1.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
2.
Kingston, New Zealand
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Kingston is a small town at the southernmost end of Lake Wakatipu, just north of the border of Otago and Southland, in New Zealands South Island. It is 47 kilometres south of Queenstown by a road which winds between the lake to the west and The Remarkables mountains to the east and it is 70 kilometres north of Lumsden, and close to the headwaters of the Mataura River. Kingston was originally named St Johns after police commissioner St. John Branigan, the Kingston Flyer historic railway service is closely associated with the town. Media related to Kingston, New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons
3.
Southland Province
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The Southland Province was a province of New Zealand from March 1861, when it split from Otago Province, until 1870, when it rejoined Otago. When provinces were formed in 1853, the part of New Zealand belonged to Otago Province. Settlers in Murihiku, the southernmost part of the South Island purchased from Māori in 1853 by Walter Mantell, petitioning started in 1857, and the Province of Southland was proclaimed in 1861. It was named Southland despite the wishes of settlers and Māori, the province started to accumulate debt, whereas Otago prospered due to the Central Otago Gold Rush. By the late 1860s, most settlers wanted to part of the Otago Province again. The province was smaller than the present day Southland region. The area was bounded by the Mataura River, the Waiau River, stewart Island was purchased by the Crown in 1863 and added to the area. The capital and largest settlement of Southland Province was Invercargill, the Southland Province began a number of railway projects. The branch to Bluff opened on 5 February 1867 and it was built to international standard gauge of 1,435 mm, wider than the national gauge of 1,067 mm gauge. When the central government passed legislation setting a standard for track gauges. The railway later became part of the New Zealand Railways Department, founded,1 April 1861 New Zealand law provides an anniversary day for each province. The Southland Province had three Superintendents,1861 Breaks away from Otago Province 1870 Reunited with Otago A page containing a map of the old provincial boundaries is available here
4.
Otago Province
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The Otago Province was a province of New Zealand until the abolition of provincial government in 1876. The capital of the province was Dunedin, Southland Province split from Otago in 1861, but became part of the province again in 1870. Otago Province was one of the six original provinces established in New Zealand in 1853 and it covered the lower third of the South Island. The inland area of the Waitaki catchment was unexplored in 1853, the boundary was delineated in 1861 as following the Ohau River to Lake Ohau and from there a straight line to Mount Aspiring and Awarua Bay. Southland Province split from Otago in 1861, but became part of the again in 1870. All the New Zealand provinces were abolished at the end of 1876, New Zealand law provides an anniversary day for each province. When the Southland province amalgamated with Otago in 1870, the acquired the former provinces railways - which were built to the standard gauge of 1,435 mm
5.
Ministry of Works and Development
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The Ministry had its own Cabinet-level responsible minister, the Minister of Works or Minister of Public Works. This building held the Vogel Computer, one of the largest in New Zealand, the Ministry moved to the Vogel Building in about 1965 from the Old Government Building on Lambton Quay. The ministry was renamed the Ministry of Works on 16 March 1943 under the Ministry of Works Act, during the latter years of the Ministry there were seven District Offices each headed by a District Commissioner of Works. In each District there were a number of Residency Offices and each had a number of Depots, in addition there were Project Offices set up for a particular purpose, such as to build a power project, airport, tunnel or irrigation scheme. The corporation had two subsidiaries, Works Consultancy Services and Works Civil Construction. These were sold in 1996 and became Opus International Consultants and Works Infrastructure respectively, bob Semple tank Ohakea and Whenuapai aircraft hangars Stony Batter Wrights Hill Fortress Waitaki Dam Roxburgh Dam Tekapo A Benmore Power Station Aviemore Dam Tekapo B Ohau A, B and C. Lake Ruataniwha Clyde Dam In the North Island, the Tongariro Power Scheme was completed between 1964 and 1983. The PWD owned its own locomotives and rolling stock, some second-hand from the Railways Department, one example is a 6.4 km branch line built in 1928 from near the terminus of the Railways Departments Kurow Branch to a hydro-electric dam project on the Waitaki River. This line was removed in April 1937 as the PWD no longer required it, the block of numbers 501 to 550 were reserved by PWD, whilst numbers 1-500 and 551 onward were NZR locomotives. In later years, this agreement with New Zealand Railways Department was given flexibility, from World War 2, PWD used a new system of fleet numbers, with the year of introduction, followed by actual fleet number. Opus International Group Works Infrastructure Downer EDI Works By Design, A brief history of the Public Works Department Ministry of Works 1870-1970 by Rosslyn J. Noonan
6.
South Island
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The South Island or Te Waipounamu is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman Sea, the South Island covers 150,437 square kilometres and has a temperate climate. In the early stages of European settlement of the country, the South Island had the majority of the European population, in prose, the two main islands of New Zealand are called the North Island and the South Island, with the definite article. Charcoal drawings can be found on rock shelters in the centre of the South Island. The drawings are estimated to be between 500 and 800 years old, and portray animals, people and fantastic creatures, possibly stylised reptiles, some of the birds pictured are long extinct, including moa and Haasts eagles. They were drawn by early Māori, but by the time Europeans arrived, early inhabitants of the South Island were the Waitaha. They were largely absorbed via marriage and conquest by the Kāti Mamoe in the 16th century, Kāti Mamoe were in turn largely absorbed via marriage and conquest by the Kāi Tahu who migrated south in the 17th century. While today there is no distinct Kāti Mamoe organisation, many Kāi Tahu have Kāti Mamoe links in their whakapapa and, a notable feature of the Moriori culture, an emphasis on pacifism, proved disadvantageous when Māori warriors arrived in the 1830s aboard a chartered European ship. In the early 18th century, Kāi Tahu, a Māori tribe who originated on the east coast of the North Island, There they and Kāti Mamoe fought Ngāi Tara and Rangitāne in the Wairau Valley. Ngāti Māmoe then ceded the east coast regions north of the Clarence River to Kāi Tahu, Kāi Tahu continued to push south, conquering Kaikoura. By the 1730s, Kāi Tahu had settled in Canterbury, including Banks Peninsula, from there they spread further south and into the West Coast. In 1827-1828 Ngāti Toa under the leadership of Te Rauparaha successfully attacked Kāi Tahu at Kaikoura, Ngāti Toa then visited Kaiapoi, ostensibly to trade. When they attacked their hosts, the well-prepared Kāi Tahu killed all the leading Ngāti Toa chiefs except Te Rauparaha, Te Rauparaha returned to his Kapiti Island stronghold. After destroying Te Maiharanuis village they took their captives to Kapiti, John Stewart, though arrested and sent to trial in Sydney as an accomplice to murder, nevertheless escaped conviction. In the summer of 1831–32 Te Rauparaha attacked the Kaiapoi pā, Kaiapoi was engaged in a three-month siege by Te Rauparaha, during which his men successfully sapped the pā. They then attacked Kāi Tahu on Banks Peninsula and took the pā at Onawe, in 1832-33 Kāi Tahu retaliated under the leadership of Tūhawaiki and others, attacking Ngāti Toa at Lake Grassmere. Kāi Tahu prevailed, and killed many Ngāti Toa, although Te Rauparaha again escaped, fighting continued for a year or so, with Kāi Tahu maintaining the upper hand. Ngāti Toa never again made an incursion into Kāi Tahu territory
7.
Lake Wakatipu
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Lake Wakatipu is an inland lake in the South Island of New Zealand. It is in the southwest corner of the Otago region, near its boundary with Southland, Lake Wakatipu comes from the original Māori word Whakatipu wai-māori. With a length of 80 kilometres, it is New Zealands longest lake, the lake is also very deep, its floor being below sea level, with a maximum depth of 380 metres. It is at an altitude of 310 metres, towards the end of the Southern Alps. The general topography is a reversed N shape or dog leg, the Dart River flows into the northern end, the lake then runs south for 30 kilometres before turning abruptly to the east. Twenty kilometres further along, it sharply to the south, reaching its southern end 30 kilometres further south. The lake is drained by the Kawarau River, which flows out from the lakes Frankton Arm,8 km east of Queenstown, until about 18,000 years ago the Mataura River drained Lake Wakatipu. The Kingston Flyer follows part of the river bed now blocked by glacial moraine. Queenstown is on the shore of the lake close to eastern end of its middle section. It has a seiche of period 26.7 minutes which, in Queenstown Bay, causes the level to rise. Lake Wakatipu is renowned for its beauty, being surrounded by mountains. The Remarkables mountain range lies along its southeastern edge and it is a popular venue for adventure tourism, with skifields, paragliding, bungy jumping and tramping tracks within easy reach. A vintage steamboat, the TSS Earnslaw regularly plies its waters, several vineyards are nearby in the Gibbston Valley. The original form and meaning of the name are not known for certain, the name is believed to originate from the Waitaha people, who were later displaced by Kāti Mamoe. Taken literally, Wakatipu would mean growing canoe or possibly growing bay if the original was Whakatipu, the dialect is also known for dropping final vowels, and Wakatipua or Whakatipua have also been recorded historically, as has Wakatapu. A legend says that the bed was formed when a giant ogre. Lake Wakatipu is a habitat for the eel, brown trout, salmon. These and other fish predators such as the pied shag
8.
Express train
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Express trains are a form of rail service. Express trains make only a number of stops, instead of stopping locally. In some cases, trains run express where there is overlapping local train service available, and run local at the ends of the line. During overnight hours, or other times where it is practical, express trains may become local, while widely implemented in long-distance rail service, it has also proven successful in the planning of some rapid transit systems. A large portion of the New York City Subway has a 4-track layout, several variations of express services are also a feature in major Japanese railways, and on line 1 of the Seoul Metro
9.
Gore, New Zealand
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Gore is a town and district in the Southland region of the South Island of New Zealand. The town of Gore is 64 kilometres northeast of Invercargill and 70 km west of Balclutha – Dunedin, the Gore District has a resident population of 12,500. The urban area estimated resident population at the June 2016 was 9,890, Gore is a service town for the surrounding farm communities. It is divided by the Mataura River into Gore and East Gore, the Main South Line railway from Dunedin to Invercargill runs through the town, though passenger services ceased in 2003. Gore was once a railway junction, the Waimea Plains Railway ran west to connect with the Kingston Branch in Lumsden. In Köppen-Geiger climate classification system, it has an oceanic climate, the FM Hokonui radio station broadcasts from Gore to listeners in Southland and South Otago. Cave FM, Gore radio station locally owned broadcast from Gore, before the arrival of Europeans the current site of Gore was a part of or near the routes used by Maori travellers. Tuturau, near modern Mataura, was the nearest Maori settlement, in 1836 southern Maori repelled a raid from the north, which provided sufficient security for Europeans to purchase land and settle in the area. By the mid-1850s large tracts nearby had been converted into sheep runs, as crossing the Mataura River involved a long fording, the locality became known as the Long Ford, or Longford. In 1862 a few sections were surveyed on the west bank of the river and Longford was named Gore as a compliment to Sir Thomas Gore Browne. By 1864 a road from Balclutha through Gore to Invercargill had been opened for wheeled traffic which allowed the establishment of a coach service between Invercargill and Dunedin. By 1877 there were business opportunities in the area for the Bank of New Zealand to establish a branch in Gore. Within another three years both the Bank of Australasia and the Colonial Bank had also opened branches, in 1899 the Bank of New South Wales followed suit. After its construction began in the early 1870s, a line between Invercargill and Gore was opened on 30 August 1875. By 22 January 1879 the railway had extended to Balclutha where it linked with an existing line to Dunedin. A private Waimea Plains railway from Gore to Lumsden was opened on 31 July 1880 and this was subsequently purchased by the Government in 1886. It connected Gore with the Invercargill-Kingston branch line, by 1908 another branch had been completed via McNab to Waikaka. The extension of the railways established Gore as an important hub and had a significant effect on its development, by 1879, the Ensign newspaper was being published in the town, followed in 1887 by the rival Standard
10.
Invercargill
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Invercargill is the southernmost and westernmost city in New Zealand, and one of the southernmost cities in the world. It is the centre of the Southland region. It lies in the heart of the expanse of the Southland Plains on the Oreti or New River some 18 km north of Bluff. Many streets in the city, especially in the centre and main shopping district, are named after rivers in Great Britain, mainly Scotland. These include the main streets Dee and Tay, as well as named after the Forth, Tyne, Esk, Don, Thames, Mersey, Ness, Yarrow, Spey. The 2013 census showed the population was 51,696, up 2. 7% on the 2006 census number, Southland was a scene of early extended contact between Europeans and Maori, notably whalers and missionaries – Wohlers at Ruapuke. In 1853, Walter Mantell purchased Murihiku from local Maori iwi, Otago, of which Southland was itself part, was the subject of planned settlement by the Free Church, an offshoot of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Settlement broadened with the discovery of gold in Central Otago in the 1860s, today, traces of Scottish speech persist in Southland voices, with R often pronounced with a rolling burr. This is more noticeable among country people, in 1856, a petition was put forward to Thomas Gore Browne, the Governor of New Zealand, for a port at Bluff. Due to the Otago gold rush, the population grew during the 1860s with the settlement of Bluff. Browne agreed to the petition and gave the name Invercargill to the settlement north of the port, the settlements chief surveyor was John Turnbull Thomson, a British civil engineer. Under the influence of James Menzies, Southland Province seceded from Otago in 1861 following the escalation of political tensions, however, rising debt forced Southland to rejoin Otago in 1870 and the provincial system, and with it the province of Otago, was abolished entirely in 1876. This debt was caused by a population decline stemming from poor returns from pastoral farming, in 1874, Invercargills population was less than 2,500 which reflected the drift north to large centres. In the 1880s, the development of an industry based on butter. In December 1905, Invercargill voted in local prohibition of alcohol sales and this lasted for 40 years until voted out by returning servicemen in the Second World War. When prohibition ended, a committee of citizens persuaded the Government to give the monopoly on sales in Invercargill to the specially formed Invercargill Licensing Trust. Based on a scheme in Carlisle, England, it returns profits to city amenities, even today, alcohol is not sold in supermarkets. In recent years, publicity has been brought to the city by the election of Tim Shadbolt
11.
Dunedin
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Dunedin is the second-largest city in the South Island of New Zealand, and the principal city of the Otago region. It is named for the capital of Scotland, generally Anglicised as Edinburgh, Dunedin was the largest New Zealand city by territorial land area until superseded by Auckland on the creation of the Auckland Council in November 2010. Dunedin was the largest city in New Zealand by population from the 1860s until about 1900, the city population at 5 March 2013 was 120,246. The Dunedin urban area lies on the central-eastern coast of Otago, the harbour and hills around Dunedin represent the remnants of an extinct volcano. The city suburbs extend out into the valleys and hills, onto the isthmus of the Otago Peninsula, and along the shores of the Otago Harbour. The citys most important activity in economic terms centres around tertiary education – Dunedin is home to the University of Otago, New Zealands first university, and the Otago Polytechnic. Students account for a proportion of the population,21.6 percent of the citys population was aged between 15 and 24 at the 2006 census, compared to the New Zealand average of 14.2 percent. In 2014 Dunedin was designated as a UNESCO Creative City of Literature, archaeological evidence shows the first human occupation of New Zealand occurred between AD 1250–1300, with population concentrated along the southeast coast. A camp site at Kaikai Beach, near Long Beach, has dated from about that time. There are numerous sites in what is now Dunedin, several of them large and permanently occupied. The population contracted but expanded again with the evolution of the Classic culture which saw the building of several pā, fortified settlements, notably Pukekura at, there was a settlement in what is now central Dunedin occupied as late as about 1785 but abandoned by 1826. Maori tradition tells first of a people called Kahui Tipua living in the area, then Te Rapuwai, semi-legendary, the next arrivals were Waitaha followed by Kāti Mamoe late in the 16th century and then Kai Tahu who arrived in the mid 17th century. These migration waves have often represented as invasions in European accounts. They were probably migrations like those of the European which incidentally resulted in bloodshed, the sealer John Boultbee recorded in the 1820s that the Kaika Otargo were the oldest and largest in the south. Lieutenant James Cook stood off what is now the coast of Dunedin between 25 February 1770 and 5 March 1770, naming Cape Saunders and Saddle Hill and he reported penguins and seals in the vicinity, which led sealers to visit from the beginning of the 19th century. Permanent European occupation dates from 1831, when the Weller brothers founded their whaling station at Otago, modern Otakou, epidemics badly reduced the Maori population. By the late 1830s the Harbour had become an international whaling port, johnny Jones established a farming settlement and a mission station, the South Islands first, at Waikouaiti in 1840. After inspecting several areas around the eastern coast of the south island, the name comes from Dùn Èideann, the Scottish Gaelic name for Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland
12.
New Zealand Railways Department
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The Department was created in 1880 and was corporatised on 1 April 1982 into the New Zealand Railways Corporation. The role of operating the network was subsequently separated from that of the networks construction. From 1895 to 1993 there was a responsible Minister, the Minister of Railways and he was often also the Minister of Public Works. Originally, New Zealands railways were constructed by provincial governments and private firms, the largest provincial operation was the Canterbury Provincial Railways, which opened the first public railway at Ferrymead on 1 December 1863. Following the abolition of the provinces in 1877, the Public Works Department took over the provincial railways. The Railways Department was formed in 1880 during the premiership of Sir John Hall and that year, the private Port Chalmers Railway Company Limited was acquired by the department and new workshops at Addington opened. Ironically, the first few years of NZR were marked by the Long Depression, as a result, the central government passed legislation to allow for the construction of more private railways. A Royal Commission, ordered by Hall, had removed plans for a line on the west coast of the North Island from Foxton to Wellington. The Act had the effect of authorising the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company to build the Wellington-Manawatu Line, the most important construction project for NZR at this time was the central section of the North Island Main Trunk. Starting from Te Awamutu on 15 April 1885, the section - including the famous Raurimu Spiral - was not completed for another 23 years, the economy gradually improved and in 1895 the Liberal Government of Premier Richard Seddon appointed Alfred Cadman as the first Minister of Railways. The Minister appointed a General Manager for the railways, keeping the operation under tight political control, apart from four periods of government-appointed commissions, this system remained in place until the department was corporatised in 1982. In 1895, patronage had reached 3. 9M passengers per annum and 2. 048M tonnes, NZR produced its first New Zealand-built steam locomotive, W class, in 1889. Along with opening new lines, NZR began acquiring a number of the railways which had built railway lines around the country. In 1886 the Waimea Plains Railway Company acquired, at the same time, a protracted legal battle with New Zealand Midland Railway Company began, and was only resolved in 1898. The partially completed Midland line was not handed over to NZR until 1900, by that time,3,200 km of railway lines were open for traffic. The acquisition in 1908 of the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company, a new locomotive class, the X class, was introduced in 1909 for traffic on the line. The X class was the most powerful locomotive at the time, gold rushes led to the construction of the Thames Branch, opening in 1898. In 1906 the Dunedin Railway Station was completed, architect George Troup, a. L. Beattie became Chief Mechanical Officer in April 1900
13.
TSS Earnslaw
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The TSS Earnslaw is a 1912 Edwardian vintage twin screw steamer plying the waters of Lake Wakatipu in New Zealand. It is one of the oldest tourist attractions in Central Otago, the Earnslaw was designed by naval architect Hugh McRae and was based on a Siemens-Martin steel hull design and using Kauri for the decking. Propulsion was provided by twin coal-fired triple-expansion, jet-condensing, vertically inclined engines, the keel was laid on 4 July 1911. The ship was named after Mount Earnslaw, a 2889-metre peak at the head of Lake Wakatipu and she was to be 51.2 metres long, the biggest boat on the lake, and the largest steamship built in New Zealand. Transporting the Earnslaw was no easy task, when construction was finally completed, she was dismantled. All the quarter-inch steel hull plates were numbered for reconstruction much like a jig-saw puzzle, then the parts were loaded on to a goods train and transported across the South Island from Dunedin to Kingston at the southern end of Lake Wakatipu. Six months later, after being rebuilt, on 24 February 1912 and she then became a valuable vessel for the New Zealand Railways and was known as the Lady of the Lake. In 1968, the Earnslaw was very nearly scrapped but she was fortunately rescued and she was leased by Fiordland Travel in 1969, and later purchased by the same company in 1982. She was taken out of service for a makeover in 1984. Her 12 metre high funnel was painted red, with the hull a snow white. During her long years on the lake, the most serious accidents to occur were two groundings on the shores of the lake. In March 1990, the Earnslaw carried Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip, other royalty to travel on board have been the King and Queen of the Belgians and the Prince of Thailand. The TSS Earnslaw made a cameo appearance in the movie Indiana Jones. A plaque commemorating the ship was erected by IPENZ and the Otago Heritage Trust in 2008, the ship has had many captains over its 100-year history. Amongst them are the following, George Herbert Tom Luckie Alexander Munro Patrick Bennetts Patrick R, the ship works fourteen-hour days in the summer months and cruises for eleven months of the year, despite being over 100 years old. Visitors to the region can undertake a 1. 5-hour cruise on board the TSS Earnslaw and view the workings of the steam engine and stokers. Each year, the TSS Earnslaw undergoes an annual survey – typically from late May to early June – with every year being taken out of the lake. Each of the Earnslaws screws is turned by a driveshaft driven by a steam engine
14.
Long Depression
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The Long Depression was a worldwide price and economic recession, beginning in 1873 and running either through the spring of 1879, or 1896, depending on the metrics used. It was the most severe in Europe and the United States, the episode was labeled the Great Depression at the time, and it held that designation until the Great Depression of the 1930s. Though a period of deflation and a general contraction, it did not have the severe economic retrogression of the Great Depression. It was most notable in Western Europe and North America, at least in part because reliable data from the period is most readily available in parts of the world. The United Kingdom is often considered to have been the hardest hit, the National Bureau of Economic Research dates the contraction following the panic as lasting from October 1873 to March 1879. At 65 months, it is the longest-lasting contraction identified by the NBER, in the US, from 1873 to 1879,18,000 businesses went bankrupt, including 89 railroads. Ten states and hundreds of banks went bankrupt, unemployment peaked in 1878, long after the panic ended. Different sources peg the peak U. S. unemployment rate anywhere from 8. 25% to 14%, the period preceding the depression was dominated by several major military conflicts and a period of economic expansion. New technologies in such as the Bessemer converter were being rapidly applied. This essentially ended the bimetallic standard of the US, forcing it for the first time onto a gold standard. This measure, referred to by its opponents as the Crime of 1873 and it also drove down silver prices further, even as new silver mines were being established in Nevada, which stimulated mining investment but increased supply as demand was falling. Silver miners arrived at US mints, unaware of the ban on production of silver coins, by September, the US economy was in a crisis, deflation causing banking panics and destabilizing business investment, climaxing in the Panic of 1873. The Panic of 1873 has been described as the first truly international crisis, the optimism that had been driving booming stock prices in central Europe had reached a fever pitch, and fears of a bubble culminated in a panic in Vienna beginning in April 1873. Financial panic arrived in the Americas only months later on Black Thursday, September 18,1873 after the failure of the house of Jay Cooke. The New York Stock Exchange closed for ten days on September 20, the financial contagion then returned to Europe, provoking a second panic in Vienna and further failures in continental Europe before receding. France, which had been experiencing deflation in the preceding the crash, was spared financial calamity for the moment. The primary cause of the depression in the United States was the tight monetary policy that the US followed to get back to the gold standard after the US Civil War. The US government was taking out of circulation to achieve this goal
15.
Mixed train
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A mixed train is a train that hauls both passenger and freight cars or wagons. In the early days of railways they were common. Because mixed trains involve the shunting of wagons at stations along the way, they provide passengers with a very slow service. Their use is also at variance with the separation of passenger, in parts of Asia and Africa, mixed trains are still the norm on routes with little traffic. In Australia, mixed trains could also be called a car goods, goods train with car attached and this last term could cause confusion, as mixed goods in some other countries can refer to a freight train carrying multiple types of freight rather than just one commodity. In yet another form of mixed train, railmotors or railcars might haul a one or two goods wagons or a brake van carrying some freight. In German-speaking countries, there were two types of mixed train, the GmP and the PmG. The GmP was a train with passenger service, in other words a goods train that also had one or more coaches for the transportation of railway passengers. These were not an uncommon sight on branch lines and were run for the following reasons, insufficient vehicles and/or railway staff to operate separate goods and passenger trains. High levels of traffic, which meant that goods and passenger services had to be combined, the passenger coaches were located either in the centre or at the end of the train, so that passengers did not have to travel immediately behind the locomotive. However at times of the year when coaches required heating, the coaches had to run immediately behind the locomotive, because goods wagons usually had no heating pipes. One disadvantage for passengers was the slow speeds of a GmP and this was one of the major reasons for the eventual disappearance of this type of train. The Deutsche Bundesbahn continued to run GmP trains occasionally right into the 1980s, today they are no longer to be found in Germany, Austria or Switzerland. The other type of mixed train in German-speaking countries was the PmG or passenger train with goods service, the Deutsche Reichsbahn in East Germany continued to operate some of these trains until the early 1990s. In essence they comprised one or more goods wagons running behind the passenger coaches, towards the end, no shunting of goods wagons took place at the intermediate stations. Even private railways used to run PmG trains, but they are found today. Exceptions include e. g. ski trains in places like Interlaken which have a wagon for ski equipment behind or ahead of the passenger coaches. Mixed trains were once prolific in New Zealand, although express trains operated on the main lines, it was often not profitable to run dedicated passenger services on rural branch lines and they were served solely by mixed trains
16.
Rail transport in New Zealand
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Rail transport in New Zealand consists of a network of 1,067 mm narrow gauge railway lines in both the North and South Islands. Rail services are focused primarily on freight, particularly bulk freight, only Auckland and Wellington have urban rail systems, both of which are being upgraded and expanded. The railway network was constructed by the provincial governments of New Zealand from 1863 onwards. New Zealands first public railway was opened in that year at Ferrymead by the Canterbury Province, the first steam-powered railway operated between Christchurch and Ferrymead. The Canterbury Provincial Railways were built to the gauge of 1,600 mm. On 5 February 1867, Southland Province opened a branch from Invercargill to Bluff to the standard gauge of 1,435 mm. From 1870, the government of Sir Julius Vogel proposed infrastructure including railway development. The central government also adopted a gauge of 1,067 mm. The first narrow-gauge line was opened on 1 January 1873 in the Otago Province, Aucklands first railway, between Auckland and Onehunga, opened in 1873. Vogel also arranged for Brogdens of England to undertake several rail construction contracts, a Minister of Railways was responsible for the department, and was a member of the New Zealand Cabinet. The first major route was completed between Christchurch and Dunedin in 1878, later extended to Invercargill the following year, the North Island Main Trunk, linking capital city Wellington with largest city Auckland, opened in 1908 after 23 years of construction. At the networks peak in 1952, about 100 branch lines were operating, large-scale closures of branch railway lines began in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1982, the Railways Department was corporatised into a new entity at the time land transport was deregulated. The Railways Department became the New Zealand Railways Corporation, the Corporation embarked on a major restructuring, laying off thousands of staff and cutting unprofitable services. In 1987 the Railways Corporation became an enterprise, required to make a profit. New Zealand Rail Limited was privatised in 1993, with the new owners adopting the name Tranz Rail in 1995, during the period of private ownership of the network, Tranz Rail was widely accused of diverting rail freight to its trucks and forcing other freight off the rails. Rail freight volumes increased between 1993 and 2000 from 8. 5m tonnes to 14. 99m tonnes carried annually, Tranz Rail was also accused of deliberately running down some lines through lack of maintenance. The Midland Line, which carries coal from the West Coast to Lyttelton, was assessed to be in a safe but poor state by the LTSA government safety body in 2003
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Main South Line
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It is one of the most important railway lines in New Zealand and was one of the first to be built, with construction commencing in the 1860s. At Christchurch it connects with the Main North Line to Picton, construction of the first section of the line began in 1865 and the whole line was completed on 22 January 1879. The Canterbury provincial government built and opened the first public railway in New Zealand, a line south to connect with major South Canterbury centres, northern Otago and Dunedin was desired, and on 24 May 1865 construction of what was then termed the Canterbury Great South Railway began. The Canterbury Provincial Railways were broad gauge,1,600 mm, the first section of the line was opened to Rolleston on 13 October 1866. Beyond Rolleston, three routes south were considered, A route well inland to cross rivers in narrower places. A coastal line through fertile country, a compromise between the two, following the most direct route and crossing major rivers at more reasonable places than the coastal route. The third option was chosen and the line was built through an at times relatively barren part of the Canterbury Plains towards Rakaia. By the time the line reached Selwyn in October 1867,35 km from central Christchurch the provincial government was so short of finances that construction was temporarily halted. In 1870 Julius Vogel announced his Great Public Works Policy and placed a priority on the completion of a line between Christchurch and Dunedin. Soon after this, the government recognised the need to conform with the uniform gauge. Construction not only progressed south from the Christchurch end and north from Dunedin, construction was swift through the 1870s, and on 4 February 1876, Christchurch was linked with Timaru. Just under a later, on 1 February 1877, the line was complete all the way from Christchurch to Oamaru in north Otago. At the southern end, the Dunedin and Port Chalmers Railway opened on 1 January 1873, most of this line became part of the Main South Line, with construction progressing north from a junction at Sawyers Bay, leaving the final two kilometres to become the Port Chalmers Branch. A difficult hillside climb out of Dunedin was encountered, with taking a significant length of time. The construction south from Oamaru included the creation of two branch lines along the way, the Moeraki Branch and the Shag Point Branch. On 7 September 1878 the route from Christchurch to Dunedin was opened in its entirety, in 1871, the Dunedin and Clutha Railway was one of the first authorised railways under Vogels Great Public Works Policy, and construction was rapid. This was the first major line constructed to 1,067 mm gauge, on 1 September 1875 the line opened to Balclutha, the major town of the lower Clutha River region,84 kilometres from Dunedin. At the Invercargill end, construction was swift, and Gore was reached on 30 August 1875, from here, undulating countryside necessitated heavier earthworks to Balclutha, completing the route from Dunedin to Invercargill, and construction was completed on 22 January 1879
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NZR K class (1877)
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The NZR K class of 1877 was the first example of American-built locomotives to be used on New Zealands railways. Their success coloured locomotive development in New Zealand until the end of steam, in 1877, the new Chief Mechanical Engineer of the NZR, Allison D. Smith required some new motive power for the fledgling Government system. It had been intended to order more J Class locomotives which were of an English design, however, Mr Smith was adamant American locomotives would be much more suitable for New Zealands conditions. His argument won, and an order was placed with the Rogers Locomotive Works of New Jersey, for two tender locomotives with a wheel arrangement of 2-4-2. In addition this first pair, K87 Lincoln and K88 Washington, reputedly wore a kaleidoscope of colours - green, blue, yellow, red, purple, after arrival in the South Island at Lyttelton, the locomotives were quickly put into service. K87 Lincoln quickly distinguished itself by hauling the first bogie-carriage passenger train, Allison Smiths faith was well placed with railway authorities regarding the first two Ks as infinitely superior to the English locomotives in operation during the same period. In 1883, due to its characteristics, the K class was the only class of engine officially permitted to run at 35 miles per hour in ordinary service. Two of the Ks, K93 and K96, were transferred to the North Island during this time, beginning just after 1900 the class started receiving new NZR-built boilers to replace their Rogers-built wagon-top boilers. The South Island locomotives gained boilers of a Belpaire design, while the North Island pair received round-top boilers, all the new boilers were pressed to 160psi, an increase over the original boilers 130psi. By this time all the locomotives had received Westinghouse brake equipment also, the days of the K class in service were over during the 1920s. Both the North Island examples, plus K87 Lincoln had been withdrawn as early as 1922, the others managed to linger on for a few more years yet, with the last two, K92 and K95, not withdrawn until 1927. As was customary at the time, the locomotives were set aside pending disposal, all remaining South Island class members lasted long enough to be dumped as embankment protection, something which began in 1926. Three of the Rogers K class have so far been exhumed and entered into preservation, the first and most notable of these locomotives is K88 Washington, which was exhumed from its river grave by the Southland Vintage Car Club on 19 and 20 January 1974. There were a number of plans regarding the locomotives future. The locomotive wreck was threatened with being pushed back into the river until the The Plains Vintage Railway & Historical Museum came up with plans to restore it back to working order. Beginning in July 1974, they achieved this goal in on the 7 November 1981 proving that the restoration of exhumed locomotives was possible and it was recommissioned on the 25 November the following year. The other two locomotives exhumed so far are K94, exhumed by an owner and moved to The Plains Railway on 21 April 1986. It is in storage in a state with no active plans for restoration
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Steam locomotive
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A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
New Zealand
