commonwealth, when the school was governed by Parliamentary Commissioners, and well into the Restoration. In 1679, a group of scholars killed a bailiff, ostensibly in defence of the Abbeys traditional right of sanctuary, dr Busby obtained a royal pardon for his scholars from Charles II and added the cost to the school bills. Until the 19th century, the curriculum was made up of Latin and Greek. After the Public Schools Act 1868, in response to the Clarendon Commission on the financial and other malpractices at nine pre-eminent public schools, the school began to approach its modern form. It was legally separated from the Abbey, although the organisations remain close, there followed a scandalous public and parliamentary dispute lasting a further 25 years, to settle the transfer of the properties from the Canons of the Abbey to the School. School statutes have been made by Order in Council of Queen Elizabeth II, the Dean of Christ Church, Oxford and the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge are ex officio members of the schools governing body. Westminster Under School was formed in 1943 in the school buildings in Westminster
7.
Eton wall game
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The Eton wall game is a game which bears some resemblance to rugby union that originated at and is still played at Eton College. It is played on a strip of ground 5 metres wide and 110 metres long next to a curved brick wall erected in 1717. The traditional and most important match of the year is played on St Andrews Day, despite this, it is usual for them to allow the Oppidans to use it whenever they wish. The Wall Game is also played on Ascension Day, immediately after a 6 a. m. service on the roof of College Chapel. Various scratch matches are played throughout the Michaelmas and Lent halves. The aim of the game is to move the ball towards the end of the playing area. In those last few yards of the field is a called the calx. In this area a player can earn a shy by lifting the ball against the wall with his foot, a teammate then touches the ball with his hand and shouts Got it. These two plays must happen within the calx, after this, if the umpire says Given, the scoring team can attempt a goal by throwing the ball at a designated target. A player can score a kicked goal, worth five points, if he kicks the ball out. The main game consists of the two sets of players forming a rugby-style scrummage in which neither team may furk the ball, the Bully is formed next to the Wall and crabs slowly along the Wall until the ball emerges. Many players, particularly those whose position is actually against the Wall, lose the skin off their elbows, hips, because of this, players usually wear long sleeves. Actual punching is not permitted, and grabbing an opponents shirt is not allowed. When in Calx, a different type of Bully called a Calx Bully occurs, consequently, the most common tactic revolves around the formation of a phalanx. This consists of a tunnel of players from one team who are crouching on hands, the team not in possession is constantly attempting to disrupt this, and win the ball back. The game lasts up to an hour, with two halves of 30 minutes each, scoring goals is very rare, they occur about once every 10 years and there have been no goals scored in the St Andrews Day game since 1909. There was a goal scored in a recent scratch match in May 2016 by a College player, however, shies are scored more frequently. In the 2015 St Andrews Day match, the outcome was a 0-0 draw and this marked the 106th consecutive St Andrews Day match in which no goals were scored by either team
8.
James Arbuthnot
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James Norwich Arbuthnot, Baron Arbuthnot of Edrom, PC is a British Conservative Party politician. He was returned as Member of Parliament for Wanstead and Woodford from 1987 to 1997, Arbuthnot served as Chairman of the Defence Select Committee from 2005 to 2014, before being nominated as a Life Peer in the Dissolution Peerages List 2015 of August 2015. Created Baron Arbuthnot of Edrom, of Edrom in the County of Berwick, on 1 October 2015, Arbuthnot was born in Deal, Kent, the son of Sir John Arbuthnot MBE TD, MP for Dover between 1950 and 1964, and Margaret Jean Duff. He was educated at Wellesley House School in Broadstairs and Eton College, where he was Captain of School, before going up to Trinity College, Cambridge, Arbuthnot was called to the Bar by Lincolns Inn in 1975 and became a practising barrister. In 1980 he became the Vice-Chairman of the Chelsea Conservative Association, Arbuthnot contested the Cynon Valley seat, in the Labour heartland of industrial South Wales, at the 1983 general election and was defeated by Ioan Evans. A year later in 1984, Evans died and Arbuthnot fought the resulting by-election, in the 1987 general election Arbuthnot was chosen to contest the safe Conservative seat of Wanstead and Woodford, as the sitting MP, Patrick Jenkin, was standing down. Arbuthnot won the seat and increased the Conservative majority by over 2,000 to 16,412. In 1988 he became the Parliamentary Private Secretary to Archie Hamilton at the Ministry of Defence and he entered the John Major government after the 1992 general election when he was made an Assistant Government Whip. He was promoted in 1994 as the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Department of Social Security, the following year he was promoted to Minister of State at the Ministry of Defence, where he remained until the end of the Major government in 1997. Arbuthnots seat of Wanstead and Woodford was abolished at the 1997 general election, in Opposition, he was a member of William Hagues Shadow Cabinet as the Conservative Partys Chief Whip until the 2001 general election when he returned to the backbenches. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1998, Arbuthnot returned to the Shadow Cabinet under Michael Howard as Shadow Trade Secretary in 2003, but stood down after the 2005 general election. He is a Senior Associate Fellow of the Royal United Services Institute, Arbuthnot was the Parliamentary Chairman of the Conservative Friends of Israel. He was also a member of the Top Level Group of UK Parliamentarians for Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament and Non-proliferation, in the 2009 expenses scandal, Arbuthnot apologised and repaid the public money he had claimed for his swimming pool to be cleaned. Later that year, he was criticised in the press for £15,000 of expenses he claimed for upkeep at his second home, including tree surgery. In June 2011 Arbuthnot announced that he would not contest the general election. On 6 September 1984, Arbuthnot married Emma Louise Broadbent, daughter of Michael Broadbent MW and he is a direct descendant of James V of Scotland. He and his wife have one son and three daughters, Lord and Lady Arbuthnot divide their time between London and Berkshire
9.
Robert Armstrong, Baron Armstrong of Ilminster
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Robert Temple Armstrong, Baron Armstrong of Ilminster, GCB, CVO, son of the musician Sir Thomas Armstrong, is a British Lord Temporal and former civil servant. He was educated at the Dragon School, Eton College, where he was a Kings Scholar, and Christ Church, Oxford, in a long civil service career, Armstrong worked in several departments, including HM Treasury and the Home Office. From 1970 to 1975 he served as the Principal Private Secretary to the Prime Minister, from 1979 to 1987, he served as Secretary of the Cabinet under Margaret Thatcher. Armstrong was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1974, in the 1978 Birthday Honours he was promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath and to Knight Grand Cross in the 1983 New Year Honours. He was created a peer as Baron Armstrong of Ilminster, of Ashill in the County of Somerset on 26 February 1988. From 1994 to 2006, Lord Armstrong was Chancellor of the University of Hull and he was chairman of the Sir Edward Heath Charitable Foundation until 2013. At the time Wright was a retired high-ranking member of MI5 and was about to publish his book in Australia, the evidence given by Armstrong was widely ridiculed by the British press for its absurd ambiguity and seemly deceptive nature. Wrights lawyer, Malcolm Turnbull, who is now Prime Minister of Australia, was successful in lifting the publication ban. Turnbull described Armstrong as being like Sir Humphrey Appleby from Yes, Minister and said f he is an honest man, then he appears rather like a well-educated mushroom. Armstrong was aware of Sir Peter Hayman’s paedophilia, and since leaving office, has commented “Clearly, I was aware of it at the time but I was not concerned with the personal aspect of it. ”. Armstrong gave Margaret Thatcher what he calls a warning not to sanction Jimmy Savile’s knighthood for charitable work. Armstrong was warned by the security services in 1986 that an MP had ‘a penchant for small boys’, but no action was taken and Armstrong, who refused to name the MP involved, insisted the allegations were just ‘shadows of a rumour’. He said he believed the decision not to investigate the claims was ‘correct at the time’. Armstrong has been portrayed by the actors in film and television productions. Timothy West in the 2004 BBC production of The Alan Clark Diaries. org Record in Parliament at TheyWorkForYou. com Profile at Westminster Parliamentary Record Profile at BBC News Democracy Live
10.
Neal Ascherson
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Charles Neal Ascherson is a Scottish journalist and writer. Ascherson was born in Edinburgh on 5 October 1932 and he was awarded a scholarship to Eton. Before going to university, he did his National Service as an officer in the Royal Marines, serving from July 1951 to September 1952 and he then attended Kings College, Cambridge, where he read history and graduated with a triple starred first degree. The historian Eric Hobsbawm was his tutor at Cambridge and described Ascherson as perhaps the most brilliant student I ever had, I didnt really teach him much, I just let him get on with it. He is a member of the semi-secretive Cambridge Apostles society, a debating club largely reserved for the brightest students, after graduating he declined offers to pursue an academic career. Instead, he chose a career in journalism, first at The Manchester Guardian and then at The Scotsman, The Observer and he contributed scripts for the documentary series The World at War and the The Cold War. He has also been a contributor to the London Review of Books. Ascherson has lectured and written extensively about Polish and Eastern Europe affairs, in the 1999 election for the Scottish Parliament he stood as the Liberal Democrat candidate in the West Renfrewshire constituency but was not successful. As of 2016 Ascherson is a Visiting Professor at the Institute of Archaeology and he has been editor of Public Archaeology, an academic journal associated with UCL devoted to CRM and public archaeology issues and developments, since its inception in 1999. Neal Aschersons first wife was Corinna Adam, the couple first met at Cambridge University and they had two daughters together before separating in 1974. Corinna Ascherson, also a journalist, died in March 2012, in 1984, he married his second wife, the journalist Isabel Hilton. The couple currently live in London and have two children, Iona and Alexander and his aunt was the British actress Renée Asherson. The King Incorporated, Leopold the Second and the Congo, the Polish August, The Self-limiting Revolution. The Spanish Civil War The Nazi Legacy, with Magnus Linklater and Isabel Hilton The Struggles For Poland. Stone Voices, The Search for Scotland
11.
A. J. Ayer
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He was educated at Eton College and Oxford University, after which he studied the philosophy of logical positivism at the University of Vienna. From 1933 to 1940 he lectured on philosophy at Christ Church, during the Second World War Ayer was a Special Operations Executive and MI6 agent. He was Grote Professor of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic at University College London from 1946 until 1959 and he was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1951 to 1952 and knighted in 1970. Ayer was born in St Johns Wood, in north west London and his mother, Reine Citroën, was from the Dutch-Jewish family who founded the Citroën car company in France. His father, Jules Ayer, was a Swiss Calvinist financier who worked for the Rothschild family and it was at Eton that Ayer first became known for his characteristic bravado and precocity. Although primarily interested in furthering his intellectual pursuits, he was keen on sports, particularly rugby. In the final examinations at Eton, Ayer came second in his year, in his final year, as a member of Etons senior council, he unsuccessfully campaigned for the abolition of corporal punishment at the school. He won a scholarship to Christ Church, Oxford. After graduation from Oxford University Ayer spent a year in Vienna, returned to England and published his first book, Language, Truth and Logic in 1936. The first exposition in English of Logical Positivism as newly developed by the Vienna Circle, in the Second World War he served as an officer in the Welsh Guards, chiefly in intelligence. He thereafter taught philosophy at London University from 1946 until 1959 and he was an extrovert and social mixer who liked dancing and attending the clubs in London and New York. He was also obsessed with sport, he had played rugby for Eton, and was a noted cricketer, for an academic, Ayer was an unusually well-connected figure in his time, with close links to high society and the establishment. Presiding over Oxford high-tables, he is described as charming. Ayer was married four times to three women and his first marriage was from 1932–1941 to Renée, who subsequently married philosopher Stuart Hampshire, Ayers friend and colleague. In 1960 he married Alberta Constance Wells, with whom he had one son, Ayers marriage to Wells was dissolved in 1983 and that same year he married Vanessa Salmon, former wife of politician Nigel Lawson. She died in 1985 and in 1989 he remarried Dee Wells, Ayer also had a daughter with Hollywood columnist Sheilah Graham Westbrook. From 1959 to his retirement in 1978, Sir Alfred held the Wykeham Chair, Ayer died on 27 June 1989. From 1980 to 1989, Ayer lived at 51 York Street, Marylebone, in Language, Truth and Logic, Ayer presents the verification principle as the only valid basis for philosophy
12.
George Orwell
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Eric Arthur Blair, better known by the pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic. His work is marked by lucid prose, awareness of injustice, opposition to totalitarianism. Orwell wrote literary criticism, poetry, fiction, and polemical journalism and he is best known for the allegorical novella Animal Farm and the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. In 2008, The Times ranked him second on a list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, Eric Arthur Blair was born on 25 June 1903, in Motihari, Bengal Presidency, in British India. His grandfather, Thomas Richard Arthur Blair, was a clergyman, although the gentility passed down the generations, the prosperity did not, Eric Blair described his family as lower-upper-middle class. His father, Richard Walmesley Blair, worked in the Opium Department of the Indian Civil Service and his mother, Ida Mabel Blair, grew up in Moulmein, Burma, where her French father was involved in speculative ventures. Eric had two sisters, Marjorie, five years older, and Avril, five years younger, when Eric was one year old, his mother took him and his sister to England. His birthplace and ancestral house in Motihari has been declared a monument of historical importance. In 1904, Ida Blair settled with her children at Henley-on-Thames in Oxfordshire, Eric was brought up in the company of his mother and sisters, and apart from a brief visit in mid-1907, they did not see the husband and father Richard Blair until 1912. His mothers diary from 1905 describes a lively round of social activity, before the First World War, the family moved to Shiplake, Oxfordshire where Eric became friendly with the Buddicom family, especially their daughter Jacintha. When they first met, he was standing on his head in a field, on being asked why, he said, You are noticed more if you stand on your head than if you are right way up. Jacintha and Eric read and wrote poetry, and dreamed of becoming famous writers and he said that he might write a book in the style of H. G. Wellss A Modern Utopia. During this period, he enjoyed shooting, fishing and birdwatching with Jacinthas brother and sister. At the age of five, Eric was sent as a day-boy to a convent school in Henley-on-Thames and it was a Roman Catholic convent run by French Ursuline nuns, who had been exiled from France after religious education was banned in 1903. His mother wanted him to have a school education, but his family could not afford the fees. Ida Blairs brother Charles Limouzin recommended St Cyprians School, Eastbourne, Limouzin, who was a proficient golfer, knew of the school and its headmaster through the Royal Eastbourne Golf Club, where he won several competitions in 1903 and 1904. The headmaster undertook to help Blair to win a scholarship, in September 1911 Eric arrived at St Cyprians. He boarded at the school for the five years, returning home only for school holidays
13.
Jamie Borwick, 5th Baron Borwick
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Geoffrey Robert James Jamie Borwick, 5th Baron Borwick is a British businessman, hereditary peer and member of the House of Lords. Jamie Borwick was born on 7 March 1955 and he was educated at Eton College. Borwick became Chief Executive of Manganese Bronze Holdings plc, best known for making London Taxis, Borwick was founder and owner of electric truck producer Modec in Coventry in 2004. He was Chairman of Route2Mobility Ltd, funding wheelchairs and scooters for disabled people as part of the UKs Motability scheme and he was also a Deputy Chairman of the board of British Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership. His other business appointments include as Chairman of Countryside Properties Ltd and he was a non-executive Director of Hansa Trust plc from 1984 until 2012. On 16 July 2013, Lord Borwick was elected to sit in the House of Lords at a hereditary peers by-election in replacement of the late Lord Reay, he sits on the Conservative benches. Borwick is a Trustee of the Royal Brompton and Harefield Charity, Borwick married Victoria Poore in 1981, who is a former Conservative London Assembly Member and Deputy Mayor of London, and, since 2015, MP for Kensington, they have three sons and a daughter
14.
Henry Chadwick (theologian)
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Henry Chadwick KBE FBA was a British academic and Church of England priest. A leading historian of the church, Chadwick was appointed Regius Professor at both the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. He was a supporter of improved relations with the Roman Catholic Church. Born in Bromley, Kent, Henry Chadwick was the son of a barrister and he had a number of accomplished siblings, Sir John Chadwick served as the British Ambassador to Romania, and the Revd William Owen Chadwick and his other brother also became priests. Despite this, it was one of his sisters he would describe as the brightest of us all. Chadwick was educated at Eton College, where he became a Kings Scholar, although he did not show much aptitude as a Grecian, his lifelong love of music made its first appearance and resulted in his receiving organ lessons from Henry Ley. After leaving Eton, he went to Magdalene College, Cambridge, on a music scholarship, a highlight of his undergraduate musical career was playing a two piano arrangement of Chabriers España with Boris Ord, then organist of Kings College, Cambridge. However, Chadwick chose to further his interest in Evangelical Christianity, from there, he became an assistant master at Wellington College. Chadwick became a Fellow of Queens College, Cambridge, with his appointment as Chaplain in 1946 and he had by now made himself an expert in Patristic Greek, only an inexactness in philology marking his earlier abandonment of Greek for music. Also in 1953 he was appointed co-editor of the Journal of Theological Studies and he held the university appointment of Hulsean Lecturer from 1954–6. Chadwick moved to Oxford in 1959, to take up the position of Regius Professor of Divinity at the young age of 39. He was named a Fellow of the British Academy soon after and he gave a second series of lectures in 1963–4, on Authority in Christian Theology. 1963 also saw him appointed to an early Anglican inquiry into the surrounding the ordination of women. In the 1960s, along with scholars like E. R. Dodds, Peter Brown,1967 saw the publication of his most widely read work, The Early Church, published under the Pelican imprint of Penguin Books. The report ultimately led to changes in the doctrinal affirmations required of Church of England clergy at their ordination or on taking up new appointments, in 1968 he was appointed a vice-president of the British Academy. In 1969, Chadwick was appointed Dean of Christ Church, uniquely a dual role as a cathedral dean, however, during his time as Dean the college benefited from a continued programme of renovation with internal changes that provided more student accommodation. The position gave Chadwick the chance to influence the direction of the cathedral. The new organist, Simon Preston, had plans for improving musical standards
15.
Arthur Rhys-Davids
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Arthur Percival Foley Rhys-Davids DSO, MC & Bar was a British flying ace during the First World War. Rhys-Davids was born in 1897 to an affluent family and his father was a professional academic and his mother a prolific author, which afforded the young Rhys-Davids thorough schooling. He showed considerable potential in all subjects and was an excellent student, at the age of 14 Rhys-Davids attended Eton College. He gained his School Certificate in July 1913 with higher marks than any other student, in 1914 war had broken out and in mid-1916 Rhys-Davids applied for a commission in the Royal Flying Corps. On 28 August 1916 he reported for training, Rhys-Davids completed his training in the spring of 1917 and was assigned to No.56 Squadron RFC on 7 March 1917. Rhys-Davids gained his first victory on 23 May 1917 and began a run of success. Only two days later he gained his fifth air victory and became an ace and it was during the Third Battle of Ypres that Rhys-Davids scored the majority of his successes, gaining 22 more victories by the time of his death. On 23 September Rhys-Davids shot down two German aces in the fight, Carl Menckhoff and Werner Voss. Voss was killed in the battle, by 11 October 1917, Rhys-Davids had shot down five more enemy aircraft for an official total of 27 aerial victories –23 of them individual kills. Rhys-Davids had earned a reputation as a fighter, and pursued enemy aircraft wherever and whenever he spotted them, on 27 October 1917 he pursued a group of German aircraft over Roeselare, Belgium. He was never seen or heard from again, post-war analysis suggests Rhys-Davids may have been shot down by German ace Karl Gallwitz. Despite disappearing less than five miles from the site of Werner Voss, shot down by Rhys-Davids one month earlier. Rhys-Davids was born to Thomas William Rhys-Davids and Caroline Augusta Foley Rhys-Davids in Forest Hill and his father was of Anglo-Welsh descent and his mother was English. Thomas Rhys-Davids was born in 1843 the son of a Congregational minister, after schooling at Brighton he refused to be trained as a solicitor and he enrolled at Breslau University to study Sanskrit in which he took a Ph. D. While there, he learned Pali and studied Buddhism, in 1864 he joined the Ceylon Civil Service as acting secretary to the Governor. While acting as a magistrate Rhys-Davids ruled in favour of a native over an Englishmen during a dispute leading him to be ostracised by the British community on the island. In 1872 he left for England, in 1877 he passed the Bar examination but practised little law. In 1877 he joined the Middle Temple and four years later founded the Pali Text Society, in 1882 he was appointed Professor of Pali at University College London
16.
Bamber Gascoigne
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Arthur Bamber Gascoigne FRSL is a British television presenter and author, best known for being the original quizmaster on University Challenge. His great-grandfathers include Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe, and Edward ONeill and he is a nephew of Sir Julian Gascoigne who was in charge of the Household Division during the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. He is a descendant of the 18th-century Lord Mayor of London Sir Crisp Gascoyne. Isaacs son General Ernest Frederick Gascoyne, of Raby Hall, was his great-great-great-grandfather, Gascoigne was born in London and educated at Sunningdale School in Berkshire before winning scholarships to both Eton College, and Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he read English literature. While at Magdalene he wrote a musical, Share My Lettuce, which was produced in London in 1957 by Michael Codron and he then spent a year as a Commonwealth Fund scholar at Yale University. After National Service in the Grenadier Guards he became a theatre critic, Gascoigne came to national fame as the original presenter of the popular television quiz show University Challenge, based on the US series College Bowl. He held the position for 25 years, until the end of the run in 1987. Although he has several books, mostly works of history. His questioning manner was firm yet polite, phrases he often used which became catchphrases include, Your starter for ten, fingers on the buzzers, and Ill have to hurry you. In 1977, Gascoigne wrote and presented The Christians, a 13-hour television documentary series on the history of Christianity, produced by Granada Television and he wrote a companion book, under the same title, with photography by his wife, Christina Gascoigne, published by Jonathan Cape. He wrote Quest for the Golden Hare, a 1983 account of the internationally publicised treasure hunt associated with the publication in 1979 of Kit Williams book, Masquerade. On 8 August 1979, Gascoigne was witness to the burial by Williams of a unique jewelled, the book documents the search and a scandal associated with finding it. He was the writer and presenter for the TV series The Great Moghuls, the series was based on Gascoignes 1971 book of the same name, which features photographs by his wife. Gascoigne has established an online encyclopaedia, HistoryWorld, and TimeSearch which presents multiple searchable timelines collected from various websites. In August 2014, Gascoigne was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to Septembers referendum on that issue, Gascoigne has been selling some of the late Duchesss possessions in order to invest in restoring the house. An original pencil and chalk study for the well known painting Flaming June by the Pre-Raphaelite artist, Sir Frederic Leighton, was found on the back of a bedroom door. Art historians had known a sketch existed as it had included in an art magazine in 1895. Gascoigne is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature and he is a patron of the Museum of Richmond
17.
Timothy Gowers
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Sir William Timothy Gowers, FRS is a British mathematician. In 1998 he received the Fields Medal for research connecting the fields of functional analysis, after his PhD, Gowers was elected to a Junior Research Fellowship at Trinity College. From 1991 until his return to Cambridge in 1995 he was lecturer at University College London and he was elected to the Rouse Ball Professorship at Cambridge in 1998. During 2000–2 he was visiting professor at Princeton University, Gowers attended Kings College School, Cambridge, as a choirboy in the Kings College choir, and then Eton College as a Kings Scholar. He completed his PhD, with a dissertation entitled Symmetric Structures in Banach Spaces, at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1990, Gowers initially worked on Banach spaces. After this, Gowers turned to combinatorics and combinatorial number theory, in 1997 he proved that the Szemerédi regularity lemma necessarily comes with tower-type bounds. In 1998 he proved the first effective bounds for Szemerédis theorem, one of the ingredients in Gowerss argument is a tool now known as the Balog–Szemerédi–Gowers theorem, which has found many further applications. He also introduced the Gowers norms, a tool in arithmetic combinatorics and this work was further developed by Ben Green and Terence Tao, leading to the Green–Tao theorem. In 2003, Gowers established a regularity lemma for hypergraphs, analogous to the Szemerédi regularity lemma for graphs, in 2005, he introduced the notion of a quasirandom group. More recently Gowers has worked on Ramsey theory in random graphs and random sets with David Conlon and he has also developed an interest, in joint work with Mohan Ganesalingam, in automated problem solving. In 1996 he received the Prize of the European Mathematical Society, in 1999 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 2012 was knighted by the British monarch for services to mathematics. He also sits on the committee for the Mathematics award. Gowers has written several works popularising mathematics, including Mathematics, A Very Short Introduction and he was consulted about the 2005 film Proof, starring Gwyneth Paltrow and Anthony Hopkins. He edited The Princeton Companion to Mathematics, which traces the development of various branches, for his work on this book, he won the 2011 Euler Book Prize of the Mathematical Association of America. After asking on his blog whether massively collaborative mathematics was possible, the first problem in what is called the Polymath Project, Polymath1, was to find a new combinatorial proof to the density version of the Hales–Jewett theorem. After 7 weeks, Gowers wrote on his blog that the problem was probably solved, in 2009, with Olof Sisask and Alex Frolkin, he invited people to post comments to his blog to contribute to a collection of methods of mathematical problem solving. Contributors to this Wikipedia-style project, called Tricki. org, include Terence Tao, in 2012, Gowers posted to his blog to call for a boycott of the publishing house Elsevier. A petition ensued, branded the Cost of Knowledge project, in which researchers commit to stop supporting Elsevier journals, commenting on the petition in The Guardian, Alok Jha credited Gowers with starting an Academic Spring
18.
Fields Medal
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The Fields Medal is sometimes viewed as the highest honor a mathematician can receive. The Fields Medal and the Abel Prize have often described as the mathematicians Nobel Prize. The Fields Medal differs from the Abel in view of the age restriction mentioned above, the prize comes with a monetary award, which since 2006 has been C$15,000. The colloquial name is in honour of Canadian mathematician John Charles Fields, Fields was instrumental in establishing the award, designing the medal itself, and funding the monetary component. The medal was first awarded in 1936 to Finnish mathematician Lars Ahlfors and American mathematician Jesse Douglas and its purpose is to give recognition and support to younger mathematical researchers who have made major contributions. The Fields Medal is often described as the Nobel Prize of Mathematics, however, in contrast to the Nobel Prize, the Fields Medal is awarded only every four years. The Fields Medal also has an age limit, a recipient must be under age 40 on 1 January of the year in which the medal is awarded and this is similar to restrictions applicable to the Clark Medal in economics. The monetary award is lower than the 8,000,000 Swedish kronor given with each Nobel prize as of 2014. Other major awards in mathematics, such as the Abel Prize, in 1954, Jean-Pierre Serre became the youngest winner of the Fields Medal, at 27. In 1966, Alexander Grothendieck boycotted the ICM, held in Moscow, léon Motchane, founder and director of the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques attended and accepted Grothendiecks Fields Medal on his behalf. In 1970, Sergei Novikov, because of restrictions placed on him by the Soviet government, was unable to travel to the congress in Nice to receive his medal. In 1978, Grigory Margulis, because of restrictions placed on him by the Soviet government, was unable to travel to the congress in Helsinki to receive his medal. In 1982, the congress was due to be held in Warsaw but had to be rescheduled to the next year, the awards were announced at the ninth General Assembly of the IMU earlier in the year and awarded at the 1983 Warsaw congress. In 1990, Edward Witten became the first physicist to win this award, in 1998, at the ICM, Andrew Wiles was presented by the chair of the Fields Medal Committee, Yuri I. Manin, with the first-ever IMU silver plaque in recognition of his proof of Fermats Last Theorem, don Zagier referred to the plaque as a quantized Fields Medal. Accounts of this award frequently make reference that at the time of the award Wiles was over the age limit for the Fields medal. Although Wiles was slightly over the age limit in 1994, he was thought to be a favorite to win the medal, however, in 2006, Grigori Perelman, who proved the Poincaré conjecture, refused his Fields Medal and did not attend the congress. In 2014, Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman as well as the first Iranian, Artur Avila the first South American and this is a list of the universities that have graduated Fields medalists
19.
Lord Hailsham
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Viscount Hailsham, of Hailsham in the County of Sussex, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1929 for the lawyer and Conservative politician Douglas Hogg, 1st Baron Hailsham and he had already been created Baron Hailsham, of Hailsham in the County of Sussex, in 1928, also in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Hogg was the son of the merchant and philanthropist Quintin Hogg, seventh son of Sir James Hogg, 1st Baronet, whose eldest son James McGarel-Hogg, 2nd Baronet was created Baron Magheramorne in 1887. He was succeeded by his son, Quintin Hogg, who became the second Viscount, on 20 November 1963 he disclaimed his peerages under the Peerage Act 1963, so that he could be elected to the House of Commons. The first and second Viscounts Hailsham are the father and son ever to both serve as Lord Chancellor. On his death in 2001 he was succeeded in the barony and viscountcy by his son. Like his father and grandfather he is a lawyer and Conservative politician and was a Member of Parliament from 1979 to 2010, Viscount Hailsham was given a life peerage in 2015 as Baron Hailsham of Kettlethorpe, of Kettlethorpe in the County of Lincolnshire. This enabled him to sit in the House of Lords and his wife Sarah Hogg, Baroness Hogg, a life peeress in her own right, is also a member of the House of Lords. The family seat is Kettlethorpe Hall, near Kettlethorpe, Lincolnshire, Hogg baronets Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David. New York, St Martins Press,1990
20.
J. B. S. Haldane
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His article on abiogenesis in 1929 introduced the Primordial Soup Theory, and it became the foundation to build physical models for the chemical origin of life. Haldane established human gene maps for haemophilia and colour blindness on the X chromosome and he correctly proposed that sickle-cell disease confers some immunity to malaria. In 1957 he articulated Haldanes dilemma, a limit on the speed of evolution which subsequently proved incorrect. He willed his body for medical studies, as he wanted to remain even in death. Arthur C. Clarke credited him as perhaps the most brilliant science populariser of his generation, nobel laureate Peter Medawar called Haldane the cleverest man I ever knew. Haldane was born in Oxford to John Scott Haldane, a physiologist, scientist, a philosopher and a Liberal, and Louisa Kathleen Trotter and his younger sister, Naomi Mitchison, became a writer, and his uncle was Viscount Haldane and his aunt the author Elizabeth Haldane. Descended from an aristocratic and secular family of the Clan Haldane and he grew up at 11 Crick Road, North Oxford. He learnt to read at the age of three, and at four, after injuring his forehead he asked the doctor, Is this oxyhaemoglobin or carboxyhaemoglobin. From age eight he worked with his father in their home laboratory where he experienced his first self-experimentation and he and his father became their own human guinea pigs, such as in their investigation on the effects of poison gases. In 1899 his family moved to Cherwell, a late Victorian house at the outskirts of Oxford having its private laboratory and his formal education began in 1897 at Oxford Preparatory School, where he gained a First Scholarship in 1904 to Eton. In 1905 he joined Eton, where he experienced severe abuse from senior students for allegedly being arrogant, the indifference of authority left him with a lasting hatred for the English education system. However, the ordeal did not stop him from becoming Captain of the school and he studied mathematics and classics at New College at the University of Oxford and obtained first-class honours in mathematical moderations in 1912 and a first-class honours in 1914. With his father he published his first scientific paper, age 20 and he became engrossed in genetics and presented a paper on gene linkage in vertebrates in the summer of 1912. His first technical paper, a 30-page long article on function, was published. He was promoted to lieutenant on 18 February 1915 and to temporary captain on 18 October. He served in France and Iraq, where he was wounded and he relinquished his commission on 1 April 1920, retaining his rank of captain. For his ferocity and aggressiveness in battles, his commander called him the bravest and dirtiest officer in my Army, between 1919 and 1922 he was a Fellow of New College, Oxford, where he researched physiology and genetics. He then moved to the University of Cambridge, where he accepted a readership in Biochemistry, from 1927 until 1937 he was also Head of Genetical Research at the John Innes Horticultural Institution
21.
Douglas Hurd
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Douglas Richard Hurd, Baron Hurd of Westwell, CH, CBE, PC is a British Conservative politician who served in the governments of Margaret Thatcher and John Major from 1979 to 1995. Born in the town of Marlborough in Wiltshire, Hurd first entered Parliament in February 1974 as MP for the Mid Oxfordshire constituency. He stood unsuccessfully for the Conservative Party leadership in 1990, in 1997, Hurd was elevated to the House of Lords and is one of the Conservative Partys most senior elder statesmen. He is a patron of the Tory Reform Group and remains a figure in public life. He retired from the Lords in 2016, Douglas Hurd was born in 1930 in the market town of Marlborough in Wiltshire. His father Anthony Hurd and grandfather Sir Percy Hurd were also Members of Parliament and his uncle, Sir Archibald Hurd, was a leading Fleet Street shipping correspondent, who became a Freeman Honoris Causa of the Shipwrights Company in 1922 and was knighted in 1928. Hurd attended Twyford School and Eton College, where he was a Kings Scholar and he then went up to Cambridge University, where he graduated with a first-class degree in history at Trinity College as well as serving as president of the Cambridge Union Society. In 1952, Hurd joined the Diplomatic Service and he was posted to China, the United States and Italy, before leaving the service in 1966 to enter politics as a member of the Conservative Party. Hurd became PPS to the then Conservative leader Edward Heath, and was first elected to Parliament in February 1974 to represent the constituency of Mid Oxfordshire. After his election, he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the February 1974 Dissolution Honours, gazetted on 2 April 1974. At the 1983 general election the seat was replaced by Witney, Hurd was appointed Minister of State at the Foreign & Commonwealth Office upon the Conservative victory in the 1979 general election and remained in that post for the duration of the Parliament. After the 1983 election Thatcher moved Hurd to the Home Office, a month before the agreement was signed, however, Hurd returned to the Home Office, this time as Home Secretary, following the demotion of Leon Brittan to the Department of Trade and Industry. After a sound performance as Home Secretary, Hurds Cabinet career progressed further during the turbulent final months of Margaret Thatchers prime ministership. On 26 October 1989, Hurd moved to the Foreign Office, succeeding John Major and this was the post in which Hurd made his greatest political impact. Hurds Etonian education may have also been a disadvantage, Hurd was gracious in defeat and, on the formation of Majors first Cabinet, was returned to his former position as Foreign Secretary. Hurd was widely regarded as a statesmanlike British Foreign Secretary, his tenure having been particularly eventful. He oversaw Britains diplomatic responses to the end of the Cold War, Hurd was a signatory of the Maastrict Treaty establishing the European Union in 1992. Hurd welcomed a reunified Germany into the European political community in 1990, one of the defining features of Hurds tenure as Foreign Secretary was the British reaction to the increasingly vicious Yugoslav Wars
22.
Aldous Huxley
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Aldous Leonard Huxley was an English writer, novelist, philosopher, and prominent member of the Huxley family. He graduated from Balliol College at the University of Oxford with an honours in English literature. Early in his career Huxley edited the magazine Oxford Poetry and published short stories, mid career and later, he published travel writing, film stories, and scripts. He spent the part of his life in the U. S. living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death. In 1962, a year before his death, he was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature, Huxley was a humanist, pacifist, and satirist. He later became interested in subjects such as parapsychology and philosophical mysticism. By the end of his life, Huxley was widely acknowledged as one of the pre-eminent intellectuals of his time and he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in seven different years. Huxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, England, in 1894 and he was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster Leonard Huxley, who edited Cornhill Magazine, and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded Priors Field School. Julia was the niece of poet and critic Matthew Arnold and the sister of Mrs. Humphrey Ward, Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the zoologist, agnostic, and controversialist. His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley also became outstanding biologists, Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevelyan Huxley, who committed suicide after a period of clinical depression. As a child, Huxleys nickname was Ogie, short for Ogre and he was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently the strangeness of things. According to his cousin and contemporary, Gervas Huxley, he had an early interest in drawing, Huxleys education began in his fathers well-equipped botanical laboratory, after which he enrolled at Hillside School near Godalming. He was taught there by his own mother for years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside, he went on to Eton College and his mother died in 1908 when he was 14. In 1911 he contracted the eye disease which left practically blind for two to three years and this ended his early dreams of becoming a doctor. In October 1913, Huxley went up to Balliol College, Oxford, in January 1916, he volunteered to join the British Army in the Great War, but was rejected on health grounds, being half-blind in one eye. In 1916 he edited Oxford Poetry and in June of that year graduated BA with First Class honours and his brother Julian wrote, I believe his blindness was a blessing in disguise. For one thing, it put paid to his idea of taking up medicine as a career and his uniqueness lay in his universalism
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Julian Huxley
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Sir Julian Sorell Huxley FRS was a British evolutionary biologist, eugenicist, and internationalist. He was a proponent of natural selection, and a figure in the mid-twentieth century modern evolutionary synthesis. He was secretary of the Zoological Society of London, the first Director of UNESCO, a member of the World Wildlife Fund. Huxley was well known for his presentation of science in books and articles and he directed an Oscar-winning wildlife film. He was awarded UNESCOs Kalinga Prize for the popularisation of science in 1953, the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society in 1956, and the Darwin–Wallace Medal of the Linnaean Society in 1958. He was also knighted in that year,1958, a hundred years after Charles Darwin. In 1959 he received a Special Award of the Lasker Foundation in the category Planned Parenthood – World Population, Huxley was a prominent member of the British Eugenics Society and its president from 1959–1962. There is a house named after Sir Julian in Selsdon, Surrey. Huxley came from the distinguished Huxley family and his maternal grandfather was the academic Tom Arnold, his great-uncle was poet Matthew Arnold and his great-grandfather was Thomas Arnold of Rugby School. Huxley was born on 22 June 1887, at the London house of his aunt, Huxley grew up at the family home in Surrey, England, where he showed an early interest in nature, as he was given lessons by his grandfather, Thomas Henry Huxley. When he heard his grandfather talking at dinner about the lack of care in fish, Julian piped up with What about the stickleback. Also, according to Julian himself, his grandfather took him to visit J. D. Hooker at Kew, at Eton he developed an interest in ornithology, guided by science master W. D. Piggy Hill. Piggy was a genius as a teacher… I have always been grateful to him, in 1905 Huxley won a scholarship in Zoology to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1906, after a summer in Germany, Huxley took his place in Oxford, in the autumn term of his final year,1908, his mother died from cancer at only 46, a terrible blow for her husband, three sons, and eight-year-old daughter Margaret. That same year he won the Newdigate Prize for his poem Holyrood, in 1909 he graduated with first class honours, and spent that July at the international gathering for the centenary of Darwins birth, held at the University of Cambridge. Also, it was the anniversary of the publication of the Origin of species. Huxley was awarded a scholarship to spend a year at the Naples Marine Biological Station where he developed his interest in biology by investigating sea squirts. Bird watching in childhood had given Huxley his interest in ornithology and his particular interest was bird behaviour, especially the courtship of water birds
24.
Pico Iyer
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Siddharth Pico Raghavan Iyer, known as Pico Iyer, is a British-born essayist and novelist of Indian origin, best known for his travel writing. He is the author of books on crossing cultures including Video Night in Kathmandu, The Lady. An essayist for Time since 1986, he publishes regularly in Harpers, The New York Review of Books, The New York Times. Iyer was born Siddharth Pico Raghavan Iyer in Oxford, England and his father was Raghavan N. Iyer, an Oxford philosopher and political theorist. His mother is the religious scholar Nandini Nanak Mehta and he is great-great-grandson of Indian Gujarati writer Mahipatram Nilkanth. Both of his parents grew up in India then went to England for tertiary education and his unusual name is a combination of the Buddhas name, Siddhartha, that of the Florentine neo-Platonist Pico della Mirandola and his fathers name. Thus for more than a decade he moved back and forth several times a year between schools and college in England and his parents home in California and he studied at Eton, Oxford University and Harvard. He taught writing and literature at Harvard before joining Time in 1982 as a writer on world affairs and he appeared in a commercial for Incredible India in 2007. Pico Iyer has been based in Nara, Japan since 1992, where he lives with his Japanese wife, Hiroko Takeuchi, the Lady of his second book, and her two children from an earlier marriage. The Iyers family home in Santa Barbara burned down due to a wildfire in 1990, a biographical landmark that may have had a deep impact on his peripatetic perspective on being at home in general. In his literary essays and TED-Talks, he said, “For more and more of us, home has really less to do with a piece of soil, than you could say. But I would gladly stay in physical location for the rest of my life. Pico Iyer has known the XIV, dalai Lama since he was in his late teens, when he accompanied his father to Dharamsala, India, in the early 1970s. He writes often of his delight in living between the cracks and outside fixed categories, I am simply a fairly typical product of a movable sensibility, he wrote in 1993 in Harpers, living and working in a world that is itself increasingly small and increasingly mongrel. I am a multinational soul on a globe on which more and more countries are as polyglot. Taking planes seems as natural to me as picking up the phone or going to school, I fold up my self, Iyer has written numerous pieces on world affairs for Time, including 10 cover stories, and the Woman of the Year story on Corazon Aquino in 1986. He has contributed liner-notes for four Leonard Cohen albums and he also writes regularly on sport, film, and religion — and especially on the places where mysticism and globalism converge. He has appeared seven times in the annual Best Spiritual Writing anthology and he has also appeared in the Best American Essays anthology
25.
M. R. James
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Montague Rhodes James OM FBA, who published under the name M. R. James, was an English author, medievalist scholar and provost of Kings College, Cambridge, and of Eton College. Though Jamess work as a medievalist is still regarded, he is best remembered for his ghost stories. James redefined the ghost story for the new century by abandoning many of the formal Gothic clichés of his predecessors, however, Jamess protagonists and plots tend to reflect his own antiquarian interests. Accordingly, he is known as the originator of the antiquarian ghost story, James was born in a Goodnestone, Dover clergy house in Kent, England, although his parents had associations with Aldeburgh in Suffolk. His father was Herbert James, an Evangelical Anglican clergyman, and his mother and he had two older brothers, Sydney and Herbert, and an older sister, Grace. Sydney James later became Archdeacon of Dudley, from the age of three until 1909 Jamess home, if not always his residence, was at the Rectory in Great Livermere, Suffolk. This had previously been the home of another eminent Suffolk antiquary. Several of Jamess ghost stories are set in Suffolk, including Oh, Whistle, in September 1873 he arrived as a boarder at Temple Grove School, one of the leading boys preparatory schools of the day. He lived for years, first as an undergraduate, then as a don and provost, at Kings College, Cambridge. The university provides settings for several of his tales, apart from medieval subjects, James studied the classics and appeared very successfully in a staging of Aristophanes play The Birds, with music by Hubert Parry. His ability as an actor was also apparent when he read his new ghost stories to friends at Christmas time, James is best known for his ghost stories, but his work as a medievalist scholar was prodigious and remains highly respected in scholarly circles. Indeed, the success of his stories was founded on his antiquarian talents and his 1917 edition of the Latin hagiography of Æthelberht II of East Anglia, king and martyr, remains authoritative. He catalogued many of the libraries of the colleges of the University of Cambridge. Among his other works, he wrote The Apocalypse in Art. He also translated the New Testament apocrypha and contributed to the Encyclopaedia Biblica and his ability to wear his learning lightly is apparent in his Suffolk and Norfolk, in which a great deal of knowledge is presented in a popular and accessible form, and in Abbeys. James also achieved a deal during his directorship of the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge. He managed to secure a number of important paintings and manuscripts. James was Provost of Eton College from 1918 to 1936 and he was awarded the Order of Merit in 1930
26.
King's College, Cambridge
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Kings College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. Formally The Kings College of Our Lady and Saint Nicholas in Cambridge, Kings was founded in 1441 by Henry VI, soon after he had founded its sister college in Eton. However, the Kings plans for the college were disrupted by the Wars of the Roses and resultant scarcity of funds, and his eventual deposition. Little progress was made on the project until in 1508 Henry VII began to take an interest in the college, the building of the colleges chapel, begun in 1446, was finally finished in 1544 during the reign of Henry VIII. Kings College Chapel is regarded as one of the greatest examples of late Gothic English architecture and it has the worlds largest fan-vault, and the chapels stained-glass windows and wooden chancel screen are considered some of the finest from their era. The building is seen as emblematic of Cambridge, the chapels choir, composed of male students at Kings and choristers from the nearby Kings College School, is one of the most accomplished and renowned in the world. Every year on Christmas Eve the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols is broadcast from the chapel to millions of listeners worldwide, on 12 February 1441 King Henry VI issued letters patent founding a college at Cambridge for a rector and twelve poor scholars. This college was to be named after Saint Nicholas, upon whose saint day Henry had been born, William Millington, a fellow of Clare College was installed as the rector. Henry directed the publication of the colleges first governing statutes in 1443 and his original modest plan for the college was abandoned, and provision was instead made for community of seventy fellows and scholars headed by a provost. Henry had belatedly learned of William of Wykehams 1379 twin foundation of New College, Oxford and Winchester College, the King had in fact founded Eton College on 11 October 1440, but up until 1443 Kings and Eton had been unconnected. However, that year the relationship between the two was remodelled upon Wykehams successful institutions and the sizes of the colleges scaled up to surpass Wykehams. A second royal charter which re-founded the now much larger Kings College was issued on 12 July 1443, members of Kings were to be recruited entirely from Eton. Membership of Kings was a vocation for life, scholars were eligible for election to the fellowship after three years of probation, irrespective of whether they had achieved a degree or not. In fact, undergraduates at Kings – unlike those other colleges – did not even have to pass university examinations to achieve their BA degree. The gateway and south range of Old Court had already been built, Henrys grand design for the new college buildings survives in the 1448 Founders Will which describes his vision in detail. Behind the hall and buttery was to be another courtyard, the first stone of the chapel was laid by the King on St James Day,25 July 1446. However, within a decade Henrys engagement in the Wars of the Roses meant that funds began to dry up, work proceeded sporadically until a generation later in 1508 when the Founders nephew Henry VII was prevailed upon to finish the shell of the building. The interior had to wait a further generation until completion by 1544 with the aid of Henry VIII, the chapel would be the only part of Henry VIs Founders Will to be realised
27.
Boris Johnson
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He had previously been an MP for the Henley constituency from 2001 to 2008 and was later Mayor of London from 2008 to 2016. Johnson was formerly a historian and journalist. A member of the Conservative Party, Johnson identifies as a conservative and has been associated with both economically and socially liberal policies. Born in New York City to wealthy upper-middle class English parents, Johnson was educated at the European School of Brussels, Ashdown House School and he studied Classics at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was elected president of the Oxford Union in 1986. He was assistant editor from 1994 to 1999 before taking the editorship of The Spectator from 1999 to 2005, joining the Conservatives, he was elected MP for Henley in 2001, and under Michael Howard and David Cameron he was in the Shadow Cabinet. Mostly adhering to the Conservatives party line, he adopted a more socially liberal stance on issues like LGBT rights in parliamentary votes. Making regular television appearances, writing books, and remaining active in journalism, selected as Conservative candidate for the London mayoral election of 2008, Johnson defeated Labour incumbent Ken Livingstone and resigned his seat in parliament. In 2012, he was re-elected mayor, again defeating Livingstone, in 2015 he was elected MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip, stepping down as mayor the following year. In 2016, Johnson became a prominent figure in the successful Vote Leave campaign to withdraw the United Kingdom from the European Union, Johnson is a controversial figure in British politics and journalism. Supporters have praised him as an entertaining, humorous, and popular figure with appeal beyond traditional Conservative voters, conversely, he has been criticised by figures on both the left and right, accused of elitism, cronyism and laziness, and using racist language. Johnson is the subject of biographies and a number of fictionalised portrayals. Johnson was born on 19 June 1964 at a hospital on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City and his birth was registered with both the US authorities and the citys British Consulate and he was granted both American and British citizenship. His father, Stanley Johnson, was studying economics at Columbia University. Stanleys paternal grandfather was Circassian–Turkish journalist Ali Kemal, while his other ancestry is English and French, Stanley had married Johnsons mother, Charlotte Johnson Wahl, in 1963, before they moved to the United States, she was an artist from a family of liberal intellectuals. She was the granddaughter of Americans Elias Avery Lowe, a palaeographer of Russian Jewish descent, and Helen Tracy Lowe-Porter, in reference to his varied ancestry, Johnson has described himself as a one-man melting pot – with a combination of Muslims, Jews, and Christians as great-grandparents. Johnson was given his name of Boris after a Russian émigré the couple had once met in Mexico. Johnsons parents were living in an apartment opposite the Chelsea Hotel, although they soon embarked on a tour of Canada. In September 1964, they returned to Britain, enabling Charlotte to study for a degree at the University of Oxford and she lived with her son in Summertown, Oxford and gave birth to a daughter, Rachel, in 1965
28.
John Maynard Keynes
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John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes CB FBA, was a British economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics and he instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. According to Keynesian economics, state intervention was necessary to moderate boom, Keynes advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. He and other economists had disputed the ability of government to regulate the business cycle favorably with fiscal policy. When Time magazine included Keynes among its Most Important People of the Century in 1999, the Economist has described Keynes as Britains most famous 20th-century economist. In addition to being an economist, Keynes was also a servant, a director of the Bank of England. John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England and his father, John Neville Keynes, was an economist and a lecturer in moral sciences at the University of Cambridge and his mother Florence Ada Keynes a local social reformer. Keynes was the first born, and was followed by two more children – Margaret Neville Keynes in 1885 and Geoffrey Keynes in 1887, Geoffrey became a surgeon and Margaret married the Nobel Prize-winning physiologist Archibald Hill. According to the economist and biographer Robert Skidelsky, Keyness parents were loving and they remained in the same house throughout their lives, where the children were always welcome to return. Keyness mother made her childrens interests her own, and according to Skidelsky, because she could grow up with her children, they never outgrew home. In January 1889, at the age of five and a half and he quickly showed a talent for arithmetic, but his health was poor leading to several long absences. He was tutored at home by a governess, Beatrice Mackintosh, in January 1892, at eight and a half, he started as a day pupil at St Faiths preparatory school. By 1894, Keynes was top of his class and excelling at mathematics, in 1896, St Faiths headmaster, Ralph Goodchild, wrote that Keynes was head and shoulders above all the other boys in the school and was confident that Keynes could get a scholarship to Eton. In 1897, Keynes won a scholarship to Eton College, where he displayed talent in a range of subjects, particularly mathematics, classics. At Eton, Keynes experienced the first love of his life in Dan Macmillan, despite his middle-class background, Keynes mixed easily with upper-class pupils. In 1902 Keynes left Eton for Kings College, Cambridge, after receiving a scholarship for this also to read mathematics, Alfred Marshall begged Keynes to become an economist, although Keyness own inclinations drew him towards philosophy – especially the ethical system of G. E. Moore. Keynes joined the Pitt Club and was an member of the semi-secretive Cambridge Apostles society. Like many members, Keynes retained a bond to the club after graduating, before leaving Cambridge, Keynes became the President of the Cambridge Union Society and Cambridge University Liberal Club
29.
Kwasi Kwarteng
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Kwasi Alfred Addo Kwarteng is a British politician and historian. A member of the Conservative Party, he has served as a member of parliament since 2010 representing the constituency of Spelthorne in Surrey and his parents migrated to the UK from Ghana as students in the 1960s. Kwarteng attended Eton College as a Kings Scholar and he then went on to the University of Cambridge where he read Classics and History at Trinity College. He was a member of the team which won University Challenge in 1995 and he attended Harvard University on a Kennedy Scholarship, and then earned a PhD in Economic History at Cambridge University. Prior to becoming an MP, Kwarteng worked as an analyst in financial services, a widely known historian, he has written a book, Ghosts of Empire, about the legacy of the British Empire, published by Bloomsbury in 2011. He has also co-authored the book Gridlock Nation on the causes, war and Gold has been translated into Spanish and Mandarin Chinese. In 2015 Kwarteng published Thatchers Trial, Six Months That Defined A Leader, considered a rising star on the right of the party, Kwarteng was the Conservative candidate in the constituency of Brent East at the 2005 general election. He finished in place behind the incumbent Liberal Democrat MP Sarah Teather. Kwarteng was chairman of the Bow Group in 2005–06, in 2006, The Times suggested that he could become the first black Conservative cabinet minister. He was sixth on the Conservative list of candidates for the London Assembly in the 2008 London Assembly election, Kwarteng was described by a local paper as a black Boris. At the 2010 general election, Kwarteng won the seat with 22,261 votes, in August 2012, Kwarteng co-authored a book with four fellow MPs Britannia Unchained. Kwarteng was re-elected on 7 May 2015 with an increased majority, Kwarteng backed United Kingdoms withdrawal from the European Union in the 2016 referendum. In April 2016, the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Foreign Affairs paid for Kwarteng, the Saudi Arabian government paid between £1,500 and £3,700 on each MP
30.
George Leggatt
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Sir George Andrew Midsomer Leggatt is a Justice of the High Court, one of the Senior Courts of England and Wales. Leggatts father is the former Lord Justice of Appeal Sir Andrew Leggatt, Leggatt was educated at Eton College and earned a First-Class Bachelor of Arts degree in Philosophy at Kings College, Cambridge in 1979. He was a Harkness Fellow at Harvard University and received a Diploma in Law with distinction from City Law School in 1981, Leggatt was called to the bar in 1983 and was appointed a Queens Counsel in 1997. He joined Brick Court Chambers in 1985, where he practised law, including areas such as banking, insurance, sales. He became a recorder in 2002 and was a deputy High Court judge, on 26 October 2012, he was appointed to the High Court, receiving the customary knighthood, and assigned to the Queens Bench Division. The UK lacks detention authority under international law to capture
31.
Anthony Lloyd, Baron Lloyd of Berwick
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Anthony John Leslie Lloyd, Baron Lloyd of Berwick, PC, DL is a retired British judge, and a former member of the House of Lords. Lloyd was born on 9 May 1929, the son of Edward John Boydell Lloyd and he was educated at Eton College, an all-boys public school near Windsor, Berkshire. After serving in the British Army, Lloyd studied law at Trinity College, Cambridge and he was admitted to the Inner Temple as a barrister in 1955. On 27 November 1948, Lloyd was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards as a second lieutenant, on 27 September 1949, he transferred to the Regular Army Reserve of Officers as a second lieutenant with seniority from 1 January 1949, this ended his full-time military service. He was promoted to lieutenant on 3 August 1950 and he relinquished his British Army commission on 9 December 1953. He was a barrister, and took silk as a Queens Counsel in 1967. In 1969 he was appointed Attorney-General to the Prince of Wales, in 1978, he was appointed High Court Judge of Queens Bench, serving until 1983. In 1984, he was appointed Lord Justice of Appeal, serving until 1993, on 1 October 1993, he was appointed Lord of Appeal in Ordinary, serving until his resignation on 31 December 1998. He is probably best known for his judgment in the case of Page v Smith. He chaired the committee on the proposed Speakership of the House of Lords. In 1996, he conducted a review of British laws against terrorism, his report and he is a former member of the Court of Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved. In 2005 he became chairman of the parliamentary Ecclesiastical Committee which examines draft measures presented to it by the Legislative Committee of the General Synod of the Church of England, on 27 March 2015, he retired from the House of Lords. When appointed to Queens Bench in 1978, he was made a Knight Bachelor, when appointed Lord of Appeal in Ordinary in 1993, he was raised to the House of Lords with the title Baron Lloyd of Berwick, of Ludlay in the County of East Sussex. He held the office of Deputy Lieutenant of East Sussex in 1983, as a leading barrister, he held several honorary posts at the Inner Temple, Bencher in 1976, Reader in 1998 and 1999, and Treasurer in 1999. In 1960, he married Jane Helen Violet Shelford, the daughter of Cornelius William Shelford
32.
Harold Macmillan
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Nicknamed Supermac, he was known for his pragmatism, wit and unflappability. Macmillan served in the Grenadier Guards during the First World War and he was wounded three times, most severely in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme. He spent the rest of the war in a hospital unable to walk. After the war Macmillan joined his business, then entered Parliament in the 1924 General Election. After losing his seat in 1929, he regained it in 1931, soon after which he spoke out against the rate of unemployment in Stockton-On-Tees. When Eden resigned in 1957 after the Suez Crisis, Macmillan succeeded him as Prime Minister, benefiting from favourable international conditions, he presided over an age of affluence, marked by low unemployment and high if uneven growth. In his Bedford speech in July 1957 he told the nation they had never had it so good, the Conservatives were re-elected in 1959 with an increased majority on an electioneering budget. In international affairs, Macmillan rebuilt the special relationship with the United States from the wreckage of the Suez Crisis, after his resignation, Macmillan lived out a long retirement as an elder statesman. He was as trenchant a critic of his successors in his old age as he had been of his predecessors in his youth and he had two brothers, Daniel, eight years his senior, and Arthur, four years his senior. His paternal grandfather, Daniel MacMillan, who founded Macmillan publishing, was the son of a Scottish crofter from Isle of Arran, Macmillan claimed to remember Queen Victorias Diamond Jubilee, which occurred in 1897, but his memory seems to his biographer suspiciously similar to Philip Guedallas account. He remembered Queen Victoria’s funeral, the Relief of Mafeking and the victory of the “gallant little Japs” against the Russians at Tsushima, Macmillan received an intensive early education, closely guided by his American mother. He learned French at home every morning from a succession of nursery maids, from the age of six or seven he received introductory lessons in classical Latin and Greek at Mr Gladstones day school, close by in Sloane Square. Macmillan attended Summer Fields School, Oxford and he won an exhibition to Balliol, but was less of a scholar than his older brother Dan. He went up to Balliol College, Oxford, where he joined many political societies and his political opinions at this stage were an eclectic mix of moderate Conservatism, moderate Liberalism and Fabian Socialism. He read avidly about Disraeli, but was particularly impressed by a speech by Lloyd George at the Oxford Union Society in 1913. He obtained a First in Honours Moderations, informally known as Mods, with his final exams over two years away, he enjoyed an idyllic Trinity term at Oxford, just before the outbreak of the First World War. No such ball has been traced, and the Archduke’s murder was not announced in the British Press until 2 July, promoted to lieutenant on 30 January 1915, he soon transferred to the Grenadier Guards. He fought on the front lines in France, where the casualty rate was known to be high, as was the probability of an early and he served with distinction as a captain and was wounded on three occasions
33.
Charles Moore (journalist)
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Charles Hilary Moore is an English journalist and a former editor of The Daily Telegraph, The Sunday Telegraph and The Spectator. He still writes for the first and last of these publications, the first volume of his authorised biography of Margaret Thatcher appeared in April 2013 shortly after she died. He is from a Liberal family, while at Eton in 1974, he wrote about his membership of the Liberals in the Eton Chronicle, and also about his taste for Real Ale. During this period he was already a friend of Oliver Letwin, Moore remained a Liberal into his early twenties. Moore went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, at the time as Letwin. At Eton he had also known Nicholas Coleridge, who was also at Trinity and he read English and History and graduated BA in 1979. By now an advocate of conservation, he became an admirer of the work in this field of Poet Laureate Sir John Betjeman. In 1979 he joined The Daily Telegraph as a political correspondent, in 1982 Moore wrote a pamphlet for the Salisbury Group, entitled The Old People of Lambeth. Two years after joining The Spectator as a political columnist, he became the editor in 1984. Moore co-edited A Tory Seer, The Selected Journalism of T. E. Utley, following The Spectator, he edited The Sunday Telegraph from 1992 to 1995. Moore became editor of The Daily Telegraph in 1995, in 2001, his signed editorial A Free Country gained some notice elsewhere in the media. In this article, he argued in favour of hunting, pornography, the right to employ whom we choose, owing to falling circulation, there had been speculation by 2003 about Moores future prior to his resignation in the autumn of that year. Moore had been editor when stories about George Galloway, which led to a libel action from the politician, had been published. The newspaper had falsely claimed that Galloway received payments from Saddam Husseins regime, Moore is a vehement critic of the BBC, which he believes has a left-wing bias. He saw the episode as part of an ongoing pathology at the BBC, in particular Moore is critical of the National Health Service, which he considers a terrible organisation. In December 2009, regarding the Beano character Lord Snooty, also his Private Eye nickname, Moore was for a number of years Chairman of the Policy Exchange, a London-based think-tank, before he stepped down in June 2011. He concluded that It is not paranoid to say there is a deadly enemy within. As of 2015, Moore wrote for two of the publications he edited, The Spectator and The Daily Telegraph
34.
Flow-based programming
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These black box processes can be reconnected endlessly to form different applications without having to be changed internally. FBP is a form of dataflow programming based on bounded buffers, information packets with defined lifetimes, named ports. Flow-based programming defines applications using the metaphor of a data factory, in this view, the focus is on the application data and the transformations applied to it to produce the desired outputs. The network is defined externally to the processes, as a list of connections which is interpreted by a piece of software, the processes communicate by means of fixed-capacity connections. A connection is attached to a process by means of a port, more than one process can execute the same piece of code. At any point in time, a given IP can only be owned by a single process, ports may either be simple, or array-type, as used e. g. for the input port of the Collate component described below. The network definition is usually diagrammatic, and is converted into a connection list in some lower-level language or notation, FBP is often a visual programming language at this level. More complex network definitions have a structure, being built up from subnets with sticky connections. Many other flow based languages/runtimes are built around more traditional programming languages, FBP has much in common with the Linda language in that it is, in Gelernter and Carrieros terminology, a coordination language, it is essentially language-independent. Indeed, given a written in a sufficiently low-level language. FBP thus lends itself to the concept of domain-specific languages or mini-languages, FBP exhibits data coupling, described in the article on coupling as the loosest type of coupling between components. FBP promotes high-level, functional style of specifications that simplify reasoning about system behavior, an example of this is the distributed data flow model for constructively specifying and analyzing the semantics of distributed multi-party protocols. Flow-Based Programming was invented by J. Paul Morrison in the early 1970s, FBP has undergone a number of name changes over the years, the original implementation was called AMPS. One large application in Canada went live in 1975, and, as of 2013, has been in production use, running daily. An article describing its concepts and experience using it was published in 1978 in the IBM Research IBM Systems Journal under the name DSLM. Generally the concepts were referred to within IBM as Data Flow, but this term was felt to be too general, in 1994 Morrison published a book describing FBP, and providing empirical evidence that FBP led to reduced development times. The following diagram shows the major entities of an FBP diagram, such a diagram can be converted directly into a list of connections, which can then be executed by an appropriate engine. A, B and C are processes executing code components, o1, O2, and the two INs are ports connecting the connections M and N to their respective processes
35.
Henry Moseley
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This stemmed from his development of Moseleys law in X-ray spectra. Moseleys Law justified many concepts in chemistry by sorting the chemical elements of the table of the elements in a logical order based on their physics. This remains the accepted model today, when World War I broke out in Western Europe, Moseley left his research work at the University of Oxford behind to volunteer for the Royal Engineers of the British Army. Moseley was assigned to the force of British Empire soldiers that invaded the region of Gallipoli, Turkey, in April 1915, Moseley was shot and killed during the Battle of Gallipoli on 10 August 1915, at the age of 27. Experts have speculated that Moseley could have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1916, had he not been killed, as a consequence, the British government instituted new policies for eligibility for combat duty. Henry G. J. Moseley, known to his friends as Harry, was born in Weymouth in Dorset in 1887, Moseleys mother was Anabel Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley, the daughter of the Welsh biologist and conchologist John Gwyn Jeffreys. Henry Moseley had been a promising schoolboy at Summer Fields School. In 1906 he won the chemistry and physics prizes at Eton, in 1906, Moseley entered Trinity College of the University of Oxford, where he earned his bachelors degree. Immediately after graduation from Oxford in 1910, Moseley became a demonstrator in physics at the University of Manchester under the supervision of Sir Ernest Rutherford. He declined a fellowship offered by Rutherford, preferring to back to Oxford, in November 1913. In 1913, Moseley observed and measured the X-ray spectra of chemical elements that were found by the method of diffraction through crystals. This was a use of the method of X-ray spectroscopy in physics. Moseley discovered a mathematical relationship between the wavelengths of the X-rays produced and the atomic numbers of the metals that were used as the targets in X-ray tubes. This has become known as Moseleys law, in his invention of the Periodic Table of the Elements, Mendeleev had interchanged the orders of a few pairs of elements in order to put them in more appropriate places in this table of the elements. In addition, Moseley showed that there were gaps in the number sequence at numbers 43,61,72. Nothing about these four elements was known of in Moseleys lifetime, henry Moseleys experiments confirmed these predictions, by showing exactly what the missing atomic numbers were,43 and 61. Moseley was able to demonstrate that these elements, i. e. lanthanum through lutetium, must have exactly 15 members – no more. The number of elements in the lanthanides had been a question that was far from being settled by the chemists of the early 20th Century
