1.
Unincorporated area
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Occasionally, municipalities dissolve or disincorporate, which may happen if they become fiscally insolvent, and services become the responsibility of a higher administration. In some countries, such as in Brazil, Japan, France or the United Kingdom, unlike many other countries, Australia has only one level of local government immediately beneath state and territorial governments. A local government area often contains several towns and even entire cities, thus, aside from very sparsely populated areas and a few other special cases, almost all of Australia is part of an LGA. Unincorporated areas are often in locations, cover vast areas or have very small populations. Postal addresses in unincorporated areas, as in parts of Australia. Thus, there is any ambiguity regarding addresses in unincorporated areas. The Australian Capital Territory has no municipalities and is in some sense an unincorporated area, the territorial government is directly responsible for matters normally carried out by local government. The far west and north of New South Wales constitutes the Unincorporated Far West Region, a civil servant in the state capital manages such matters as are necessary. The second unincorporated area of state is Lord Howe Island. In the Northern Territory,1. 45% of the area and 4. In South Australia, 60% of the area is unincorporated and communities located within can receive services provided by a state agency. Firstly, the remote area that is unincorporated is the Abrolhos Islands. Secondly, the unincorporated areas are A-class reserves either in, or close to. In Canada, depending on the province, a settlement is one that does not have a municipal council that governs solely over the settlement. It is usually, but not always, part of a municipal government. This can range from hamlets to large urbanized areas that are similar in size to towns. In British Columbia, unincorporated settlements lie outside municipal boundaries entirely, Unincorporated settlements with a population of between 100 and 1,000 residents may have the status of designated place in Canadian census data. In some provinces, large tracts of undeveloped wilderness or rural country are unorganized areas that fall directly under the provincial jurisdiction
2.
King Township Museum
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The King Township Museum in King City, Ontario, Canada is a local history museum for the township of King at 2920 King Rd. It was previously known as Kinghorn Museum, and is located on what was known as Kinghorn. It is operated by the township Parks, Recreation and Culture Department and is curated by Kathleen Fry, the Museum is affiliated with the Canadian Museums Association, the Canadian Heritage Information Network, and the Virtual Museum of Canada. The museum consists of a building which houses the majority of collections held and this building was originally built in 1861 as the site of the Kinghorn School SS #23. It was updated and expanded in 1958 and again in 1963, the township gave operational control of the building to the King Township Historical Society, which established the museum in 1979 and opened it in 1982. The museum was operated on a basis until 2001, when the township municipal government assumed control of the museum. The government established a management board, to individuals are appointed by the township council. The flat, leaky roof was rebuilt as a peaked roof, once vacated by Genview, the space may be used for various services, such as a lecture hall with a capacity of 60 to 80 guests. On the grounds of the 2.5 acre property owned by the museum are several heritage sites, the King Township Historical Society raised funds to acquire and move King Station from Black Creek Pioneer Village to the grounds in 1989, where it now fronts King Road. The single-storey board and batten structure was in shape by then. It was painted green and grey after the restoration, and is now painted cream yellow with green trim. It is the surviving station building of the original Ontario, Simcoe. The other heritage building is the King Christian Church built in 1851 by the Children of Peace and it was renamed to the King Emmanuel Baptist Church in 1931 and permanently closed in 1978. It was moved from its location at Kettleby Road and Jane Street to the museum grounds in 1982. The site also contains a dredge built in the 1970s that was used to clear the canals of the Holland Marsh until the 1990s, and was obtained by the museum in 2001. The museums collection contains over 1,800 artifacts associated with the history, such as books, clothing, tools. King Township Museum operates a variety of March break and summer camps, since 2006, the museum has hosted Music at the Museum, a weekly concert showcasing local musical talent. Works of local and regional artists are exhibited by the museum
3.
Provinces and territories of Canada
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Canadas geography is divided into administrative divisions known as provinces and territories that are responsible for delivery of sub-national governance. Over its history, Canadas international borders have changed several times, the ten provinces are Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. Several of the provinces were former British colonies, Quebec was originally a French colony, the three territories are Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon, which govern the rest of the area of the former British North America. Together, the provinces and territories make up the worlds second-largest country by area, the powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively. In modern Canadian constitutional theory, the provinces are considered to be co-sovereign divisions, the territories are not sovereign, but simply part of the federal realm, and have a commissioner who represents the federal government. Notes, There are three territories in Canada, unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherent sovereignty and have only those powers delegated to them by the federal government. They include all of mainland Canada north of latitude 60° north and west of Hudson Bay, the following table lists the territories in order of precedence. Prior to Confederation, Ontario and Quebec were united as the Province of Canada, over the following years, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island were added as provinces. The Hudsons Bay Company controlled large swathes of western Canada referred to as Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory until 1870, subsequently, the area was re-organized into the province of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. The remaining Arctic islands were transferred by Britain to Canada in 1880,1898 saw the Yukon Territory, later renamed simply as Yukon, carved from the parts of the Northwest Territories surrounding the Klondike gold fields. On September 1,1905, a portion of the Northwest Territories south of the 60th parallel north became the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1912, the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba were expanded northward, Manitobas to the 60° parallel, Ontarios to Hudson Bay, in 1907, Newfoundland acquired dominion status. In the middle of the Great Depression in Canada with Newfoundland facing a period of economic crisis. In 2001, it was officially renamed Newfoundland and Labrador, in 1903, the Alaska Panhandle Dispute fixed British Columbias northwestern boundary. This was one of two provinces in Canadian history to have its size reduced. In 1999, Nunavut was created from the portion of the Northwest Territories. Yukon lies in the portion of The North, while Nunavut is in the east. All three territories combined are the most sparsely populated region in Canada, covering 3,921,739 km2 in land area and they are often referred to as a single region, The North, for organisational and economic purposes
4.
Regional Municipality of York
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The Regional Municipality of York, also called York Region, is a regional municipality in Southern Ontario, Canada, between Lake Simcoe and Toronto. It replaced the former York County in 1971, and is part of the Greater Toronto Area, the regional government is headquartered in Newmarket. The 2011 census population was 1,032,524, surpassing the mark of one million. At the Canada 2011 Census,53,989 residents inhabited rural areas in the municipality,67,551 resided in urban areas. Its growth rate of 15. 7% from 2006 to 2011 was the sixth highest amongst all census divisions in Canada, and the Government of Ontario expects its population to surpass 1.5 million residents by 2031. At a meeting in Richmond Hill on 6 May 1970, officials representing the municipalities of York County approved plans for the creation of a government entity to replace York County. The plan had been presented in 1969 by Darcy McKeough, the Ontario Minister of Municipal Affairs, the Regional Municipality of York was created by Act of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1970, which took effect on January 1,1971. The eastern boundary of the new town of Markham was defined to be at Yonge Street, the townships of Georgina, North Gwillimbury, and Sutton were merged into the township of Georgina, and the East Gwillimbury neighbourhood of East Gwillimbury Heights was merged into Newmarket. The boundary between Aurora and Newmarket was defined to be St. Johns Sideroad, and Newmarkets northern boundary was defined to be Green Lane. The growth centres were each restricted to grow to a population of 25,000 by 2000. The municipal realignment merged 40% of East Gwillimburys population into Newmarket, the council of East Gwillimbury voted to amalgamate with Newmarket, but Newmarket council opposed the amalgamation. In the plan presented by McKeough, the councils of the towns of Newmarket, the internal municipal realignments resulted in some politicians residing in a new municipality from that which they represented at the time of realignment. York Region covers 1,762 square kilometres from Lake Simcoe in the north to the city of Toronto in the south and its eastern border is shared with Durham Region, to the west is Peel Region, and Simcoe County is to the northwest. A detailed map of the region showing its major roads, communities, York Regions landscape includes farmlands, wetlands and kettle lakes, the Oak Ridges Moraine and over 2,070 hectares of regional forest, in addition to the built-up areas of its municipalities. York Region is situated on a continental climate with warm summers. The region is governed by a known as York Regional Council. Wayne Emmerson, a mayor of Whitchurch-Stouffville, was elected to this office in December,2014. In October 2008, the York Regional Municipality was named one of Greater Torontos Top Employers by Mediacorp Canada Inc, the economy of York Region is diverse
5.
Township
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The word township is used to refer to various kinds of settlements in different countries. While a township may be associated with an area, there are many exceptions to this rule. In Australia, Canada, and the United States, they may be too small to be considered urban. In Australia, the designation of township traditionally refers to a town or a small community in a rural district. The term refers purely to the settlement, it does not refer to a unit of government, in Canada, two kinds of township occur in common use. In eastern Canada, a township is one form of the subdivision of a county, in Canadian French, this is a canton. Townships are referred to as lots in Prince Edward Island, they merely form census subdivisions and are not administrative units. In Canada, a municipality is a city, town, township, county and it is also a specific designation for certain municipalities in Quebec, Nova Scotia and Ontario. In western Canada, townships exist only for the purpose of land division by the Dominion Land Survey and these townships are nominally six miles by six miles. Townships are designated by their number and range number. Township 1 is the first north of the First Base Line, in China, townships are found at the fourth level of the administrative hierarchy, together with ethnic townships, towns and subdistricts. In local government in New Zealand, there are no towns or townships. All land is part of either a city or a district, the term municipality has become rare in New Zealand since about 1979 and has no legal status. The term township is, however, still in usage in New Zealand. The expression would generally equate to that of village in England, in the Philippines, townships referred to administrative divisions established during the American Civil Government in the country. Many of these divisions were originally established as rancherias during the Spanish Regime. The term was replaced with municipal district. Most municipal districts would later be converted into municipalities by executive orders from the Philippine President
6.
King, Ontario
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King is a township in York Region north of Toronto, within the Greater Toronto Area in Ontario, Canada. The rolling hills of the Oak Ridges Moraine are the most prominent visible feature of King. The Holland Marsh, considered to be Ontarios vegetable basket, straddles King Township, King is known for its horse and cattle farms. Though King is predominantly rural, most of its residents inhabit the communities of King City, Nobleton, the township was created as part of the subdivision of York County, itself a subdivision of the Home District. The lands were acquired by the British in an agreement with the Mississaugas, known as the Toronto Purchase. Simcoe planned Yonge Street, which was built between 1793 and 1796 by the Queens Rangers, by 1801, Timothy Rogers, a Loyalist from Vermont, had travelled the road and found an area on its western boundary immediately southwest of Newmarket very appealing. He applied for and received a grant for land totalling 40 farms, each of 200 acres, by February 1802, he had set out for King Township with the first group of settlers for those forty farms. A second group followed later that month, the area would become known as Armitage, in honour of its first settler Amos Armitage. It was the first of Kings settlements, and now part of Newmarket, soon after the establishment of Armitage, the communities of Kettleby and Lloydtown were established to the west. By 1842, the township consisted of 53,240 acres of land, the principal villages at the time were Lloydtown, Brownsville, Bogarttown, and Tyrwhitts Mills. In 1851, the township annexed from West Gwillimbury the portion of north of its extant. The first survey of King Township was conducted in 1800 by Hessian soldier Johann Stegmann, at the time, the areas population was twenty residents. At least four children were born in King by July 1802, by 1809, the townships population had increased sevenfold, to 160. It wasnt until 1820, with the construction of roads into the township, by 1842, the population of 2,625 residents was principally Irish, and also included those of English, Scottish, Canadian, and American descent. There is some evidence of a large Huron encampment at Hackett Lake, residents in the area in the 1950s and 1960s discovered arrowheads and other archaeological items indicating a Huron presence. This is consistent with the fact that the Toronto Carrying-Place Trail, the route was used by explorer Étienne Brûlé, who first travelled along the trail with twelve Huron guides in 1615. Early settlements in the area developed primarily around gristmills and sawmills and these were important economic engines in the region during the 19th century, which resulted in the establishment of other communities and businesses nearby. By 1842, there were eight grist mills and 12 saw mills in King, some settlements have since been abandoned, or are no longer communities per se, including Bells Lake, Davis Corners, and King Ridge
7.
Helena Jaczek
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Helena Jaczek is a politician in Ontario, Canada. She is a Liberal member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario who was elected in the 2007 provincial election and she represents the riding of Oak Ridges—Markham. She is a minister in the government of Kathleen Wynne. Jaczek was born and raised in England and immigrated to Canada in 1963 and she received her medical degree and Masters of Health Science from the University of Toronto and later went on to pursue a Masters of Business Administration from York University. She worked as a physician in Toronto for 11 years. Dr. Jaczek has 2 adult children and she lives in York Region with her partner and she received the Distinguished Service Award from the Association of Local Public Health Agencies by receiving an award “In Celebration of Women”. In 2005 Jaczek received an Award for Environmental Planning from the Canadian Institute of Planners, in October 2016, Dr. Jaczek received the Ontario Psychological Association Public Service Award. Earlier in 2016, she received the Ontario Medical Association, Life Membership Award, in 2003, Jaczek ran as the Liberal candidate in the riding of Oak Ridges. Issues included tax rates and health care and she lost to incumbent Frank Klees by 2,521 votes. In 2007, Jaczek won the newly formed riding of Oak Ridges—Markham by 7,013 votes beating Conservative candidate Phil Bannon, population growth was the main issue in the campaign as the riding of Oak Ridges-Markham was the most populous in the province as of the 2006 census. She was re-elected in the 2011, and 2014 elections, Jaczek was appointed as a Parliamentary assistant to the Minister of Health Promotion on October 30,2007. On September 11,2009 she was made PA to the Minister of Environment, in February 2013, Jaczek was appointed as PA to the Minister of Health and Long-Term Care. Jaczek has also served on many Standing and Select Committees, including the Select Committee on Mental Health, as well as previously serving as Caucus Chair. In 2009, Jaczek proposed a private bill, Bill 117 would have prohibited riders under the age of 15 from riding motorcycles. Data presented to the house showed that 46 under-15 aged riders were hospitalized between 2005–06 and she said, The research is alarming. Motorcycle enthusiasts disputed the numbers saying that most of the injuries were from off-road activities such as dirt bikes, as of 2010, the bill had passed first reading. However, when the legislature was prorogued on March 4,2010, according to the clerk of the Standing Committee on Justice Policy the bill was not carried forward. In March 2012, Jaczek introduced a members bill, Bill 40 that proclaims March 26 as Epilepsy Awareness Day
8.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
9.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
10.
National Topographic System
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The National Topographic System or NTS is the system used by Natural Resources Canada for providing general purpose topographic maps of the country. NTS maps are available in a variety of scales, the standard being 1/50,000, the maps provide details on landforms and terrain, lakes and rivers, forested areas, administrative zones, populated areas, roads and railways, as well as other man-made features. The National Topographic System is split into three major zones defined by latitude spans, the Southern zone covers latitudes between 40°N and 68°N, the Arctic zone covers latitudes between 68°N and 80°N, and the High Arctic zone covers latitudes between 80°N and 88°N. All map series span four degrees of latitude, but are split differently east-to-west depending on the zones they are located in, Map series in the Southern and Arctic zones span eight degrees of longitude, while those in the High Arctic zone span sixteen degrees of longitude. The NTS designates the southernmost set of map series, from 40 to 44 degrees north latitude, with numbers that end with the digit 0, using 10,20,30 and 40. The third row, ending with the digit 2, spans from 2,12,22,32 and so on to 102 off the west coast, while the fifth, sixth and seventh rows extend furthest west, using 115,116 and 117. In the Southern zone, map series are split into sixteen map areas, while in the Arctic and High Arctic zones, all map areas are in turn split into sixteen map sheets. Map areas in a series are assigned letters in a pattern starting in the southeastern part of the series. In the Southern zone, the run from A through P, while in the Arctic and High Arctic zones. Each map area in turn is split into sixteen map sheets, international Map of the World The National Topographic System The Atlas of Canada - Toporama
11.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
12.
Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
13.
Northern Railway of Canada
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The Northern Railway of Canada was a historical Canadian railway located in the province of Ontario. It was the first steam railway to service in what was then known as Upper Canada. It was eventually acquired by the Grand Trunk Railway, and is therefore a predecessor to the modern Canadian National Railway, several sections of the line are still used by CNR and GO Transit. Originally known as the Toronto, Simcoe and Huron, and then the Ontario, Simcoe and Huron, the plan for the railroad was largely executed by Frederick Chase Capreol who was fired as manager of the company the day before the ground broke. Financial difficulties and a government bailout led to a reorganization of the company as the Northern Railway of Canada in 1859 and this last expansion would be the starting point for the Northern and Pacific Junction Railway, connecting to the Canadian Pacific Railway mainline outside of North Bay. In 1887, the Grand Trunk Railway gained a controlling interest, the line primarily served the port towns on Georgian Bay, where it faced increasing competition over the years. A combination of factors, including the Great Depression and the opening of a wider Welland Canal led to decreased use of the ports, the closure of Collingwood Shipbuilding in 1986 led to the abandonment of the sections in Collingwood and to the west. The line is intact from the southeast side of Collingwood all the way to Union Station, the Muskoka Junction has been combined with the Ontario Northland Railway to form CNRs mainline in the area north of Orillia. Section west of Collingwood now form the Georgian Trail, the section of the mainline from the western side of Collingwood to Meaford is now the high-quality 34 kilometres Georgian Trail, which is being expanded towards Owen Sound as the Tom Thompson Trail. Sections from Collingwood to Stayner have a trail running beside them, the North Simcoe Railway now forms the 22.5 kilometres Tiny Beaches Trail with sections south of this also in use. He suggested a method to raise the funds for construction. The proposition was considered so scandalous it was put to a referendum, continued difficulties delayed construction, during which time the company re-chartered as the Ontario, Simcoe and Huron Union Railroad in 1850. Capreol was fired as two days before the official sod turning, which was carried out on 15 October 1851 by Lady Elgin. The occasion was marked with a parade, to which an estimated 20,000 people attended of a population of the city of only 31,000. Sandford Fleming took the sod and preserved it for history, a party later that night at St. Lawrence Hall was capped by a performance by Jenny Lind organized by P. T. In February 1853, the railway commissioned the construction of the first locomotive built in any British colony. Early construction required the line to pass over the Oak Ridges Moraine, work north of there was much more rapid, the line reached Allandale in Barrie later in 1853, and Collingwood in 1855. Early traffic was dominated by products, earning it the nickname Oats, Straw
14.
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest
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Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest is a temperate climate terrestrial biome, with broadleaf tree ecoregions, and with conifer and broadleaf tree mixed coniferous forest ecoregions. The term Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest is used by the World Wildlife Fund in global biogeography as one of the biome designations under which to organize ecoregions, the typical structure of these forests includes four layers. The uppermost layer is the canopy composed of mature trees ranging from 30 to 61 m high. Below the canopy is the three-layered, shade-tolerant understory that is roughly 9 to 15 m shorter than the canopy, the top layer of the understory is the sub-canopy composed of smaller mature trees, saplings, and suppressed juvenile canopy layer trees awaiting an opening in the canopy. Below the sub-canopy is the layer, composed of low growing woody plants. Typically the lowest growing layer is the cover or herbaceous layer. In the Northern hemisphere, characteristic dominant broadleaf trees in this biome include oaks, beeches, maples, the term mixed forest comes from the inclusion of coniferous trees as a canopy component of some of these forests. Typical coniferous trees include, Pines, firs, and spruces, in some areas of this biome the conifers may be a more important canopy species than the broadleaf species. In the Southern hemisphere, endemic genera such as Nothofagus and Eucalyptus occupy this biome, Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests occur in areas with distinct warm and cool season, which give it a moderate annual average temperature —3 to 15.6 °C. These forests occur in warm and rainy climates, sometimes also with a distinct dry season. A dry season occurs in the winter in East Asia and in summer on the wet fringe of the Mediterranean climate zones. Other areas, as in the central and upper eastern United States and southeastern Canada, have an even distribution of rainfall, annual rainfall is typically over 600 mm
15.
Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests
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The Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests is a temperate broadleaf and mixed forest ecoregion of North America, mostly in eastern Canada. This area includes much of northern New York state, western Vermont, the region includes the Frontenac Axis, the Niagara Escarpment up to Manitoulin Island on Lake Huron, and Lake Simcoe. This region has warm summers and cold, snowy winters, trees of the woodland include eastern hemlock, pines, maple, and oaks. Particular areas include the oak/pine mix of the Albany Pine Bush, areas of dry rocky alvar plain, the Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests are very rich in wildlife. Birds include cardinals, downy woodpecker, wood duck and eastern screech owl, less than 5% of natural forest remains intact. List of ecoregions in the United States Eastern Great Lakes Lowland Forests, archived from the original on 2010-03-08. Central U. S. hardwood forests images at bioimages. vanderbilt. edu
16.
Kettle (landform)
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A kettle is a shallow, sediment-filled body of water formed by retreating glaciers or draining floodwaters. The kettles are formed as a result of blocks of ice calving from glaciers, another source is the sudden drainage of an ice-dammed lake. When the block melts, the hole it leaves behind is a kettle, as the ice melts, ramparts can form around the edge of the kettle hole. The lakes that fill these holes are seldom more than 10 m deep, in acid conditions, a kettle bog may form but in alkaline conditions, it will be kettle peatland. Kettles are fluvioglacial landforms occurring as the result of blocks of ice calving from the front of a receding glacier, glacial outwash is generated when streams of meltwater flow away from the glacier and deposit sediment to form broad outwash plains called sandurs. When the ice melt, kettle holes are left in the sandur. When the development of kettle holes disrupt sandur surfaces, a jumbled array of ridges and mounds form, resembling kame. Kettle holes can also occur in ridge shaped deposits of rock fragments called till. Kettle holes can form as the result of floods caused by the drainage of an ice-dammed lake. These floods, called jökulhlaups, often rapidly deposit large quantities of sediment onto the sandur surface, the kettle holes are formed by the melting blocks of sediment-rich ice that were transported and consequently buried by the jökulhlaups. It was found in observations and laboratory simulations done by Maizels in 1992 that ramparts form around the edge of kettle holes generated by jökulhlaups. The development of types of ramparts depends on the concentration of rock fragments contained in the melted ice block. Most kettle holes are less than two kilometres in diameter, although some in the U. S. Midwest exceed ten kilometres, puslinch Lake in Ontario, Canada, is the largest kettle lake in Canada spanning 160 hectares. Fish Lake in the north-central Cascade Mountains of the U. S. state of Washington is 200 hectares, the depth of most kettles is less than ten meters. In most cases, kettle holes eventually fill with water, sediment, if the kettle is fed by surface or underground rivers or streams, it becomes a kettle lake. If the kettle receives its water from precipitation, the groundwater table, Kettle ponds that are not affected by the groundwater table will usually become dry during the warm summer months, in which case they are deemed ephemeral. Kettle bogs are closed ecosystems because they have no water other than precipitation. Both acidic kettle bogs and fresh water kettles are important ecological niches for some species of flora
17.
Stouffville, Ontario
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Stouffville is the primary urban area within the town of Whitchurch–Stouffville, Ontario, Canada. It is centred at the intersection of Main Street, Mill Street and Market Street. Between 2006 and 2011, the population of the Community of Stouffville grew 100. 5% from 12,411 to 24,886, founded in 1804 by Abraham Stouffer, the hamlet was originally named Stoufferville. Stouffer built a sawmill and grist-mill on the banks of Duffins Creek in the 1820s, the community name was shortened to Stouffville when its first post office opened in 1832. In 1877, Stouffville became an incorporated village, the population of urban Stouffville in 1971 was 5,036. Urban Stouffville is approximately 4.5 km long, stretching from the York-Durham Line to Highway 48, Stouffville is bounded by farmland and a golf course. The community is located on the Oak Ridges Moraine and the Rouge River watershed, GO Transits Stouffville line passes through the community with commuter trains stopping at the Stouffville GO Station in the downtown core and terminating at Lincolnville GO Station. When no trains are scheduled a bus service from Toronto serves the town with some continuing to Uxbridge. In 2006, urban Stouffville had a population of 8,000 to 10,000 people, by 2021, the town’s total population forecast is projected to be approximately 55,800 persons, with an estimated 41,000 persons residing within the Community of Stouffville proper. With connection to a new sewage system and a water pipe from Lake Ontario. The first of the new subdivisions were south of Main Street along Hoover Park Drive, and north of Main Street along Millard Street west of Ninth Line. In 2008, construction began to widen Stouffville Road / Main Street from two lanes to four lanes, from Ninth Line to the edge of urban Stouffville at Highway 48, construction was completed in June 2010. Stouffville Road has since been widened up to Highway 404, neighbouring communities within the town include Ringwood and Gormley to the east, and Bloomington to the north. Claremont, Uxbridge, and the ghost town of Altona lie to the east, Stouffville is bordered on the south by the city of Markham. Town of Whitchurch-Stouffville Ontario Plaques - Founding of Stouffville Stouffville. com Stouffvilles Online News and Events, Tourism and Business Directory Stouffville Connects
18.
Humber River (Ontario)
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The Humber River is a river in Southern Ontario, Canada. It is in the Great Lakes Basin, is a tributary of Lake Ontario and is one of two rivers on either side of the city of Toronto, the other being the Don River to the east. It was designated a Canadian Heritage River on September 24,1999 and they join north of Toronto and then flow in a generally southeasterly direction into Lake Ontario at what was once the far western portions of the city. The river mouth is flanked by Sir Casimir Gzowski Park and Humber Bay Park East. The Anishinaabe, the most recent native inhabitants of the area, refer to the river as Gabekanaang-ziibi, for “leave the canoes and go back. ”During the 1600s and 1700s, popples map of 1733 shows a prominent river beside the native settlement Tejajagon assumed to be the Humber. Its name is given as the Tanaovate River, the river was also known as the Toronto River. Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe gave the river the name of Humber, the Humber has a long history of human settlement along its banks. Native settlement of the area is well documented archaeologically and occurred in three waves, the first settlers were the Palaeo-Indians who lived in the area from 10,000 to 7000 BC. The second wave, people of the Archaic period, settled the area between 7000 and 1000 BC and began to adopt seasonal migration patterns to take advantage of available plants, fish, and game. The third wave of settlement was the Woodland period, which saw the introduction of the bow and arrow. Étienne Brûlé was the first European to encounter the Humber while travelling the Toronto Carrying-Place Trail, Brûlé passed through the watershed in 1615 on a mission from Samuel de Champlain to build alliances with native peoples. The Trail became a convenient shortcut to the upper Great Lakes for traders, explorers, and missionaries. A major landmark on the end of the trail in Lake Simcoe was used to describe the trail as a whole. A fort, Fort Toronto, was constructed about 1,000 metres inland from the mouth of the Humber to protect the Trail, during the 1660s this was the site of Teiaiagon, a permanent settlement of the Seneca used for trading with the Europeans. Popples map of 1733 shows a prominent river beside Tejajagon which is assumed to be the Humber, french missionaries used the area for many years, including Jean de Brébeuf and Joseph Chaumonot in 1641, Louis Hennepin in 1678, and Rene-Robert Cavelier de La Salle in 1680. However, no permanent European settlement occurred until the arrival of Jean-Baptiste Rousseau in the late 18th century, Rousseau piloted John Graves Simcoes ship into Toronto Bay to officially begin the British era of control in 1793. Most of the British attention was focussed to the east of the Humber, settlement was scattered until after the War of 1812 when many loyalists moved to the area, who were joined by immigrants from Ireland and Scotland who chose to remain in British lands. Upon his arrival in York, Simcoe was keenly aware of the need for a lumber mill and he had constructed a sawmill on the west bank of the river near present-day Bloor Street in 1793, which was operated by John Wilson
19.
Oak Ridges Moraine
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The Oak Ridges Moraine is an ecologically important geological landform in the Mixedwood Plains of south-central Ontario, Canada. The moraine covers a area of 1,900 square kilometres between Caledon and Rice Lake, near Peterborough. One of the most significant landforms in southern Ontario, the moraine gets its name from the rolling hills and it was formed 12,000 years ago by advancing and retreating glaciers. The moraine is currently a site in Ontario, since it stands in the path of major urban development. The Oak Ridges Moraine is a pair of large ridges composed of four elevated wedges and it is bounded to the west by the Niagara Escarpment, a cuesta which was critical to the formation of the moraine, and to the east by the Trent River and Rice Lake. The four wedges formed in stages, though some synchronous formation also occurred at a period of formation. The moraine peaks at the Uxbridge wedge, generally rising from east to west, the Rice Lake wedge is separated from the other wedges where the Oak Ridges Moraine intersects Rice Lake. To the north are drumlinized uplands, referred to as the Peterborough drumlin field, the Oak Ridges Moraine probably formed in the Late Wisconsin glacial period. Stratified sediment was deposited rapidly on the high-relief erosional surface, up to 150 m in some areas, the deposits occurred on surfaces defined by highly eroded channels and drumlin uplands. The channel tunnels were created by the erosion from glacial rivers. Characteristic of this moraine is the transition of deposition layers from glaciofluvial to glaciolacustrine, sedimentary glaciofluvial areas form the core of the Oak Ridges Moraine, though restricted to subglacial cavity fills of confined subaqueous fans. Overlaying this core is a sedimentary layer that is younger and topographically lower, principally in the delta. In the late stages of its development, random unstratified accumulation occurred along the ice margins, whereas the glacial river deposits were more substantial by volume, the diamicton deposits represent a greater portion of the moraines exposed surface. Research suggests that sedimentation occurred in a west to east sequence along the four main sedimentary wedges, Albion, Uxbridge, Pontytool and Rice Lake. The wedges may have formed in a short period of time, perhaps no more than a few hundred years. However, the lowest beds in the moraine may have experienced synchronous sedimentation and this hydrological system is inter-twined with a regional flow systems not bound by the morphological limits of the moraine. For this reason, environmentalists and researchers promote an aggressive protection strategy extending beyond the moraine, the preservation of aquifers is especially important, since they are used as a primary water source by some municipalities located on or near the moraine. These aquifers also discharge into tributaries that are the headwaters of creeks and rivers which flow into Lake Simcoe, Lake Scugog
20.
Clay
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Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to water content and become hard, brittle. Depending on the content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size, silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline, geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm, sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils Atterberg limits, ISO14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation, secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes. Depending on the source, there are three or four main groups of clays, kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of clays in these categories. Varve is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion. This type of deposit is common in glacial lakes
21.
Silt
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Silt is granular material of a size between sand and clay, whose mineral origin is quartz and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil or as sediment mixed in suspension with water in a body of such as a river. It may also exist as soil deposited at the bottom of a water body, Silt has a moderate specific area with a typically non-sticky, plastic feel. Silt usually has a floury feel when dry, and a slippery feel when wet, Silt can be visually observed with a hand lens. Silt is created by a variety of physical processes capable of splitting the generally sand-sized quartz crystals of primary rocks by exploiting deficiencies in their lattice and these involve chemical weathering of rock and regolith, and a number of physical weathering processes such as frost shattering and haloclasty. The main process is abrasion through transport, including fluvial comminution, aeolian attrition and it is in semi-arid environments that substantial quantities of silt are produced. Silt is sometimes known as rock flour or stone dust, especially produced by glacial action. Mineralogically, silt is composed mainly of quartz and feldspar, sedimentary rock composed mainly of silt is known as siltstone. Liquefaction created by an earthquake is silt suspended in water that is hydrodynamically forced up from below ground level. In the Udden–Wentworth scale, silt particles range between 0.0039 and 0.0625 mm, larger than clay but smaller than sand particles, ISO14688 grades silts between 0.002 mm and 0.063 mm. In actuality, silt is chemically distinct from clay, and unlike clay, grains of silt are approximately the size in all dimensions, furthermore. Clays are formed from thin plate-shaped particles held together by electrostatic forces, according to the U. S. Department of Agriculture Soil Texture Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.05 mm particle size. The USDA system has been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization, in the Unified Soil Classification System and the AASHTO Soil Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.075 mm particle size. Silts and clays are distinguished mechanically by their plasticity, Silt is easily transported in water or other liquid and is fine enough to be carried long distances by air in the form of dust. Thick deposits of silty material resulting from deposition by aeolian processes are called loess. Silt and clay contribute to turbidity in water, Silt is transported by streams or by water currents in the ocean. When silt appears as a pollutant in water the phenomenon is known as siltation, Silt, deposited by annual floods along the Nile River, created the rich, fertile soil that sustained the Ancient Egyptian civilization. In south east Bangladesh, in the Noakhali district, cross dams were built in the 1960s whereby silt gradually started forming new land called chars, the district of Noakhali has gained more than 28 square miles of land in the past 50 years
22.
Soil
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Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and countless organisms that together support life on Earth. Soil is called the Skin of the Earth and interfaces with the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, literally translates ground stone. Soil consists of a phase of minerals and organic matter, as well as a porous phase that holds gases. Accordingly, soils are often treated as a system of solids, liquids. Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief, organisms, Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion. Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness soil has been considered as an ecosystem by soil ecologists. Most soils have a dry bulk density between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3, while the particle density is much higher. Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic, Soil science has two basic branches of study, edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things, pedology is focused on the formation, description, and classification of soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is referred to as regolith, or loose material that lies above the solid geology. Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt, technically, as soil resources serve as a basis for food security, the international community advocates its sustainable and responsible use through different types of soil governance. Soil is a component of the Earths ecosystem. The worlds ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming, to rainforest destruction. Following the atmosphere, the soil is the next largest carbon reservoir on Earth, as the planet warms, soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to its increased biological activity at higher temperatures. Thus, soil carbon losses likely have a positive feedback response to global warming. Since soil has a range of available niches and habitats. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial, Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 procaryotic organisms per milliliter of seawater. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil and this ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake
23.
Vegetation
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Vegetation is assemblages of plant species and the ground cover they provide. It is a term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life forms, structure, spatial extent. It is broader than the flora which refers to species composition. Perhaps the closest synonym is plant community, but vegetation can, primeval redwood forests, coastal mangrove stands, sphagnum bogs, desert soil crusts, roadside weed patches, wheat fields, cultivated gardens and lawns, all are encompassed by the term vegetation. The vegetation type is defined by characteristic dominant species, or an aspect of the assemblage. The contemporary use of vegetation approximates that of ecologist Frederic Clements term earth cover, Natural vegetation refers to plant life undisturbed by humans in its growth and which is controlled by the climatic conditions of that region. The distinction between vegetation and flora was first made by Jules Thurmann, prior to this, the two terms were used indiscriminately, and still are in some contexts. Augustin de Candolle also made a distinction, but he used the terms station and habitation. Later, the concept of vegetation would influence the usage of the term biome, other concepts similar to vegetation are physiognomy of vegetation and formation. Departing from Linnean taxonomy, Humboldt established a new science, dividing plant geography between taxonomists who studied plants as taxa and geographers who studied plants as vegetation. The physiognomic approach in the study of vegetation is common among biogeographers working on vegetation on a world scale, the concept vegetation type is more ambiguous. For some authors, it includes, besides physiognomy, floristic, furthermore, the phytosociological approach in the study of vegetation relies upon a fundamental unit, the plant association, which is defined upon flora. An influential, clear and simple scheme for types of vegetation was produced by Wagner & von Sydow. Like all the systems, plant communities are temporally and spatially dynamic. Dynamism in vegetation is defined primarily as changes in species composition and/or vegetation structure, temporally, a large number of processes or events can cause change, but for sake of simplicity they can be categorized roughly as either abrupt or gradual. Abrupt changes are referred to as disturbances, these include things like wildfires, high winds, landslides, floods, avalanches. Their causes are external to the community—they are natural processes occurring independently of the natural processes of the community. Such events can change vegetation structure and composition very quickly and for time periods
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Deciduous
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In a more general sense, deciduous means the dropping of a part that is no longer needed or falling away after its purpose is finished. In plants it is the result of natural processes, in botany and horticulture, deciduous plants, including trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials, are those that lose all of their leaves for part of the year. In some cases leaf loss coincides with winter—namely in temperate or polar climates, in other parts of the world, including tropical, subtropical, and arid regions, plants lose their leaves during the dry season or other seasons, depending on variations in rainfall. The converse of deciduous is coniferous, where foliage is shed on a different schedule from deciduous trees, plants that are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous, they lose old foliage as new growth begins. Other plants are semi-evergreen and lose their leaves before the growing season. Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, the absence of leaves improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants. This strategy is not without risks, as the flowers can be damaged by frost or, in dry season regions, leaf drop or abscission involves complex physiological signals and changes within plants. The process of photosynthesis steadily degrades the supply of chlorophylls in foliage, the brightest leaf colors are produced when days grow short and nights are cool, but remain above freezing. These other pigments include carotenoids that are yellow, brown, anthocyanin pigments produce red and purple colors, though they are not always present in the leaves. Rather, they are produced in the foliage in late summer, parts of the world that have showy displays of bright autumn colors are limited to locations where days become short and nights are cool. In other parts of the world, the leaves of deciduous trees simply fall off without turning the bright colors produced from the accumulation of anthocyanin pigments, the beginnings of leaf drop starts when an abscission layer is formed between the leaf petiole and the stem. This layer is formed in the spring during active new growth of the leaf, the cells are sensitive to a plant hormone called auxin that is produced by the leaf and other parts of the plant. The elongation of cells break the connection between the different cell layers, allowing the leaf to break away from the plant. It also forms a layer that seals the break, so the plant does not lose sap, in the spring, these proteins are used as a nitrogen source during the growth of new leaves or flowers. Plants with deciduous foliage have advantages and disadvantages compared to plants with evergreen foliage, evergreens suffer greater water loss during the winter and they also can experience greater predation pressure, especially when small. Losing leaves in winter may reduce damage from insects, repairing leaves, removing leaves also reduces cavitation which can damage xylem vessels in plants. This then allows deciduous plants to have xylem vessels with larger diameters, the deciduous characteristic has developed repeatedly among woody plants. Trees include maple, many oaks and nothofagus, elm, aspen, Deciduous shrubs include honeysuckle, viburnum, and many others
25.
Hectare
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The hectare is an SI accepted metric system unit of area equal to 100 ares and primarily used in the measurement of land as a metric replacement for the imperial acre. An acre is about 0.405 hectare and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres, in 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1⁄100 km2. When the metric system was further rationalised in 1960, resulting in the International System of Units, the are was not included as a recognised unit. The hectare, however, remains as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI units, the metric system of measurement was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889 when a new standard metre, manufactured by Johnson Matthey & Co of London was adopted, in 1960, when the metric system was updated as the International System of Units, the are did not receive international recognition. The units that were catalogued replicated the recommendations of the CGPM, many farmers, especially older ones, still use the acre for everyday calculations, and convert to hectares only for official paperwork. Farm fields can have long histories which are resistant to change, with names such as the six acre field stretching back hundreds of years. The names centiare, deciare, decare and hectare are derived by adding the standard metric prefixes to the base unit of area. The centiare is a synonym for one square metre, the deciare is ten square metres. The are is a unit of area, equal to 100 square metres and it was defined by older forms of the metric system, but is now outside of the modern International System of Units. It is commonly used to measure real estate, in particular in Indonesia, India, and in French-, Portuguese-, Slovakian-, Serbian-, Czech-, Polish-, Dutch-, in Russia and other former Soviet Union states, the are is called sotka. It is used to describe the size of suburban dacha or allotment garden plots or small city parks where the hectare would be too large, the decare is derived from deka, the prefix for 10 and are, and is equal to 10 ares or 1000 square metres. It is used in Norway and in the former Ottoman areas of the Middle East, the hectare, although not strictly a unit of SI, is the only named unit of area that is accepted for use within the SI. The United Kingdom, United States, Burma, and to some extent Canada instead use the acre, others, such as South Africa, published conversion factors which were to be used particularly when preparing consolidation diagrams by compilation. In many countries, metrication redefined or clarified existing measures in terms of metric units, non-SI units accepted for use with the International System of Units
26.
Floodplain
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In other words, a floodplain is an area near a river or a stream which floods when the water level reaches flood stage. Flood plains are made by a meander eroding sideways as it travels downstream, when a river breaks its banks and floods, it leaves behind layers of alluvium. These gradually build up to create the floor of the flood plain, floodplains generally contain unconsolidated sediments, often extending below the bed of the stream. These are accumulations of sand, gravel, loam, silt, and/or clay, and are often important aquifers, geologically ancient floodplains are often represented in the landscape by fluvial terraces. These are old floodplains that remain relatively high above the present floodplain and it is probable that any section of such an alluvial plain would show deposits of a similar character. The floodplain during its formation is marked by meandering or anastomotic streams, oxbow lakes and bayous, marshes or stagnant pools, and is occasionally completely covered with water. When the drainage system has ceased to act or is diverted for any reason. The floodplain differs, however, because it is not altogether flat and it has a gentle slope downstream, and often, for a distance, from the side towards the center. The floodplain is the place for a river to dissipate its energy. Meanders form over the floodplain to slow down the flow of water, in terms of flood management the upper part of the floodplain is crucial as this is where the flood water control starts. Artificial canalisation of the river here will have a impact on wider flooding. This is the basis of flood management. Floodplains can support particularly rich ecosystems, both in quantity and diversity, tugay forests form an ecosystem associated with floodplains, especially in Central Asia. They are a category of riparian zones or systems, a floodplain can contain 100 or even 1,000 times as many species as a river. Microscopic organisms thrive and larger species enter a rapid breeding cycle, opportunistic feeders move in to take advantage. The production of nutrients peaks and falls away quickly, however the surge of new growth endures for some time and this makes floodplains particularly valuable for agriculture. River flow rates are undergoing change following suit with climate change and this change is a threat to the riparian zones and other flood plain forests. These forests have over time synced their seedling deposits after the peaks in flow to best take advantage of the nutrient rich soil generated by peak flow
27.
Thuja occidentalis
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The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, and the binomial name remains current. Common names include, The name arborvitae is particularly used in the trade in the United States. It is Latin for tree of life - due to the medicinal properties of the sap, bark. Despite its common names, it is not a cedar in the genus Cedrus, nor is it related to the Australian white cedar. The tree is often stunted or prostrate in less favorable locations, the bark is red-brown, furrowed and peels in narrow, longitudinal strips. Northern white-cedar has fan-like branches and scaly leaves, the foliage forms in flat sprays with scale-like leaves 3–5 millimetres long. The seed cones are slender, yellow-green, ripening to brown, 9–14 millimetres long and 4–5 millimetres broad and they contain about 8 seeds each. The branches may root if the tree falls. Northern white-cedar is native to an area in the part of eastern Canada. It extends from southeastern Manitoba east throughout the Great Lakes region and into Ontario, Québec, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, in Canada, its range reaches the Arctic treeline and the southern tip of Hudson Bay. It grows mainly in places with cooler summers, with an average of 16 to 22 °C in July, northern white-cedar grows naturally in wet forests, being particularly abundant in coniferous swamps where other larger and faster-growing trees cannot compete successfully. It also occurs on sites with reduced tree competition, such as cliffs. The largest known specimen is 34 m tall and 175 cm diameter, on South Manitou Island within Leelanau County, despite their age, these very old trees are small and stunted due to the difficult growing conditions. White-cedar specimens found growing on cliff faces in southern Ontario are the oldest trees in Eastern North America and all of Canada, white-cedar is a tree with important uses in traditional Ojibwe culture. Honored with the name Nookomis Giizhik, the tree is the subject of sacred legends and is considered a gift to humanity for its uses, among them crafts, construction. It is one of the four plants of the Ojibwe medicine wheel, white-cedar foliage is rich in Vitamin C and is believed to be the annedda which cured the scurvy of Jacques Cartier and his party in the winter of 1535–1536. Due to the presence of the neurotoxic compound thujone, internal use can be harmful if used for prolonged periods or while pregnant, northern white-cedar is commercially used for rustic fencing and posts, lumber, poles, shingles and in the construction of log cabins. White-cedar is the wood for the structural elements, such as ribs and planking, of birchbark canoes
28.
Tsuga canadensis
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It is the state tree of Pennsylvania. The eastern hemlock grows well in shade and is long lived, with the oldest recorded specimen, found in Tionesta, Pennsylvania. The tree generally reaches heights of about 31 meters, but exceptional trees have been recorded up to 53 meters, the diameter of the trunk at breast height is often 1.5 meters, but again, outstanding trees have been recorded up to 1.75 meters. The trunk is straight and monopodial, but very rarely is forked. The crown is conic, while the brownish bark is scaly and deeply fissured. The twigs are a yellow-brown in colour with darker red-brown pulvini, the buds are ovoid in shape and are very small, measuring only 1.5 to 2.5 mm in length. These are usually not resinous, but may be slightly so, the leaves are typically 15 to 20 mm in length, but may be as short as 5 mm or as long as 25 mm. They are flattened and are typically distichous, or two-ranked, the bottom of the leaf is glaucous with two broad and clearly visible stomatal bands, while the top is a shiny green to yellow-green in colour. The leaf margins are slightly toothed, especially near the apex. The seed cones are ovoid in shape and typically measure 1.5 to 2.5 cm in length and 1 to 1.5 cm in width. The scales are ovate to cuneate in shape and measure 8 to 12 mm in length by 7 to 10 mm in width, the apex is more or less rounded and is often projected outward. Twenty-four diploid chromosomes are present within the trees DNA, the wood is soft, coarse-grained, and light buff in color. Air-dried, a cubic foot weighs 28 lbs, the lumber is used for general construction and crates. Because of its power of holding spikes, it is also used for railroad ties. Untreated, the wood is not durable if exposed to the elements, as a fuel, it is low in value. The wood is also a source of pulp for paper manufacturing, T. canadensis occurs at sea level in the north of its distribution, but is found primarily at elevations of 600–1,800 metres. It ranges from northeastern Minnesota eastward through southern Quebec and into Nova Scotia, disjunct populations occur in the southeastern Piedmont, western Ohio and into Illinois, as well as eastern Minnesota. In Canada, it is present in Ontario and all provinces to the east except Newfoundland, in the USA, it is found in all states east of and including Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee and Alabama, but excluding Florida
29.
Acer saccharum
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Sugar maple is best known for its bright fall foliage and for being the primary source of maple syrup. Acer saccharum is a tree normally reaching heights of 25–35 m. A 10-year-old tree is typically about 5 m tall, when healthy, the sugar maple can live for over 400 years. The leaves are deciduous, up to 20 cm long and equally wide, the basal lobes are relatively small, while the upper lobes are larger and deeply notched. In contrast with the angular notching of the maple, however. The fall color is often spectacular, ranging from yellow through orange to fluorescent red-orange. Sugar maples also have a tendency to color unevenly in fall, in some trees, all colors above can be seen at the same time. They also share a tendency with red maples for certain parts of a tree to change color weeks ahead of or behind the remainder of the tree. The leaf buds are pointy and brown-colored, the recent years growth twigs are green, and turn dark brown. The flowers are in panicles of five to 10 together, yellow-green and without petals, the sugar maple will generally begin flowering when it is between 10 and 15 years old. The fruit is a pair of samaras, the seeds are globose, 7–10 mm in diameter, the wing 2–3 cm long. The seeds fall from the tree in autumn, where they must be exposed to 90 days of temperatures below −18 °C to break their coating down. Germination of A. saccharum is slow, not taking place until the spring when the soil has warmed. It is closely related to the maple, which is sometimes included in this species. The western American bigtooth maple is also treated as a variety or subspecies of sugar maple by some botanists, the sugar maple is also often confused with the Norway maple, though they are not closely related within the genus. The sugar maple is most easily identified by clear sap in the petiole, brown, sharp-tipped buds. Also, the lobes of the sugar maple have a more triangular shape. The sugar maple is an important species to the ecology of many forests in the northern United States
30.
Fraxinus americana
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Fraxinus americana is a species of ash tree native to eastern and central North America. It is found in hardwood forests from Nova Scotia west to Minnesota, south to northern Florida. Isolated populations have also found in western Texas, Wyoming and Colorado. The name White Ash derives from the undersides of the leaves. It is similar in appearance to the Green Ash, making identification difficult, the lower sides of the leaves of White Ash are lighter in color than their upper sides, and the outer surface of the twigs of White Ash may be flaky or peeling. Green Ash leaves are similar in color on upper and lower sides, White ash is one of the most used trees for everyday purposes and, to keep up with high demand, is cultivated almost everywhere it can be. The wood is white and quite dense, strong, and straight-grained and it is the timber of choice for production of baseball bats and tool handles. The wood is also favorable for furniture and flooring, woodworkers use the timber mainly for interior uses due to high perishability in contact with ground soil. It is also used to make lobster traps, since the 1950s, it has also become a popular choice for solid electric guitar bodies. It makes a very servicable longbow if properly worked, the wood was used in ceiling fan blades from the 1970s through the mid-1980s, though cane was sometimes simulated with plastic then. It is no used for ceiling fan blades in most countries. The tree has a mast crop every 11 years and is easy to plant. A related species, Biltmore Ash, is treated as a variety of White Ash. However, other taxonomists argue that Biltmore Ash is its own species, the emerald ash borer, also commonly known by the acronym EAB, is a green beetle native to Asia. In North America the emerald ash borer is an invasive species, the damage of this insect rivals that of Chestnut blight and Dutch Elm Disease. To put its damage in perspective, the number of killed by the Chestnut blight was around 3.5 billion chestnut trees while there are 3.5 billion ash trees in Ohio alone. Dutch Elm Disease killed only 200 million elm trees while EAB threatens 7.5 billion ash trees in the United States, the insect threatens the entire North American genus Fraxinus, while past invasive tree pests have only threatened a single species within a genus. Since its accidental introduction into the United States and Canada in the 1990s and it has killed at least 50 million ash trees so far and threatens to kill most of the ash trees throughout North America
31.
Wetland
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A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants. Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment, principally water purification, flood control, carbon sink, Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica, the largest including the Amazon River basin, the West Siberian Plain, the water found in wetlands can be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater. The main wetland types include swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens, and sub-types include mangrove, carr, pocosin, the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth. International conservation efforts are being used in conjunction with the development of rapid assessment tools to people about wetland issues. Constructed wetlands can be used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater runoff and they may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design. A patch of land that develops pools of water after a storm would not be considered a wetland. Wetlands have unique characteristics, they are distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants. A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil, Wetlands have also been described as ecotones, providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. A wetland is an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic processes, There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh, swamp, bog and fen. Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types, the largest wetlands in the world include the swamp forests of the Amazon and the peatlands of Siberia. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty, wetlands are defined as follows, Article 2.1, may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands. Although the general definition given above applies around the world, each county, Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas. This definition has been used in the enforcement of the Clean Water Act, some US states, such as Massachusetts and New York, have separate definitions that may differ from the federal governments. It is not uncommon for a wetland to be dry for long portions of the growing season, the most important factor producing wetlands is flooding
32.
Macrophyte
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A macrophyte is an aquatic plant that grows in or near water and is either emergent, submergent, or floating, and includes helophytes. In lakes and rivers macrophytes provide cover for fish and substrate for aquatic invertebrates, produce oxygen, fringing stands of tall vegetation by water basins and rivers may include helophytes. Examples include stands of Equisetum fluviatile, Glyceria maxima, Hippuris vulgaris, Sagittaria, Carex, Schoenoplectus, Sparganium, Acorus, yellow flag, Typha, an emergent plant is one which grows in water but which pierces the surface so that it is partially in air. Collectively, such plants are emergent vegetation, the emergent habit permits pollination by wind or by flying insects. There are many species of emergent plants, among them, the reed, Cyperus papyrus, Typha species, flowering rush and these may be found growing in fens but usually less well owing to competition from other plants. Some species, such as purple loosestrife, may grow in water as emergent plants, a decline in a macrophyte community may indicate water quality problems and changes in the ecological status of the water body. Such problems may be the result of excessive turbidity, herbicides, conversely, overly high nutrient levels may create an overabundance of macrophytes, which may in turn interfere with lake processing. Macrophyte levels are easy to sample, do not require laboratory analysis, hot water extracts of the stem and root of Ludwigia adscendens, as well as those of the fruit, leaf and stem of Monochoria hastata were found to have lipoxygenase inhibitory activity. Hot water extract prepared from the leaf of Ludwigia adscendens exhibits alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity more potent than that of acarbose, microphyte Aquatic Plant Monitoring in the State of Washington
33.
Vaughan
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Vaughan is a city in Ontario, Canada. It is within the region of York, just north of Toronto, Vaughan was the fastest-growing municipality in Canada between 1996 and 2006, achieving a population growth rate of 80. 2% according to Statistics Canada having nearly doubled in population since 1991. It is the fifth-largest city in the Greater Toronto Area, in the late pre-contact period, the Huron-Wendat people populated what is today Vaughan. The Skandatut ancestral Huron village overlooked the east branch of the Humber River and was home to approximately 2000 Huron in the sixteenth century. The township was named after Benjamin Vaughan, a British commissioner who signed a treaty with the United States in 1783. Despite the hardships of life, settlers came to Vaughan in considerable numbers. The population grew from 19 men,5 women, and 30 children in 1800 to 4,300 in 1840, the first people to arrive were mainly Pennsylvania Germans, with a smaller number of families of English descent and a group of French Royalists. This migration from the United States was by 1814 superseded by immigrants from Britain, while many of their predecessors had been agriculturalists, the newer immigrants proved to be highly skilled tradespeople, which would prove useful for a growing community. Vaughan changed little in its history, from the 1840s when the number of inhabitants stood at 4,300 to 1935 when it had 4,873 residents. However, World War II sparked an influx of immigration, and by 1960, as well, the ethno-cultural composition of the area began to change with the arrival of different groups such as Italians, Jews and Eastern Europeans. Incorporated in 1850 as Vaughan Township, a government was established. In 1991, it changed its legal status to City of Vaughan. An F2 tornado tore through the city of Vaughan during the Southern Ontario Tornado Outbreak on August 20,2009. Premier Dalton McGuinty and Mayor Linda Jackson toured the destruction the day and reported 200 homes in critical shape. The tornado also ripped up trees, flipped cars, and left thousands of people without power, Vaughan declared a state of emergency because of the widespread damage. One man injured in the storm suffered an attack the following morning. Vaughan City Council has nine members, the mayor, three councillors, and five local councillors. The mayor, elected at large, is the head of Vaughan council, the three regional councillors are elected to represent Vaughan at both local and regional levels of government
34.
Acer negundo
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Acer negundo is a species of maple native to North America. Box elder, boxelder maple, ash-leaved maple, and maple ash are its most common names in the United States, in Britain, indicative of its familiarity to many people over a large geographic range, A. negundo has numerous common names. The names box elder and boxelder maple are based upon the similarity of its wood to that of boxwood. This is the only North American maple with compound leaves, though several Asian species also have them. Other common names are based upon this maples similarity to ash, its environment, its sugary sap, a description of its leaves, its binomial name. These names include ash-, cut-, or three-leaf maple, ash maple, sugar ash, Negundo maple, in Canada it is commonly known as Manitoba maple and occasionally as elf maple. In Russia it is called American maple as well as ash-leaf maple, common names may also designate a particular subspecies. For example, a name for A. negundo subsp. Interius may be preceded by inland, a common name for A. negundo subsp. Californicum may be preceded by California or western, Acer negundo is a usually fast-growing and fairly short-lived tree that grows up to 10–25 meters tall, with a trunk diameter of 30–50 centimeters, rarely up to 1 meter diameter. It often has several trunks and can form impenetrable thickets, the shoots are green, often with a whitish to pink or violet waxy coating when young. Branches are smooth, somewhat brittle, and tend to retain a fresh green colour rather than forming a bark of dead, the bark on its trunks is pale gray or light brown, deeply cleft into broad ridges, and scaly. Unlike most other maples, Acer negundo has pinnately compound leaves that usually have three to seven leaflets, simple leaves are also occasionally present, technically, these are single-leaflet compound leaves. Although some other maples have trifoliate leaves, only A. negundo regularly displays more than three leaflets, the leaflets are about 5–10 centimeters long and 3–7 centimeters wide with slightly serrate margins. Leaves have a translucent light green color and turn yellow in the fall, the flowers are small and appear in early spring on drooping racemes 10–20 centimeters long. The fruits are paired samaras, each seed slender, 1–2 centimeters long, with a 2–3 centimeters incurved wing, seeds are usually both prolific and fertile. Unlike most other maples, A. negundo is fully dioecious, winter buds, Terminal buds acute, an eighth of an inch long. The inner scales enlarge when spring begins and often become an inch long before they fall
35.
Ulmus americana
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The American elm is an extremely hardy tree that can withstand winter temperatures as low as −42 °C. Trees in areas unaffected by Dutch elm disease can live for several hundred years, for over 80 years, U. americana has been identified as a tetraploid, i. e. having double the usual number of chromosomes, making it unique within the genus. However, a study published in 2011 by the Agricultural Research Service of the USDA revealed that about 20% of wild American elms are diploid, and may even constitute another species. Moreover, several trees known only in cultivation, such as Jefferson, are possessed of a high degree of resistance to Dutch elm disease which ravaged American elms in the 20th century. This suggests that the parent trees, which have markedly smaller cells than the tetraploid. Ulmus americana was first described and named by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum, no subspecies or varieties are currently recognized within the species. The leaves are alternate, 7–20 cm long, with double-serrate margins, the perfect flowers are small, purple-brown and, being wind-pollinated, apetalous. The flowers are protogynous, the female parts maturing before the male, thus reducing, but not eliminating, self-fertilization. The fruit is a flat samara 2 cm long by 1.5 cm broad, as in the closely related European White Elm Ulmus laevis, the flowers and seeds are borne on 1–3 cm long stems. American Elm is wholly insensitive to daylight length, and will continue to grow well into autumn until injured by frost, on more elevated terrain, as in the Appalachian Mountains, it is most often found along rivers. The species wind-dispersed seeds enable it to spread rapidly as suitable areas of habitat become available, American elm produces its seed crop in late spring and the seeds usually germinate right away with no cold stratification needed. A sugar maple-ironwood-American elm cover type occurs on some hilltops near Témiscaming, the leaves of the American elm serve as food for the larvae of various lepidopterans. The American elm is susceptible to Dutch elm disease and elm yellows. In north America, there are three species of elm bark beetles, one native, Hylurgopinus rufipes, and two invasive, Scolytus multistriatus and Scolytus schevyrewi, although intensive feeding by elm bark beetles can kill weakened trees, their main impact is as vectors of DED. U. americana is also the most susceptible of all the elms to verticillium wilt, however, the condition is far less serious, and afflicted trees should recover the following year. Dutch elm disease is a disease which has ravaged the American elm. It has been estimated that only approximately 1 in 100,000 American elm trees is DED-tolerant, however, in some areas still not populated by Dutch elm disease, the American elm continues to thrive, notably in Florida, Alberta and British Columbia. Spores introduced outside of this period remain largely static within the xylem and are relatively ineffective
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