1.
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
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Hamad bin Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa is the 1st King of Bahrain, having previously been its 2nd Emir. He is the son of Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, the previous, the country has been ruled by the Al Khalifa dynasty since 1783. Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa was born on 28 January 1950 in Riffa and his parents were Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, then Crown Prince, and Hessa bint Salman Al Khalifa. After attending Manama secondary school in Bahrain, Hamad was sent to England to attend Applegarth College in Godalming, Hamad then underwent military training, first with the British Army at Mons Officer Cadet School at Aldershot in Hampshire, graduating in September 1968. Four years later, in June 1972, Hamad attended the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, Hamad was designated as heir apparent by his father on 27 June 1964. In 1968, he was appointed as the chairman of the irrigation council, in 1970, Hamad became the head of the Bahraini department of defence and the vice-chairman of the administrative council, remaining in both offices until 1971. From 1971 to 1988 he was the minister of state for defence, in October 1977, Hamad started learning to fly helicopters, successfully completing the training in January 1978. He then worked to establish the Bahrain Amiri Air Force, which came into being in 1987 when the defence force air wing was reconstituted as an air force, on the death of his father Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, Hamad became Emir of Bahrain on 6 March 1999. As Emir, Hamad brought several political reforms to Bahrain and these included the release of all political prisoners, the dissolution of the State Security Court and the abolition of the 1974 Decree on State Security Measures. Additionally, many Bahraini citizens were permitted to return several years in exile overseas. In 2002, he declared himself king, after Hamad took power in 1999, he focused on attaining stability in a nation riddled with profound tensions after the 1990s uprising. The King succeeded in improving the standards and in making Bahrain a financial hub. Although King Hamads reign has seen the admittance of Shiites into positions in the government, there have still been calls for an equitable distribution of positions. Also, the vast majority of significant positions in the Bahrain Defence Force are filled with Sunnis, King Hamad claims that he is giving an equal chance to all Bahrainis regardless of their sect. Opposition parties denounced the accusations and described it as propaganda, the Bahrain government responded with what has been described as a brutal crackdown on the protests, including violations of human rights that caused anger. Later on, demonstrators demanded that Hamad step down, as a result of this massive crackdown, Foreign Policy Magazine classified him as ranking 3rd out of 8 of Americas Unsavory Allies calling him one of the bad guys the U. S. still supports. On 11 February 2011, King Hamad ordered that 1,000 Bahraini Dinars be given to family to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the National Action Charter referendum. Agence France-Presse linked the BD1,000 payments to 14 February demonstration plans, on 15 February 2011, Hamad apologized for the deaths of two demonstrators in a rare TV speech and urged an investigation into the incident
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
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Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa حمد بن عيسى آل خليفة
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
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The Leys School, Cambridge
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
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King Hamad with
Donald H. Rumsfeld
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
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President
George W. Bush welcomes Hamad to the
Oval Office on 29 November 2004
2.
Heir apparent
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An heir apparent or heiress apparent is a person who is first in line of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person. An heir presumptive, by contrast, is someone who is first in line to inherit a title, today these terms most commonly describe heirs to hereditary titles, particularly monarchies. They are also used metaphorically to indicate an anointed successor to any position of power, in France the title was le Dauphin. See crown prince for more examples and this article primarily describes the term heir apparent in a hereditary system regulated by laws of primogeniture—as opposed to cases where a monarch has a say in naming the heir. An heir presumptive, by contrast, can always be bumped down in the succession by the birth of more closely related in a legal sense to the current title-holder. The clearest example occurs in the case of a title-holder with no children, if at any time he or she were to produce children, they rank ahead of whatever more distant relative had been heir presumptive. Many legal systems assume childbirth is always possible regardless of age or health, in such circumstances a person may be, in a practical sense, the heir apparent but still, legally speaking, heir presumptive. Adelaide was 44 at the time, so pregnancy was even if unlikely. Daughters may inherit titles that descend according to male-preference primogeniture, thus, normally, even an only daughter will not be heir apparent, since at any time a brother might be born who, though younger, would assume that position. Hence, she is an heir presumptive, for example, Queen Elizabeth II was heir presumptive during the reign of her father, King George VI, because at any stage up to his death, George could have fathered a legitimate son. In a system of absolute primogeniture that disregards gender, female heirs apparent occur, several European monarchies that have adopted such systems in the last few decades furnish practical examples. Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway is heir apparent to her father, Victoria was not heir apparent from birth, but gained the status in 1980 following a change in the Swedish Act of Succession. Her younger brother Carl Philip was thus heir apparent for a few months, then, as the representative of her fathers line she would assume a place ahead of any more distant relatives. Such a situation has not to date occurred with the English or British throne, several times an heir apparent has died, however, there have been several female heirs apparent to British peerages. In one special case, however, England and Scotland had an heir apparent. William, by contrast, was to reign for life only, thus, although after Marys death William continued to reign, he had no power to beget direct heirs, and Anne became the heir apparent for the remainder of Williams reign. She eventually succeeded him as Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland, the position of an heir apparent is normally unshakable, it can be assumed they will inherit. Sometimes, however, extraordinary events—such as the death or the deposition of the parent—intervene
Heir apparent
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Throngs before the
Imperial Palace in Japan awaiting the appearance of the
Crown Prince Hirohito for the recent proclamation of his official recognition as the heir apparent to the
Japanese Imperial Throne – New York Times, 1916.
3.
Bahrain
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Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is a small Arab monarchy in the Persian Gulf. Bahrains population is 1,234,567, including 666,172 non-nationals and it is 780 km2 in size, making it the third smallest nation in Asia after the Maldives and Singapore. Bahrain is the site of the ancient Dilmun civilisation and it has been famed since antiquity for its pearl fisheries, which were considered the best in the world into the 19th century. Bahrain was one of the earliest areas to convert to Islam, following a period of Arab rule, Bahrain was occupied by the Portuguese in 1521, who in turn were expelled in 1602 by Shah Abbas I of the Safavid dynasty under the Persian Empire. In 1783, the Bani Utbah clan captured Bahrain from Nasr Al-Madhkur and it has since been ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family, in the late 1800s, following successive treaties with the British, Bahrain became a protectorate of the United Kingdom. Formerly a state, Bahrain was declared a Kingdom in 2002, in 2011, the country experienced protests inspired by the regional Arab Spring. Bahrain had the first post-oil economy in the Persian Gulf, since the late 20th century, Bahrain has invested in the banking and tourism sectors. Many large financial institutions have a presence in Manama, the countrys capital, Bahrain has a high Human Development Index and was recognised by the World Bank as a high income economy. In Arabic, Bahrayn is the form of bahr, so al-Bahrayn means the two seas, although which two seas were originally intended remains in dispute. The term appears five times in the Quran, but does not refer to the modern island—originally known to the Arabs as Awal— but rather to all of Eastern Arabia. Today, Bahrains two seas are generally taken to be the bay east and west of the island. In addition to wells, there are areas of the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the water as noted by visitors since antiquity. An alternate theory with regard to Bahrains toponymy is offered by the al-Ahsa region, another supposition by al-Jawahari suggests that the more formal name Bahri would have been misunderstood and so was opted against. Until the late Middle Ages, Bahrain referred to the region of Eastern Arabia that included Southern Iraq, Kuwait, Al-Hasa, Qatif, the region stretched from Basra in Iraq to the Strait of Hormuz in Oman. This was Iqlīm al-Bahrayns Bahrayn Province, the exact date at which the term Bahrain began to refer solely to the Awal archipelago is unknown. The entire coastal strip of Eastern Arabia was known as Bahrain for a millennium, the island and kingdom were also commonly spelled Bahrein into the 1950s. Bahrain was home to the Dilmun civilization, an important Bronze Age trade centre linking Mesopotamia, Bahrain was later ruled by the Assyrians and Babylonians. From the 6th to 3rd century BC, Bahrain was part of the Persian Empire ruled by the Achaemenian dynasty, by about 250 BC, Parthia brought the Persian Gulf under its control and extended its influence as far as Oman
Bahrain
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Arad Fort in
Arad; constructed before the Portuguese assumed control.
Bahrain
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Flag
Bahrain
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Bahrain harbor, c. 1870.
Bahrain
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A photograph of the First Oil Well in Bahrain, with oil first being extracted in 1931
4.
Politics of Bahrain
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Politics of Bahrain takes place since 2002 in a framework of a constitutional monarchy where the government is appointed by the King of Bahrain, King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. The parliament is a legislature, with the Chamber of Deputies elected by universal suffrage. MP Khalifa Al Dhahrani is the Speaker of Parliament, in 1973, the ruler, Sheikh Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifa, instituted reforms based on a constitution. The constitution enshrined the hereditary leadership on the family and called for the establishment of a 44‑member National Assembly. Thirty members were elected by voters and 14 were appointed by the ruler. The security laws granted state authorities extraordinary powers to arrest and detain suspects deemed to threaten national security, a bloc formed within the National Assembly which was opposed to the security laws and the manner in which the government imposed the law. The crisis came to a head in August 1975 when Sheikh Isa dissolved the National Assembly, an elected representative body was not reintroduced until the rule of Sheikh Isa’s son, Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. The first poll was held in 2002, with MPs serving four‑year terms, parliamentary elections took place on 26 October 2002 with the new legislature, the National Assembly, beginning work the following month. Shura members have responded by pointing out that an upper chamber is a feature of long established democracies such as the United Kingdom. Democratisation has greatly enhanced clerical influence, through the ability of leaders to deliver the votes of their congregations to candidates. The opening up of politics has seen big gains for both Shī´a and Sunnī Islamic parties in elections, which has given them a platform to pursue their policies. Bahraini liberals have responded to the power of religious parties by organising themselves to campaign through civil society to defend basic personal freedoms from being legislated away. In November 2005, al Muntada, a grouping of liberal academics, launched We Have A Right, womens political rights in Bahrain saw an important step forward when women were granted the right to vote and stand in national elections for the first time in the 2002 election. However, no women were elected to office in that year’s polls and instead Shī´a and Sunnī Islamic parties dominated the election, collectively winning a majority of seats. In response to the failure of women candidates, six were appointed to the Shura Council, the King created the Supreme Judicial Council in 2000 to regulate the countrys courts and institutionalize the separation of the administrative and judicial branches of government. The King is the head of the council, on 11–12 November 2005, Bahrain hosted the Forum for the Future bringing together leaders from the Middle East and G8 countries to discuss political and economic reform in the region. Critics allege that the government is seeking to use the Shura Council as a bulwark to prevent clerical domination of politics. Dominated by Islamic and tribal MPs, liberals have criticised the lower house for trying to impose a social agenda
Politics of Bahrain
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Bahrain
5.
Constitution of Bahrain
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Bahrain has had two constitutions in its modern history. The first one was promulgated in 1973, and the one in 2002. Full text of the 1973 constitution The constitution of 1973 was written shortly after Bahrains independence from Britain in 1971. In 1972, the then ruler Shaikh Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa issued a decree providing for the election of a Constituent Assembly that would be responsible for drafting and ratifying the constitution, the electorate of the constituent assembly was native-born male citizens aged twenty years or older. The constituent assembly consisted of elected delegates, plus the twelve members of the Council of Ministers. The constitution was enacted by amiri decree in December 1973, only one parliamentary election was ever held under the 1973 Constitution before it was abrogated by the emir Shaikh Isa in 1975. The country was governed under emergency laws from 1975 to 2002, full text of the 2002 constitution After the death of the Amir Shaikh Isa Al Khalifa in 1999, his throne was taken over by his son Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. Seeking to bring an end to the 1990s uprising in Bahrain, he announced a new set of democratic reforms, in 2001 His Majesty King Hamad put forward the National Action Charter which would return the country to constitutional rule. However the opposition was opposed to the Charters call for an amendment to the 1973 Constitution, the opposition groups deemed this statement to be too ambiguous, and remained opposed to the Charter. His Majesty King Hamad responded by holding a highly publicized meeting with the leaders of the Shia Islamist opposition. He signed a document clarifying that only the lower house of the parliament would have legislative power. Upon this assurance, the opposition groups accepted the Charter. The Charter was accepted in the 2001 referendum with 98. 4% voting Yes for it and this amendment has taken account of all the lofty values and the great human principles enshrined in the National Action Charter. Thus these constitutional amendments are representative of the advanced cultural thought of our beloved nation and we have attached an explanation memorandum which will be used to explain its judgement. §Chapter I The State §Article 1 a, the Kingdom of Bahrain is a fully sovereign, independent Islamic Arab State whose population is part of the Arab nation and whose territory is part of the great Arab homeland. Its sovereignty may not be assigned or any of its territory abandoned, the system of government in the Kingdom of Bahrain is democratic, sovereignty being in the hands of the people, the source of all powers. Sovereignty shall be exercised in the manner stated in this Constitution, no citizen can be deprived of the right to vote or to nominate oneself for elections except by law. This Constitution may be amended only partly, and in the manner provided herein, §Article 2 The religion of the State is Islam
Constitution of Bahrain
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Bahrain
6.
Human rights in Bahrain
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Bahrains record on human rights has been described by Human Rights Watch as dismal, and having deteriorated sharply in the latter half of 2010. The government of Bahrain has marginalized the native Shia Muslim population, torture and forced disappearances are common in Bahrain. The crackdown on protesters during the 2011 Arab Spring has brought further human rights complaints, the report was released on 23 November of that year and confirmed that there were some incidents of physical and psychological abuse on detainees. It has been criticized for not disclosing the names of individual perpetrators of abuses, there is a growing problem of stateless people, known as Bedoon, who are descendants of Iranians who have lived in Bahrain for many decades. Most of Bahrains stateless are Muslims, some of Bahrains stateless are Christians, in Bahrain, stateless people are denied the right to hold legal residency, are not allowed the right to travel abroad, buy houses, and to hold government jobs. They are also not allowed to own land, start a business, recently, the Bahraini government issued regulations preventing them from sending their children to public schools and to receive free medical care. The stateless can also get deported at any time, since the beginning of the 1980s, the Bahraini government has deported hundreds of Bedoon to Iran. Despite repeated government claims of improvement over the course of several years, according to a 2011 report by Human Rights Watch, between 2007 and 2009, the government regularly practiced torture and ill-treatment in interrogating security suspects. Although government spokesmen have issued denials, there is no evidence of criminal investigations, in 2011, Human Rights Watch claimed to have found evidence that protections for migrant workers have improved. Majority of the population of Bahrain are Shia Muslims. The ruling Sunni Al Khalifa family, who are supported by the UK, Shiites alleged that the Al Khalifa failed to gain legitimacy in Bahrain and established a system of political apartheid based on racial, sectarian, and tribal discrimination. Vali Nasr, an expert on Middle East and Islamic world said For Shiites. According to The Christian Science Monitor, Bahrain is practicing a form of apartheid by not allowing Shiites to hold key government posts or serve in the police or military. In fact, the security forces are staffed by Sunnis from Syria and Pakistan who also get fast-tracked to Bahraini citizenship, much to the displeasure of the indigenous Shiite population. According to the Bahrain Centre for Human Rights, while the Shiites exceeds 70% of the population, in several government ministries and corporations no Shiite is appointed in leading jobs. Jobs in the police and armed forced are reserved for Sunni, Sunni Saudis are admitted to Bahrain as citizens to fill these jobs. Shiites and some Sunnis of Persian origins, are banned from residing in the city of Riffa, there are also concerns of the Bahraini governments systematic efforts to diminish the Shia majority by promotion of immigration of Sunni Muslims and granting them citizenship. According to Dr. Saeeid Shahabi, a London-based journalist, there is the problem of political naturalization, the ruling family -- similar to the Apartheid regime in South Africa, where you had a minority ruling a majority -- wants to change the demographic situation of the country
Human rights in Bahrain
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Bahrain
7.
House of Khalifa
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The House of Khalifa is the royal family of Bahrain. The Al Khalifas profess Sunni Islam of the Maliki sect, the current head is Hamad bin Isa, who became the Emir of Bahrain in 1999 and via the National Action Charter which obtained the support of 98. 4% of the people. Bahrain was declared a Kingdom and Hamad bin Isa became the King of Bahrain in 2002, decisions pertaining to the Al Khalifa family, as well as disputes between family members are arbitrated by the Ruling Family Council. The council attends to family disputes particularly those related to appropriation of land, sale of real estate. Members of the family are not allowed to refer these or other disputes to ordinary law courts. Relations between the leadership and the rest of the rank and file members of the Al Khalifa ruling family have been formally managed by the council since 1932. The Ruling Family Council is currently chaired by King Hamad, its Deputy Chairman is Mohammed bin Khalifa bin Hamad Al Khalifa, and the Director General is Ibrahim bin Khalid bin Mohammed Al Khalifa. The King appoints the members of the board of the Ruling Family Council as recognised representatives of various kingship lines, Al Khalifa is commonly mistranscribed al-Khalifa. The Al written with the long alif is unconnected to the word and means house, in the sense of family or dynasty
House of Khalifa
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Al Khalifa
8.
Cabinet of Bahrain
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The Cabinet of Bahrain is the chief executive body of the Kingdom of Bahrain. According to Article 32 of the 2002 Constitution, executive authority is vested in the King together with the Council of Ministers and Ministers, the Council of Ministers is appointed directly by the King. Bahrain has had only one Prime Minister since the independence in 1971, Khalifah ibn Sulman al-Khalifah. The Ministry of Housing was given to current Labour Minister Dr Majeed Al Alwai, the Ministry of Health was given to current Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Dr Nazar Al Baharna. Executive Chairman of Operation at the Bahrain Development Board Kamal Ahmed was given the post of Minister of State for Cabinet Affairs. The Ministry of Oil and Gas joined the Electricity and Water Authority and was named the Ministry of Energy under Minister of Oil, in March 2013, Crown Prince Salman was appointed first deputy prime minister. In December 2014, a reshuffle was made for the fourth legislative term. This reshuffle saw the removal of Ministers of State, the removal of the Ministry of Culture, some portfolio changes were made as well. In March and June 2016, minor reshuffling was made again
Cabinet of Bahrain
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Bahrain
9.
Khalifa ibn Salman Al Khalifa
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Prince Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa has been the Prime Minister of Bahrain from 1970, taking office nearly two years before Bahrains independence on 15 August 1971. He is the current prime minister in the world. He still retains his post, although under the 2002 Constitution he has lost some of his powers, with the King having the authority to appoint and he is the paternal uncle of the reigning King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. Prince Khalifa was born in Bahrain, the son of Salman ibn Hamad Al Khalifa, Hakim of Bahrain. He was educated at Manama High School and Rifa’a Palace School in Bahrain, Prince Khalifa was a member of the education council from 1956 to 1957 and chair between 1957 and 1960. Prince Khalifa was appointed as minister by his brother Emir Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa. Therefore, he was assigned the control of government and economy, while his brother, in 2011, reporter Bill Law stated that Prince Khalifa is hardliner, whereas Crown Prince Salman is reformer and the King is somewhere in the middle of them. Prince Khalifa married his cousin Sheikha Hessa bint Ali Al Khalifa and they had three sons and one daughter, Sheikh Mohammad bin Khalifa Al Khalifa. Sheikh Ali bin Khalifa Al Khalifa – Deputy Prime Minister and he married Sheikha Zayn bint Khalid Al Khalifa with whom he has three sons and one daughter, Sheikh Khalifa bin Ali Al Khalifa. Sheikh Isa bin Ali Al Khalifa, Sheikha Minwa bint Ali Al Khalifa. Sheikh Khalid bin Ali Al Khalifa, Sheikh Salman bin Khalifa Al Khalifa. Sheikha Lulwa bint Khalifa Al Khalifa – honorary president of the Al Noor beneficence society and she married Sheikh Rashid bin Khalifa Al Khalifa, artist and patron of the arts. They have three sons and three daughters, shaikha Dheya bint Ebrahim Al Khalifa - niece of Prince Khalifa and President of Riyada Group of Companies. Famous for her business activities as a member of the Royal family and she has political and business contacts with Russian Ministries, business community, engineering companies. In 2014 during Rhodian Forum gave an opinion on the beginning of the Third World War, enlisted as one of the Most Powerful Arab Women in 2014 according to Forbes. net – website about Khalifa and his family Works by or about Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa in libraries
Khalifa ibn Salman Al Khalifa
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Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa خليفة بن سلمان آل خليفة
10.
National Assembly (Bahrain)
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The National Assembly is the name of both chambers of the Bahraini parliament when sitting in joint session, as laid out in the Constitution of 2002. It has 80 seats formed from the 40 elected members of the Council of Representatives and it is chaired by the Speaker of the Consultative Council, or by the Speaker of the Council of Representatives if the former is absent. Under the 1973 Constitution, the National Assembly was a single chamber parliament consisting of forty elected by universal suffrage. However, the then Amir, Shaikh Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifah decreed that women would not be considered as universal suffrage and were not allowed to vote in the 1973 parliamentary elections. The first ever National Assembly in Bahrain was elected in 1973 under the statutes of the first constitution which was promulgated of that same year. In 1975 the Assembly was dissolved by the then Emir Shaikh Isa ibn Salman al-Khalifa because it refused to pass the government sponsored State Security Law of 1974, the Emir subsequently did not allow the Assembly to meet again or hold elections during his lifetime. After the death of Isa ibn Salman al-Khalifa in 1999, his son Shaikh Hamad ibn Isa al-Khalifah and that same year elections were held for the Council of Representatives and he appointed the members for the Consultative Council, forming the first National Assembly since 1975
National Assembly (Bahrain)
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Bahrain
11.
Consultative Council (Bahrain)
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The Consultative Council is the name given to the upper house of the National Assembly, the main legislative body of Bahrain. The Council comprises forty members appointed directly by the King of Bahrain, the forty seats of the Consultative Council combined with the forty elected seats of the Council of Representatives form the National Assembly of Bahrain. All laws have to be passed by both chambers of the Assembly and this allows technical expertise and minority communities a role within the legislative process, in Bahrain, a Bahraini Christian woman, Alees Samaan and a Bahraini Jewish man have been appointed. After there was disappointment that no women were elected to the lower house in 2002s general election. Alees Samann made history in the Arab world on 18 April 2004 when she became the first woman to chair a session of parliament in the region. The BBC reported, Incidents of this kind in the Arab world are increasingly being seen as signs of a change towards more open. Supporters of the system refer to such as the United Kingdom and Canada which operate the same bicameral model with an appointed upper chamber. However, the government which nominates citizens to the chamber is accountable to the members of the lower house. Further, while these upper chambers each hold a veto over legislation. Critics state that the family has sought to use the appointed Consultative Council to guarantee veto power over all legislation. The council includes Faisal Fulad, an activist accused in the Bandargate scandal of illegally receiving a stipend of BD500 for fomenting sectarian hatred. The report added that the opposition leaders neither accepted nor rejected the offer, the chairman of the Consultative Council serves as the chairman of the joint National Assembly of Bahrain when it meets. The term of the council is four years
Consultative Council (Bahrain)
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Consultative Council
12.
Council of Representatives (Bahrain)
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The Council of Representatives, sometimes translated as the Chamber of Deputies, is the name given to the lower house of the Bahraini National Assembly, the main legislative body of Bahrain. The body was created by the 2002 Constitution of Bahrain, the Council comprises forty members elected by universal suffrage. The forty seats of the Council of Representatives together with the forty royally-appointed seats of the Consultative Council form the Bahraini National Assembly, the current chairman of the Council is Khalifa Al Dhahrani. The last elections for the Council were in October 2010, in March 2012 the Council of Representatives of Bahrain voted to reject a Royal Decree issued by King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa for the first time since the Council’s establishment in 2002. The royal decree wanted to increase the share from 20 per cent to 50 per cent in the revenues of Tamkeen. This was rejected by MPs from many parties, who refused to allow the government access to these funds
Council of Representatives (Bahrain)
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Council of Representatives
13.
Judiciary of Bahrain
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The Judiciary of Bahrain is the court system of Bahrain. It is divided into two branches, the Civil Law Courts and the Sharia Law Courts, the Civil Law Courts deal with all commercial, civil, and criminal cases, as well disputes related to the personal status of non-Muslims. The Shari’a Law Courts have jurisdiction over all issues related to the status of Muslims. Judges of the middle and lower courts are nominated by the Ministry of Justice, the Supreme Judicial Council, chaired by the King, appoints the members of the Constitutional Court. Many of the judges in Bahrain are either members of the ruling family or non-Bahrainis with 2-year renewable contracts. To secure renewal of contracts, judges may be prone to consider it necessary to take decisions not unfavourable to the wishes or interests of the Government. The Court of Cassation was established in 1989 as a court of appeal. It serves as the court of appeal for all civil, commercial. The judges for the court are appointed and removed by royal decree, the cases are prosecuted by the military public prosecuter Colonel Yousef Rashid Flaifel. The National Safety Court has been criticized by international human rights organizations for trying civilians in a military court and for the lack of transparency. Human Rights Watch has described the court as a travesty of justice, while Amnesty International has described it as a sham, in June 2011, King Hamad announced that all trials related to the protests would be transferred from the National Safety Court to the normal civilian courts. However he backtracked on August 18 issuing a decree which makes it clear that the new measures do not apply to all arrested protesters. On 9 January 2012, Ali al-Ghanmi, a policeman who came to public attention for leaving his post. Law of Bahrain Constitution of Bahrain Radhi, Hassan Ali, Judiciary and Arbitration in Bahrain, A Historical and Analytical Study
Judiciary of Bahrain
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Bahrain
14.
Elections in Bahrain
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The National Assembly is bicameral with the lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, having 40 members elected in single-seat constituencies for a four-year term. Supporters of the system refer to long established democracies the United Kingdom and Canada operating with this bicameralism with an upper chamber. Opponents also point out that the current system was imposed unilaterally by the King, violating the 1973 Constitution, forty seats were elected on October 24,2010, with the runoffs that were needed on October 30. A total of 127 candidates competed in the election, which was also chose municipal councils, more thant 318,000 were eligible to vote. Head of the commission and Justice Minister, Sheikh Khaled bin Ali al-Khalifa, gave an estimate of turnout of at least 67 percent. 127 candidates stood in the election, the Wefaq National Islamic Society won 18 of the 40 seats,1 more than the previous election. Combined Shiite and independent candidates won a majority of seats for the first time, the constitution of parliament following the results of the 2010 elections was altered by the Bahraini parliamentary by-election in September 2011. The elections in 2002 were the first since the late emir Shaikh Isa ibn Salman al-Khalifa dissolved the first elected parliament in 1975, on 24 October 2002, men and women went to the polls in Bahrain to vote in parliamentary elections for the new National Assembly. The poll was the first national election in which women had the right to vote, the 2002 elections were at the core of democratic reforms launched by King Hamad when he became King in 1999. The Kingdoms political associations are gearing up to contest the elections in September 2006. In November 2005 they began a campaign for Bahrains constitution to be amended to reflect this, according to Rulers in parliamentary elections at 24 October 2002 the Sunni Islamists and independents won 16 of 40 seats. In a second held on October 31, the independents won 12 seats. The secular representatives or independents secure a total of 21 of the 40 seats, candidates ran as individuals in the 2002 elections, but are organised in parliament as members of de facto political parties known as political societies. The first ever elections to be held in Bahrain took place in December 1973. Thirty members were elected to the National Assembly of Bahrain, by a franchise restricted to male citizens, an additional 14 ministers of the royally-appointed government became unelected ex officio members of National Assembly to make a total of 44 parliamentarians. Adam Carrs Election Archive Women warned of dirty poll fight, Gulf Daily News,13 October 2005
Elections in Bahrain
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Bahrain
15.
Bahraini general election, 2002
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General elections were held in Bahrain on 24 October 2002. They were the general elections in the countrys history. The elections were also the first to be held under the 2002 Constitution and they claimed that the 2002 Constitution gives too much power to the unelected legislators in the upper house, known as the Consultative Council of Bahrain, and demanded a reform of the constitution. Although all candidates ran as independents due to the ban on political parties, the Islamic Forum and al Asalah both won six seats, Rabita al-Islami won three seats, the Shura Society and the National Democratic Assembly both won two seats, whilst al Meethaq won one. 2002 Bahrain election results Adam Carrs Election Archive
Bahraini general election, 2002
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Bahrain
16.
Bahraini general election, 2006
–
General elections were held in Bahrain on 25 November 2006 for the 40-seat Council of Representatives alongside municipal elections. There was a 72% turnout in the first round of polling, as expected by most observers, Shia and Sunni Islamists dominated the poll, winning a clean sweep in the first round of voting, while liberal and ex-communist MPs lost all their seats. Four candidates of the left-wing National Democratic Action made it through to second round run-off which was held on 2 December 2006, the election was preceded by a major political realignment that saw the four opposition parties that boycotted the 2002 elections agree to take part in the political process. These included the Shia Islamist party, Al Wefaq, the radical Shia Islamist Islamic Action Society, the left-wing National Democratic Action Society and the Nationalist Democratic Rally Society. Several candidates claimed that they were being forced out of the race, including Jassim Abdulaal of the Economists Bloc, the criticism became more pointed after the Council described Al Wefaq as the Bloc of Believers. The Shia Islamist Al Amal, which has links with the Shirazi faction, was most specific in its criticism. It looks as if the Council has turned into an umbrella for a specific society. They have to buy food, clothing, pay for car installments, but this is impossible, because many fall short as their salaries are not enough. Dr Husain said that the country could do better by looking to the future, The government should be giving more money to education and training and we are not saying that defence and police are not important, but they should be given less attention. The government responded to criticism on social welfare by announcing that it put forward legislation so that Bahrain becomes the first Arab country to introduce unemployment benefit. According to economist, Alaa al-Yousuf, Bahrain has an unemployment rate of 15%, the governments announcement is interpreted as pre-emptive of an expected move by the new parliament to draft legislation to bring in unemployment benefit, which would allow MPs to claim the credit. Instead, Mr Ayed called for investment in training and education for Bahraini workers, Train them and remove expatriate workers. The party wants to see the Supreme Judiciary Council elected by all the judges in the country instead of being appointed by its Supreme Chairman King Hamad, Al Wefaq leader Ali Salman may run for speaker post elections. This is a theme that Al Wefaq is likely to continue in parliament with Ali Salman promising, If we find the necessary cooperation, but if we find that the government or one of its ministers is stalling peoples interests, then we will hold them responsible. This made her the first woman to serve in a parliament in the Persian Gulf. Critics accused the government of engineering her victory because it wanted to see a woman win, but we have not seen any womens organisation do or say anything throughout this month. We had high expectations because the elections are an opportunity for women to highlight their programmes. But instead, we see that the societies have withdrawn into their shells
Bahraini general election, 2006
–
All 40 seats to the
lower house
Bahraini general election, 2006
–
Advertisement urging Bahrainis to vote in the 2 December run-offs
Bahraini general election, 2006
–
Election meeting for Wa'ad candidate
Ibrahim Sharif
17.
Bahraini general election, 2010
–
General elections were held in Bahrain with the first-round on 23 October 2010, and the second round on 30 October. The election followed controversy amidst boycotts and arrests, the lower house of parliament, for which the election is held, has the authority to pass legislation proposed by the sovereign or the governing cabinet, as well as monitoring authority. The upper consultative council has the power to block legislation from the lower house, riots were also reported after several opposition spokespersons were arrested after speaking about human rights issues in Bahrain. There were also further arrests and repressions of the Shia majority, Shia political activists and international human rights watchdogs warned of a drift back to full-blown authoritarianism. However, Foreign Minister Sheikh Khaled bin Ahmad al-Khalifa claimed the arrests were not linked to elections, amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and the Project on Middle East Democracy noted government arrests and repressions ahread of the election. The head of the Al Wefaq party, Ali Salman, said the government should be shared with the people and it is unacceptable that power be monopolised by a single family, even one to which we owe respect and consideration. We look forward to the day when any child of the people, be they Sunni or Shia, about 292 Bahraini observers from non-governmental organizations monitored the elections, though foreign observers were not allowed. The credibility of the election was threatened by allegations of voting problems, Al Wefaqs Sheikh Ali Salman claimed at least 890 voters were not allowed to vote in mostly Shia districts because their names were absent from electoral lists. This is not the full number and we expect it to be higher. The party tallied up the voters who said there were not allowed to vote, the opposition also expressed concern that the authorities used the votes of military personnel in favour of some candidates at the expense of others in an exploitation of general positions. Forty seats were elected on October 24, with the runoffs that were needed on October 30, a total of 127 candidates competed in the election, which was also chose municipal councils. More thant 318,000 were eligible to vote, head of the electoral commission and Justice Minister, Sheikh Khaled bin Ali al-Khalifa, gave an estimate of turnout of at least 67 percent, less than the 72% in 2006 and 53. 4% in 2002. 127 candidates stood in the election, the Islamic National Accord Association won 18 of the 40 seats,1 more than the previous election. Shia and independent candidates won a majority of seats for the first time, Shia cleric and MP Sheikh Ali Salman lauded the result and called for a more positive stance from the government. The most important message for the government is that Al-Wefaq is the largest political association in Bahrain, the peoples will must be respected and dealt with positively. A local analyst, Obaidaly al-Obaidaly, said the campaign that accompanied the arrests resulted in a favourable outcome for INAA. The Shiites who were hesitant or intended to boycott the elections voted overwhelmingly in favour of Al-Wefaq, Shiites felt that they were targeted so they voted intensely for Al-Wefaq despite their restlessness with its performance throughout the past four years. Following the 2011 Bahraini protests all 18 Al Wefaqs MPs resigned from parliament
Bahraini general election, 2010
–
All 40 seats to the
lower house
18.
Bahraini general election, 2014
–
General elections were held in Bahrain on 22 November 2014, with a second round on 29 November in constituencies where no candidate received at least 50% of the vote. The elections were boycotted by the Shiite Islamist opposition, the government announced the voter turnout as 52. 6%, although the opposition claimed it was only 30%. Independents won 37 of the 40 seats with Sunni Islamists losing two of their five seats, the number of Shiite MPs fell to 14 as a result of the opposition boycott. Female representation was reduced from four to three, the forty members of the Council of Representatives are elected in single-member constituencies using the two-round system. Voters and candidates must be Bahrani citizens and at least 20 years old, non-citizens, primarily migrant workers from India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, who migrated to Bahrain in recent decades, make up more than half of the population. Politics takes an element as well, as the King is Sunni Muslim whilst a majority of Bahraini citizens are Shiite Muslims. The first elections in 2002 were boycotted by the most popular political parties, voter turnout was 53%, with the highest number of seats won by the conservative Salafist Al Asalah Islamic Society and the Islamic Forum, who each won 6 seats each from the 40 elected. Al-Wefaq lifted their boycott in the elections in 2006, although the breakaway Haq Movement for Liberty. Voter turnout increased to 72%, with Al-Wefaq winning 17 of the 40 seats and Sunni Islamists from Al Asalah, however, the Kings uncle Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa continued as Prime Minister, with around half of the cabinet drawn from the ruling Al Khalifa family. The 2010 election saw the Sunni Islamists lose most of their seats to independents, Al-Wefaq took 64% of the vote despite the arrest of opposition spokespersons and allegations of vote rigging. However, they but only increased their total to 18 seats due to electoral boundaries. Two months later, the Arab Spring protests started in Tunisia, in a brutal crackdown backed by 1,500 troops from Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, the government cleared the main protest site at the Pearl Roundabout. All 18 members of Al-Wefaq resigned from parliament and the party was temporarily banned, the vacant seats were won by independents in the subsequent by-elections. A record 266 candidates stood for election to the 40 seats, only 36 of these candidates represented political parties, with the remaining 230 being independents. The candidates were described as being mostly Sunni, despite the countrys Shia majority, opposition media said most of these were random unknowns who were just running a good package that included $150,000 a year, a generous pension plan, a diplomatic passport and a car. Nine political parties in total contested the elections, the Al Menbar Islamic Society formed a coalition called the Al-Fateh Coalition with three other political groups, the National Unity Gathering, al Meethaq and al Wasat. Al Asalah ran alone as did the secular al Watan, the first round saw only six candidates elected, with 34 seats going forward to a second round on 29 November. The six candidates included one from al Asalah and five independents, Al Asalah had three candidates through to the second round, Al Menbar had four, with two each from al Meethaq, Wasat and al Watan and one from Al Wasat Al Arabi
Bahraini general election, 2014
19.
Governorates of Bahrain
–
There are four Governorates in Bahrain, the Capital, Northern, Southern and Muharraq. There had previously been five until September 2014, when the Central Governorate was abolished, the first municipality in Bahrain was the 8-member Manama municipality which was established in July 1919. Members of the municipality were elected annually, the municipality was said to have been the first municipality to be established in the Arab world, the municipality was in charge of cleaning roads and renting buildings to tenants and shops. By 1929, it undertook road expansions as well as opening markets, in 1958, the municipality started water purification projects. In 1960, Bahrain comprised four municipalities including Manama, Hidd, Al Muharraq, over the next 30 years, the 4 municipalities were divided into 12 municipalities as settlements such as Hamad Town and Isa Town grew. These municipalities were administered from Manama under a municipal council whose members are appointed by the king. After September 22nd,2014, Bahrain was split into four governorates and these governorates are, The first municipal elections to be held in Bahrain after independence in 1971, was in 2002. The most recent was in 2014, a specific number of adjacent city blocks are grouped together to form an area. Each of these forms a constituency in the countrys electorate. Every four years, elections are held in these constituencies, with each electing its own MP. The most recent election was in the Bahraini parliamentary by-election in 2011, each governorate also has its own municipality council, with separate elections for them
Governorates of Bahrain
–
Governorates of Bahrain محافظات البحرين (
Arabic)
20.
Foreign relations of Bahrain
–
Bahrain plays a modest, moderating role in regional politics and adheres to the views of the Arab League on Middle East peace and Palestinian rights. Since achieving independence in 1971, Bahrain has maintained relations with most of its neighbours. It generally pursues a policy of consultation with neighbouring states. Bahrain is a member of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, the country has fully complied with steps taken by the GCC to coordinate economic development and defense and security planning. In December 1994, it concurred with the GCC decision to drop secondary and tertiary boycotts against Israel, in many instances, it has established special bilateral trade agreements. The countrys foreign minister is Sheikh Khaled bin Ahmed Al Khalifa, educated in the United States, as a student Sheikh Khaled was a member of US President Jimmy Carters 1980 presidential campaign team. His deputy is Dr Nazar Al Baharna, a politician and business leader, Al Baharna was formerly a leading member of Al Wefaq. Sheikha Haya is a leading Bahraini lawyer and womens rights advocate who will take over the post at a time of change for the world body, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan said of her, I met her yesterday and I found her quite impressive. All the member states are determined to work with her and to support her, the move follows a series of appointments of women to high-profile positions in the Kingdom. During the Persian Gulf War in 1990–91, Bahrain was part of the coalition that fought to liberate Kuwait, Bahraini, RAF, and USAF pilots flew air strikes in Iraq from the Sheik Isa Air Base, while coalition navies operated out of Manama, the capital. Bahrain was hit by Scud missiles fired from Iraq, in July 1995 the U. S. 5th Fleet was established in the Persian Gulf with its headquarters at NSA Bahrain in Manama. In 2003, U. S. President George W. Bush designated Bahrain as a major non-NATO ally, Bahrain-Iran relations have been strained since the Iranian Revolution and the 1981 discovery of a planned Iran-sponsored coup in Bahrain. Bahraini suspicions of the Iranian role in local unrest in the mid-1990s remain, however, with the decline of Iraq as a regional powerbroker, Bahrain has begun taking steps to improve relations with Iran and increase regional harmony. These efforts have included encouraging Bahrain-Iran trade, the long-standing territorial dispute with Qatar over the Hawar Islands and the maritime boundary were resolved in 2001 by a compromise decision of the International Court of Justice. Believing that the credibility of ones action lay in setting a personal example and he quit his legal practice, gave up wearing Western-style clothing, and embraced a humble lifestyle by making his own clothes and living on a simple vegetarian diet. This, of course, differs from the practice of leaders of some Arab resistance movements, who urge their followers to boycott the West while savouring the Western lifestyle, products, and technology. Bahrain’s Foreign Minister, Sheikh Khaled bin Ahmed Al Khalifa, described the claim as very disturbing because it touched on the legitimacy of our country. But if it came to us with the Shia agenda as a Shiite power, then it will not succeed and it will be powerful, nevertheless, as Bahrain Foreign Minister Sheikh Khaled bin Ahmed Al Khalifa said If a war starts anything can happen
Foreign relations of Bahrain
–
Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa I with the Saudi king
Ibn Saud.
Foreign relations of Bahrain
–
Bahrain
Foreign relations of Bahrain
–
Donald Rumsfeld meeting with
Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa at
the Pentagon.
Foreign relations of Bahrain
–
April 17, 2008: Arabian Shark '08 in process, a joint exercise between the navies of
Pakistan,
Bahrain and the
United States, focusing on antisubmarine warfare.
21.
Flag of Bahrain
–
The national flag of Bahrain consists of a white band on the left, separated from a red area on the right by five triangles that serve as a serrated line. The five white triangles symbolize the 5 pillars of Islam and it is sometimes mistaken for the flag of Qatar, but that flag is maroon, not red, has more points, and normally has a much greater length-to-width ratio. The white color comprises 13⁄40 of the area, while the red color comprises 27⁄40 of the area. The color specification is red, Pantone 186 c / CMYK C0 – M90 – Y80 – K5 The flag is used on land and at sea as a national, civil and war ensign. In 2002, the King of Bahrain Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, article II, The King shall have his own flag, for which a royal order shall be issued to determine its shape, measures, and places. Article III, The Flag of the Kingdom of Bahrain shall be hoisted on the Royal Court, Palaces, governmental buildings, public establishments, embassies, Bahraini bureaus abroad, and Bahraini ships. Article V, The Flag shall be hoisted on governmental buildings, public institutions during public holidays, article VI, The Flag of the Kingdom of Bahrain shall not be hoisted on vehicles, except on the official protocol vehicles. Article VII, The Flag of the Kingdom of Bahrain shall be hoisted half mast at the state of mourning, article VIII, The Flag of the Kingdom of Bahrain shall not be used for commercial purposes. The earliest known flags of Bahrain were plain red, in 1932, a serrated edge was added to the flag in order to differentiate it from those of its neighbours. The flag originally had twenty-eight white points, but this was reduced to eight in 1972, on 14 February 2002, the number was again reduced to five, so that each of the points could stand for one of the Five Pillars of Islam
Flag of Bahrain
–
Flag Ratio: 3:5
22.
Bahrain Defence Force
–
It numbers about 13,000 personnel and consists of the Royal Bahraini Air Force, Royal Bahraini Army, Royal Bahraini Navy and the Bahrain Royal Medical Services. Apart from the BDF, the security forces and the Coast Guard report to the Ministry of Interior. Bahrain, in conjunction with its GCC partners has moved to upgrade its defenses in response to the threat posed by the Iran-Iraq, in 1982, the GCC gave Bahrain $1.7 billion to help improve its defenses. Bahrains defense spending since 1999 has been steady, the government spends around $320 million annually on their military. After the Gulf War, Bahrain received additional support from the United States, including the sale of 54 M60A3 tanks,12 F-16C/D aircraft. Joint naval, air and ground exercises also have planned and executed to increase readiness throughout the Persian Gulf. In 2003, George W. Bush designated Bahrain as a major ally of the United States. National Guard Special Security Force Command Background Note, Bahrain - Defense U. S. Department of State
Bahrain Defence Force
Bahrain Defence Force
–
Bahrain Defence Force قوة دفاع البحرين
Bahrain Defence Force
23.
History of Bahrain
–
Bahrain is an island country in the Persian Gulf. The history of Bahrain dates back to ancient history, Bahrain was the central location of the ancient Dilmun civilization. Bahrains strategic location in the Persian Gulf has brought rule and influence from mostly the Persians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Portuguese, the Arabs, and the British. Whilst the country had closest economic relations with Indians or South Asians for the longest time, Bahrain was the central site of the ancient Dilmun civilization. Dilmun appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of fourth millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The adjective Dilmun is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official, Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II recovered from Nippur, during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. These letters were from an official, Ilī-ippašra, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni in Mesopotamia. The names referred to are Akkadian and these letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon at that time. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun, there are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BC indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun. Dilmun was also later on controlled by the Kassite dynasty in Mesopotamia, one of the early sites discovered in Bahrain indicate that Sennacherib, king of Assyria, attacked northeast Persian Gulf and captured Bahrain. He most recent reference to Dilmun came during the Neo-Babylonian dynasty, Neo-Babylonian administrative records, dated 567 BC, stated that Dilmun was controlled by the king of Babylon. The name of Dilmun fell from use after the collapse of Neo-Babylon in 538 BC, there is both literary and archaeological evidence of extensive trade between Ancient Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilization. Impressions of clay seals from the Indus Valley city of Harappa were evidently used to seal bundles of merchandise, a number of these Indus Valley seals have turned up at Ur and other Mesopotamian sites. Instances of all of these goods have been found. The importance of trade is shown by the fact that the weights and measures used at Dilmun were in fact identical to those used by the Indus. The ships of Dilmun, from the land, brought him wood as a tribute. Mesopotamian trade documents, lists of goods, and official inscriptions mentioning Meluhha supplement Harappan seals, literary references to Meluhhan trade date from the Akkadian, the Third Dynasty of Ur, and Isin-Larsa Periods, but the trade probably started in the Early Dynastic Period. Some Meluhhan vessels may have sailed directly to Mesopotamian ports, but by the Isin-Larsa Period, the Bahrain National Museum assesses that its Golden Age lasted ca
History of Bahrain
–
The
Bahrain Fort, location of Dilmun artifacts.
History of Bahrain
–
Correspondence between
Ilī-ippašra, the governor of Dilmun, and Enlil-kidinni, the governor of Nippur, ca. 1350 BC.
History of Bahrain
–
Asia in 600 CE, showing the Sassanid Empire before the Arab conquest.
History of Bahrain
–
Phoenicians men their ships in service to
Assyrian king
Sennacherib, during his war against the
Chaldeans in the
Persian Gulf, ca. 700 BC
24.
Arabic language
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
–
The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
–
al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (
Naskh script)
Arabic language
–
Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic language
–
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
25.
Monarch
–
A monarch is the sovereign head of state in a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority and power in the state, alternatively, an individual may become monarch by conquest, acclamation or a combination of means. A monarch usually reigns for life or until abdication, if a young child is crowned the monarch, a regent is often appointed to govern until the monarch reaches the requisite adult age to rule. A monarch can reign in multiple monarchies simultaneously, for example, the monarchy of Canada and the monarchy of the United Kingdom are separate states, but they share the same monarch through personal union. Monarchs, as such, bear a variety of titles — king or queen, prince or princess, emperor or empress, archduke, duke or grand duke, Prince is sometimes used as a generic term to refer to any monarch regardless of title, especially in older texts. A king can also be a husband and a queen can be a kings wife. If both people in a reign, neither person is generally considered to be a consort. Monarchy is political or sociocultural in nature, and is associated with hereditary rule. Most monarchs, both historically and in the present day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, agnatic seniority, Salic law, etc. In an elective monarchy, the monarch is elected but otherwise serves as any other monarch, historical examples of elective monarchy include the Holy Roman Emperors and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In recent centuries, many states have abolished the monarchy and become republics, advocacy of government by a republic is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchy is called monarchism. A principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of national leadership. In cases where the monarch serves mostly as a ceremonial figure real leadership does not depend on the monarch, a form of government may in fact be hereditary without being considered monarchy, such as a family dictatorship. Monarchies take a variety of forms, such as the two co-princes of Andorra, positions held simultaneously by the Roman Catholic Bishop of Urgel and the elected President of France. Similarly, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia is considered a monarch despite only holding the position for five years at a time, hereditary succession within one patrilineal family has been most common, with preference for children over siblings, sons over daughters. Other European realms practice one form or another of primogeniture, whereunder a lord was succeeded by his eldest son or, if he had none, by his brother, the system of tanistry was semi-elective and gave weight also to ability and merit. The Salic law, practiced in France and in the Italian territories of the House of Savoy, in most fiefs, in the event of the demise of all legitimate male members of the patrilineage, a female of the family could succeed. Spain today continues this model of succession law, in the form of cognatic primogeniture, in more complex medieval cases, the sometimes conflicting principles of proximity and primogeniture battled, and outcomes were often idiosyncratic
Monarch
–
The nine European Monarchs who attended the
funeral of
King Edward VII of Britain, photographed at
Windsor Castle on 20 May 1910. Standing, from left to right:
King Haakon VII of Norway,
Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria,
King Manuel II of Portugal,
Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany,
King George I of Greece and
King Albert I of Belgium. Seated, from left to right:
King Alfonso XIII of Spain,
King George V of Britain and
King Frederick VIII of Denmark.
Monarch
–
Royal, noble and
chivalric ranks
Monarch
Monarch
–
Ramesses II, the third
Pharaoh of the
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
26.
Head of state
–
A head of state is the public persona that officially represents the national unity and legitimacy of a sovereign state. In some countries, the head of state is a figurehead with limited or no executive power, while in others. Former French president Charles de Gaulle, while developing the current Constitution of France, some academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of models. An independent nation state normally has a head of state, the non-executive model, in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role. In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the chief executive officer, heading the executive branch of the state. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature and it also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. In parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system, usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament. For example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Italy, the Statuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, so, Italy had a de facto parliamentarian system, but a de jure presidential system. These officials are excluded completely from the executive, they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, hence their states governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majestys Government or His/Her Excellencys Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist, the constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet, who is chaired by the prime minister and responsible to the Diet. The emperor is defined in the constitution as the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people and he is a ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan. Today, the Speaker of the Riksdag appoints the prime minister, Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. In contrast, the contact the President of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach to the president. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach. The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the court to test its constitutionality. The most extreme non-executive republican Head of State is the President of Israel, semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a minister who is chosen by the president
Head of state
–
Sixteen heads of state meeting at a
UNASUR -
BRICS summit in July 2014.
Head of state
–
President
Pranab Mukherjee, head of state of
the Republic of India from July 2012
Head of state
–
Two contemporary heads of state who are
constitutional monarchs, but with no political power: Emperor
Akihito of Japan (left), and King
Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden (right.)
Head of state
–
Charles de Gaulle, President and head of state of the
French Fifth Republic June 1958 – January 1959
27.
Emir
–
An Emir, sometimes transliterated Amir, Amier, or Ameer, is an aristocratic or noble title of high office used in a variety of places in the Arab countries and Afghanistan. It means commander, general, or prince, when translated as prince, the word emirate is analogous to a sovereign principality. Amir, meaning Lord or commander-in-chief, is derived from the Arabic root a-m-r, the word entered English in 1593, from the French émir. It was one of the titles or names of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the monarchs of UAE, Qatar and Kuwait are currently titled Emirs. All members of the House of Saud have the title of Emir, the caliphs first used the title Amir al-Muminin or Commander of the Faithful, stressing their leadership over the Islamic Empire, especially over the militia. The title has been assumed by various other Muslim rulers, including Sultans, for Shia Muslims, they still give this title to the Caliph Ali as Amir al Muminin. Note that the title was held by Christians as well, the word Emir is also used less formally for leaders in certain contexts. For example, the leader of a group of pilgrims to Mecca is called an Emir hadji, where an adjectival form is necessary, Emiral suffices. Amirzade, the son of a prince, hence the Persian princely title Mirza, the temporal leader of the Yazidi people is known as an Emir or Prince. From the start, Emir has been a military title, in certain decimally-organized Muslim armies, Amir was an officer rank. For example, in Mughal India Amirs commanded 1000 horsemen, ten of them under one Malik, Muhammad Amin Bughra, Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra, and Abdullah Bughra declared themselves Emirs of the First East Turkestan Republic. Amir is a name in the Persian language and a prefix name for many masculine names such as Amir Ali. Amir-i-Iel designates the head of an Il in imperial Persia, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the female name Emira, often interpreted as princess, is a derivative of the male name Emir. Abdul Abulbul Amir, both character and song, wat Tambor in Star Wars, Episode II – Attack of the Clones took the title of Emir. In the Star Wars universe the title may relate to Tambors military command, Emir Karim, a character in Wild At Heart, a Latin American drama. Specific emirates of note List of emirs of Harar List of emirs of Kuwait List of emirs of Qatar List of Emirs of Mosul Emirate of Afghanistan
Emir
–
The court of the
Durrani Emirate of
Afghanistan in 1839.
Emir
–
Amir
Dost Mohammad Khan the first Amir of
Afghanistan reign started in 1823 with his youngest son Amir
Sher Ali Khan.
Emir
–
HRH Crown Prince Farouk, Amir of
the Kingdom of Egypt and the Sudan, on ascension to the throne 1936 as HM King Farouk I.
28.
Honorific
–
An honorific is a title that conveys esteem or respect when used in addressing or referring to a person. Sometimes, the honorific is used in a more specific sense to refer to an honorary academic title. It is also conflated with systems of honorific speech in linguistics. Typically, honorifics are used as a style in the third person. Use in the first person, by the honored dignitary, is uncommon or considered very rude, Some languages have anti-honorific first person forms whose effect is to enhance the relative honor accorded to the person addressed. The most common honorifics in modern English are usually placed immediately before a persons name, someone who does not want to express a gender with their honorific may occasionally use Mx, Ind. or Misc. Other honorifics may denote the persons occupation, for instance Doctor, Esquire, Captain, Coach, Officer, Reverend for all clergy and/or Father. Holders of an academic Doctorate such as PhD are addressed as Doctor, Some honorifics act as complete replacements for a name, as Sir or Maam, or Your Honor. Subordinates will often use honorifics as punctuation before asking a superior a question or after responding to an order, Yes, sir or even Sir, yes, sir. Judges are often addressed as Your Honor when on the bench, if the judge also has a higher title, that may be the correct honorific to use, Your Lordship. Similarly, a monarch and his consort may be addressed or referred to as Your/His/Her Majesty, Their Majesties, monarchs below kingly rank are addressed as Your/His/Her Highness, the exact rank being indicated by an appropriate modifier, e. g. His Serene Highness for a member of a dynasty, or Her Grand Ducal Highness for a member of a family that reigns over a grand duchy. There are differences between Your Highness and Your Royal Highness, between Princess Margaret and The Princess Margaret, all of these are correct, but apply to people of subtly different rank. An example of a style is Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, which was an official style. In music, a conductor or virtuoso instrumentalist may be known as Maestro. In aviation, pilots in command of a civil aircraft are usually addressed as Captain plus their full name or surname. This tradition is diminishing in the United States and most EU countries. In addition, such countries etiquette rules dictate that this title must be placed on all the letters and social invitations, business cards, identification documents
Honorific
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Mi-rareta (Sonkeigo)
29.
Sheikh
–
Sheikh —also transliterated Sheik, Shaik, Shayk, Shaykh, Shaikh, Cheikh, Shekh and Shaikh— is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonly designates the ruler of a tribe, who inherited the title from his father, Sheikh is given to a royal male at birth, whereas the related title Sheikha is given to a royal female at birth. The word in Arabic stems from a triliteral root connected with age and aging, ش-ي-خ, the term literally means a man of vast power, and nobility, and it is used strictly for the royal families of the Middle East. While the title can be used religiously by Muslims to designate a learned person and it is notably used by Druze for their religious men, but also by Arab Christians for elder men of stature. Its usage and meaning is similar to the Latin senex meaning old, accordingly, the Arabic term for most legislative bodies termed Senate is majlis al-shuyūkh, literally meaning Council of Senators. One prominent example is Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani who initiated the Qadiriyya order which relies strongly upon adherence to the fundamentals of Islam, in the Arabian Peninsula, the title is used for royalty, such as kings, princes, and princesses. For example, it was the used in the West to refer to the leaders of Kuwaits ruling Al-Sabah dynasty. The same applies to all the Gulf countries, the term is used by almost every male and female member of all the Gulf royal houses. The term sheikh is known to have bestowed upon the families who battled with the Emir Fakhr al-Din in the historical Battle of Anjar. Note that the term is not used for the seven traditional Beiruti families, the other families that have this term did not rule any territory in previous ages. Instead, they were high-ranking employees or secretaries in the Ottoman Empire, or political allies of the rulers at that time, in the Maghreb, during the Almohad dynasty, the caliph was also counseled by a body of shaykhs. They represented all the different tribes under their rules, including Arabs, Andalusians, in the Muslim parts of the Horn of Africa, Sheikh is often used as a noble title. In Somali society, it is reserved as an honorific for senior Muslim leaders and clerics, in West Africa, sheikh is a common title for Muslim scholars and leaders. Among Islamic communities in Senegal, Niger and Gambia, among other areas, after the advent of Islam in South Asia, some high caste tribes also converted to Islam and adopted the title. The Muslims of the Middle East and Central Asia have historically traveled to South Asia as Sufis during the Islamic Sultanates and Mughal Empire, in Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia, Sheikhs are respected by local Muslims. Religious preachers or teachers in Indonesia are usually referred to as Ustad or Kyiayi Historically, notable shaykha include the 10th-century Shaykhah Fakhr-un-Nisa Shuhdah and 18th-century scholar Al-Shaykha Fatima al-Fudayliyya. A daughter or wife or mother of a sheikh is also called a shaykhah, currently, the term shaykhah is commonly used for women of ruling families, in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf with the exception of Oman. Kashmiri Shaikh Khawaja Shaikh Punjabi Shaikh Qallu Qanungoh Shaikh Quraishi Shaikhs in South Asia Sindhi Shaikh Allamah The dictionary definition of sheik at Wiktionary
Sheikh
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Kurdish Sheikhs, 1895.
Sheikh
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Sheikh Juma Al Maktoum (left) and Sheikh Saeed bin Maktoum Al Maktoum (right) of the
Maktoum family.
Sheikh
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Senegalese Sheikh Tidiane Gaye giving an Islamic lecture in
Louga.
Sheikh
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Pakistani Sheikh Syed Abdul Qadir Jilani, a prominent
Sunni scholar.
30.
Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa
–
Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa was the 1st emir of Bahrain from 1961 until his death. Born in Jasra, he became emir upon the death of his father, Isa was born in Jasra to Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa and Mouza bint Hamad Al Khalifa, and succeeded his father as emir upon his death. His reign began in December 1961 when his father Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa died in November and his mother was Mouza bint Hamad Al Khalifa. Isa visited Ayetollah Mohsin Al Hakim in Najaf in 1968 to indicate his keenness to reinforce relationships with the Shia and his term saw Bahrain gain its independence from the United Kingdom in 1971. While the government initially considered joining the United Arab Emirates, Isa had his country withdraw over his dissatisfaction with the proposed constitution and he then attempted to introduce a moderate form of parliamentary democracy, and men were given the vote in parliamentary elections in 1973. In August 1975, however, he dissolved Parliament because it refused to pass the government-sponsored State Security Law of 1974, the parliamentary system was never restored and forced the emir to contend with occasional protests from the leftist and Islamist camps, which reached their peak in 1994. During his reign there was an arrangement between him and his brother Sheikh Khalifa bin Salman, emir was assigned a diplomatic and ceremonial role, whereas Sheikh Khalifa involved in controlling the government and economy as prime minister. Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa had one wife, his cousin Sheikha Hessa bint Salman Al Khalifa and they married on 8 May 1949. Nevertheless, critics note that he also dissolved Parliament, giving power to the royal family. Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa died of an attack on 6 March 1999 at the al Sakhir Palace in Manama shortly after his meeting with the United States defense secretary William Cohen. US President Bill Clinton expressed deep sadness at the news of the emirs death calling him a friend of peace. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan also expressed great sadness, and described the emir as a force for stability in the region, emir was buried at the Al-Rifaa cemetery. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa, A Biographical Dictionary
Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa
–
Isa bin Salman in 1998
Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa
–
Isa Bin Salman,1968
31.
Index of Bahrain-related articles
–
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Bahrain, Bahrain – Islamic sovereign island nation located in the Persian Gulf. In the late 1800s, following successive treaties with the British, following the withdrawal of the British from the region in the late 1960s, Bahrain declared independence in 1971. Formerly a state, Bahrain was declared a Kingdom in 2002, since early 2011, the country has experienced sustained protests and unrest inspired by the regional Arab Spring, particularly by the majority Shia population. It contains the richest remains inventoried of this civilization, which was only known from written Sumerian references. It contains the richest remains inventoried of this civilization, which was only known from written Sumerian references. L. L. Lonely Planet Destination Guide thebahrain. com Bahrain Travel & Tourism
Index of Bahrain-related articles
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An enlargeable map of
Bahrain
Index of Bahrain-related articles
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The
Flag of Bahrain
Index of Bahrain-related articles
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A satellite image of
Bahrain
32.
Dilmun
–
Dilmun, or Telmun, was an ancient Semitic-speaking country mentioned throughout the history of Mesopotamia from the 3rd millennium BC onwards. It is regarded as one of the oldest civilizations in the Middle East, based on textual evidence, it is located in the Persian Gulf on a trade route between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilisation, close to the sea and to artesian springs. Dilmun was an important trading centre, at the height of its power, it controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. According to some theories, the Sumerians regarded Dilmun as a sacred place. Dilmun was mentioned by the Mesopotamians as a partner, a source of copper. The scholarly consensus is that Dilmun encompassed Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and this area is certainly what is meant by references to Dilmun among the lands conquered by King Sargon of Akkad and his descendants. It is often stated that the Sumerians described Dilmun as a garden paradise in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The Sumerian tale of the paradise of Dilmun may have been an inspiration for the Garden of Eden story. However, that is modern speculation since the home of Utnapishtim is never indicated as Dilmun. Dilmun was an important trading center from the fourth millennium to 800 BC. At the height of its power, Dilmun controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes, Dilmun was very prosperous during the first 300 years of the second millennium. Dilmuns commercial power began to decline between 1000 BC and 800 BC because piracy flourished in the Persian Gulf, in 600 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and later the Persian Empire, ruled Dilmun. The Dilmun civilization is mentioned first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the third millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna. The adjective Dilmun is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official, one of the earliest inscriptions mentioning Dilmun is that of king Ur-Nanshe of Lagash found in a door-socket, The ships of Dilmun brought him wood as tribute from foreign lands. Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II recovered from Nippur, during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon and these letters were from a provincial official, Ilī-ippašra, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni, the governor of Nippur. The names referred to are Akkadian and these letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon at that time. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun, there are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BC indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun. One of the sites discovered in Bahrain suggests that Sennacherib, king of Assyria, attacked northeast Arabia
Dilmun
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Correspondence between
Ilī-ippašra, the governor of Dilmun, and Enlil-kidinni, the governor of Nippur, ca. 1350 BC.
Dilmun
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Ruins of a settlement, believed to be from the Dilmun civilization, in
Sar, Bahrain.
33.
Bahrain administrative reforms of the 1920s
–
The administrative reforms of the 1920s were a series of British-led reforms that have laid the foundations of modern Bahrain. They took place between 1919 and 1927, but their background extends to the early 19th century, Britain signed a number of treaties with Bahrain in 1820,1861,1880 and 1892. The latter two had turned Bahrain into a British Protectorate, earlier in 1869, Britain had appointed the young Shaikh Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa as ruler. Shaikh Isa was an autocrat and a feudal overlord whose authority was shared with his family, the economy was dependent on pearl diving and palm farming. Both sectors suffered from great inequalities, the conditions of the mostly Baharnah peasants, the Order was not implemented until after the end of World War I. The reforms began in February 1919 after the British Political Agent, brays next step to appoint half members of al-Majlis al-Urfi, a council concerned with commercial disputes encountered opposition from Shaikh Isa which led to its suspension. In November, Major H. R. P. Dickson was appointed Political Agent and he introduced the Joint Court, the Municipal Council of Manama and resumed the meetings of al-Majlis al-Urfi. Dickson was resented by the ruler and his allies. In 1921, Major Daly was appointed Political Agent, few months later, he started undermining the influence of Shaikh Abdulla, the youngest sons of Shaikh Isa in favor of his older brother and the heir apparent, Shaikh Hamad. Starting from mid 1921, Bahrain witnessed a series of supporting and opposing the reforms. They were submitted to different British officials up to the Foreign Office, the supporting faction was composed of Daly, Shaikh Hamad, his supporters and the Baharnah. The Baharnah demanded equity, as they had to pay numerous taxes and were subjected to maltreatment. The other faction, composed of Shaikh Isa, Shaikh Abdulla, tribesmen and pearl merchants opposed the reforms, because they were set to abolish their absolute powers, faced with Britains inaction, the Baharnah staged an uprising in Manama in February 1922. Shaikh Isa agreed to most of their demands, but did not carry them out, the Al Dawasir tribe contacted Ibn Saud, asking for his help against the reforms. On the other hand, Persians launched media campaigns accusing Britain of overlooking the oppression of their co-religious Baharnah in Bahrain, the British position then changed and reforms were to be carried even against the wishes of Shaikh Isa. In May 1923, 3-day-riots broke in Manama between Persians and Najdis, elsewhere, Al Dawasir and Al Khawalid branch of Al Khalifa ruling family attacked several Baharnah villages. The British intervened, they deposed the aging Shaikh Isa in favor of his son after he had refused to retire voluntarily. Al Dawasir and Al Khawalid resumed their attacks against Baharnah villages for which they were put on trial, Al Dawasir migrated to Dammam in the mainland, while Al Khawalid were either banished for long years or sentenced to death in absentia after their escape
Bahrain administrative reforms of the 1920s
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The insignia of the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire
Bahrain administrative reforms of the 1920s
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The
Persian Gulf Residency headquarters in
Bushire in 1902
Bahrain administrative reforms of the 1920s
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Major
Harold Richard Patrick Dickson (4 February 1881 – 14 June 1959)
Bahrain administrative reforms of the 1920s
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The reorganized customs office of Manama
34.
National Union Committee
–
The National Union Committee was a nationalist reformist political organization formed in Bahrain in 1954. The committee was formed by reformists in response to clashes between Sunni and Shia members of the population. The original committee was made up of four Sunni representatives and four Shii representatives, in March 1956, British Foreign Secretary Selwyn Lloyd was visiting Bahrain. Crowds of protesters lined the streets to shout slogans and threw sand at stones at the Foreign Secretarys entourage. A number of members, including a stewardess, were left injured. Abdulrahman al Bakir, the secretary of the NUC, was among the leaders of the demonstrations and he was asked to leave the country after the incident for an extended stay abroad, and departed to Egypt. Al Bakir returned to Bahrain September 1956, in October 1956, the NUC called for strikes and demonstrations against the Israeli-Anglo-French attack on Egypt in the Suez Campaign. This led to days of violence in Bahrain, in November, the ruler Shaikh Salman ibn Hamad Al Khalifa, ordered the arrest of the NUC leaders, accusing Al Bakir, Al Shamlan and Aliwat of attempting to take his life. A specially set up court in Budaiya made up of three judges tried the men and found them guilty and they were sentenced to 14 years at a prison located outside of Bahrain, in Saint Helena. In June 1961 the three prisoners were released from Saint Helena after a successful habeas corpus action, and were later paid financial compensation from the British government, debates in British House of Commons Miriam Joyce. The Bahraini three on St. Helena, 1956-1961 in The Middle East Journal, shiism and Political Protest in Bahrain in Domes. Contentious politics in Bahrain, From ethnic to national and vice versa, tribe and state in Bahrain, The transformation of social and political authority in an Arab state. ISBN 0-8133-0123-8 Charles Belgrave, Personal Column, Abdulrahman al-Baker, Mina al-bahrayn ila al-manfaa, sant halaneh, al-Hayat Library Publications, Bahrain, The Ruling Family of Al Khalifah, A. de L
National Union Committee
–
NUC members in 1954, L-R (back): Alaiwat, Bin Mousa, Al Bakir, Fakhro, Shamlan; (front): Al Tajir, Abudeeb, Kamaluddin
35.
1990s Uprising in Bahrain
–
The uprising resulted in the deaths of around 40 civilians and at least one Bahraini soldier. In 1971, Bahrain became independent from Britain and in 1973 the country had its first parliamentary election, however, two years later the constitution was suspended and the assembly dissolved by the late Amir, Isa bin Salman al-Khalifa after it rejected the State Security Law. The act also known as the law was proposed by Ian Henderson. It gave police wide arresting powers and allowed individuals to be held in prison without trial or charge for up to three years for suspicion that they might be a threat to the state. Starting in August 1975, widespread arrests were conducted including members of the dissolved parliament, the ruthless system of repression launched by Henderson lasted for over twenty five years. In 1992, a signed by 280 society leaders, including some of the dissolved parliament members called for the restoration of the national assembly. Initially, the government set up a thirty-member appointed Shura council assigned with commenting on government proposed legislation, another petition the following month concluded that the newly formed council does not replace the national assembly as a constitutional and legislative authority. A delegation of six members, half Sunnis and half Shias representing petition organizers met with the Amir who told them Shura council was all could expect. The final aim of the uprising was the reinstatement of the 1973 constitution and respect of rights in Bahrain. The uprising began in June 1994, with a picket by unemployed people in front of the ministry of labour in June 1994, over 1,500 demonstrator tried to organize a sit-in front of Ministry of Labor protesting the increasing rate of unemployment which had reached 15 percent. Riot police dispersed them using tear gas, similar incidents occurred in August and September. Another petition was launched, this time it was open to all citizens, organizers said they collected over 20,000 signatures most of whom were Shia. In November, hundreds of Shia protested against a charity marathon, the route of the marathon was through some Shia villages, who considered the female dressings offensive. Reportedly, some threw stones on the marathon, which prompted security forces to conduct a number of arrests. The following month Ali Salman, a protest leader, was arrested after being accused of inciting the incident, the arrest sparked further protests and violence in Manama and Sitra. Some protesters used Molotov cocktails to attack police stations, banks, on the other hand, riot police used tear and rubber bullets, sometimes fired at street level and from helicopters. It was also reported that police used live ammunition on some occasions, by December, the number of detainees was between 500 and 600 according to the US Embassy. A number of leaders, including Ali Salman were exiled in January 1995
1990s Uprising in Bahrain
–
The late Amir,
Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution in 1975.
36.
2000s in Bahrain
–
In the 2000s in Bahrain the government instituted political reforms and relaxed economic controls. The invitation to Bahrains former exiles to return home revitalised the Kingdoms politics, former Leftist dissidents formed the National Democratic Action, the Communist Democratic Bloc, and the Bahrain Human Rights Society. Leftists were also involved in the new union movement, although they faced competition from Islamists for control of several unions. Following the political liberalization Bahrain negotiated a Free Trade Agreement with the United States in 2004, the country participated in military action against the Taliban in 2001 with its ships patrolling the Arabian Sea searching for vessels, but opposed the invasion of Iraq. Relations improved with neighbouring Qatar after the dispute over the Hawar Islands was resolved by the International Court of Justice in The Hague in 2001. The two are now building the Qatar-Bahrain Friendship Bridge to link the countries across the Persian Gulf, in 2001 Hamad put forward the National Action Charter which would return the country to constitutional rule. However the opposition was opposed to the Charters call for an amendment to the 1973 Constitution, the opposition groups deemed this statement to be too ambiguous, and remained opposed to the Charter. Hamad responded by holding a highly publicized meeting with the leaders of the Shia Islamist opposition. He signed a document clarifying that only the lower house of the parliament would have legislative power. Upon this assurance, the opposition groups accepted the Charter. The Charter was accepted in the 2001 referendum with 98. 4% voting Yes for it, between 2002 and 2006, the four boycotting societies continued their demand for discussions on constitutional reforms. By 2006 these four party opposition indicated that it would participate in the parliamentary elections, the protests in Bahrain started on 14 February, and were initially aimed at achieving greater political freedom and respect for human rights, they were not intended to directly threaten the monarchy. The protests were peaceful until a pre-dawn raid by police on 17 February to clear protestors from Pearl Roundabout in Manama. Following the raid, some began to expand their aims to a call for the end of the monarchy. On 18 February army forces opened fire on protesters when they tried to reenter the roundabout, the following day protesters reoccupied Pearl Roundabout after the government ordered troops and police to withdraw. On 14 March, Saudi-led GCC forces were requested by the government and entered the country, king Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa declared a three-month state of emergency on 15 March and asked the military to reassert its control as clashes spread across the country. On 16 March, armed soldiers and riot police cleared the camp in the Pearl Roundabout. Later, on 18 March, the government tore down Pearl Roundabout monument, after the lifting of emergency law on 1 June, several large rallies were staged by the opposition parties
2000s in Bahrain
–
Over 100,000 of Bahrainis taking part in the "
March of Loyalty to Martyrs ", honoring political dissidents killed by security forces, on 22 February.
37.
Geography of Bahrain
–
The Kingdom of Bahrain consists of Bahrain Island and 33 of the 37 Bahrain Islands, lying in the Persian Gulfs Gulf of Bahrain off the north shore of Asias Arabian Peninsula. The islands are about 24 kilometers off the east coast of Saudi Arabia and 28 kilometers from Qatar, the total area of the country is about 780 square kilometers, about 3.5 times the size of the District of Columbia. Bahrain Island accounts for about 83% of the land area. It is 48 kilometers long from north to south and at its widest point stretches 16 kilometers from east to west, the island is surrounded by several of the Middle Easts large petroleum fields and commands a strategic position amid the Persian Gulfs shipping lanes. Following the return of Janan to Qatar in March 2001, that state of Bahrain consists of 33 natural islands in the Bahrain Islands archipelago, around most of Bahrain is a relatively shallow inlet of the Persian Gulf known as the Gulf of Bahrain. The seabed adjacent to Bahrain is rocky and, mainly off the part of the island. Most of the island is low-lying and barren desert, outcroppings of limestone form low rolling hills, stubby cliffs, and shallow ravines. The limestone is covered by various densities of saline sand, capable of supporting only the hardiest desert vegetation – chiefly thorn trees, there is a fertile strip five kilometers wide along the northern coast on which date, almond, fig, and pomegranate trees grow. The interior contains an escarpment that rises to 134 meters, the highest point on the island, to form Jabal ad Dukhan, most of the countrys oil wells are situated in the vicinity of Jabal ad Dukhan. One author writes about the geology of the nation, Bahrein lies on a portion of the ancient Tethys Ocean geosynclinal belt represented today by the Persian Gulf, the structure of Bahrein is that of a large, single, closed dome covering the entire faulting. At this point it breaks away into inward-facing cliffs eighty to one hundred feet high completely surrounding a central depression about twelve miles long. 2) Pleistocene sands, cross bedded and probably wind deposited, lying in the canyon, 3) Miocene silicious clay covering a very limited area. 4) Eocene limestone covering most of the island, the region of which, known as “Jabal Dukhār “Mountain of Smoke”. The limestone is porous and is the source of most of the water in the northern half of the island. Nabih Saleh contains several freshwater springs that are used to irrigate the islands extensive date palm groves, the rocky islet of Jiddah formerly housed the state prison but has now been converted to a holiday resort. Hawar and the fifteen small islands near it are the subject of a dispute between Bahrain and Qatar. Hawar is nineteen kilometers long and about one and one half kilometers wide, the other islands are uninhabited and are nesting sites for a variety of migratory birds. Bahrain has two seasons, a hot summer and a relatively mild winter
Geography of Bahrain
–
Map of Bahrain
38.
Administrative divisions of Bahrain
–
There are four Governorates in Bahrain, the Capital, Northern, Southern and Muharraq. There had previously been five until September 2014, when the Central Governorate was abolished, the first municipality in Bahrain was the 8-member Manama municipality which was established in July 1919. Members of the municipality were elected annually, the municipality was said to have been the first municipality to be established in the Arab world, the municipality was in charge of cleaning roads and renting buildings to tenants and shops. By 1929, it undertook road expansions as well as opening markets, in 1958, the municipality started water purification projects. In 1960, Bahrain comprised four municipalities including Manama, Hidd, Al Muharraq, over the next 30 years, the 4 municipalities were divided into 12 municipalities as settlements such as Hamad Town and Isa Town grew. These municipalities were administered from Manama under a municipal council whose members are appointed by the king. After September 22nd,2014, Bahrain was split into four governorates and these governorates are, The first municipal elections to be held in Bahrain after independence in 1971, was in 2002. The most recent was in 2014, a specific number of adjacent city blocks are grouped together to form an area. Each of these forms a constituency in the countrys electorate. Every four years, elections are held in these constituencies, with each electing its own MP. The most recent election was in the Bahraini parliamentary by-election in 2011, each governorate also has its own municipality council, with separate elections for them
Administrative divisions of Bahrain
–
Governorates of Bahrain محافظات البحرين (
Arabic)
