1.
Nakagin Capsule Tower
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The Nakagin Capsule Tower is a mixed-use residential and office tower designed by architect Kisho Kurokawa and located in Shimbashi, Tokyo, Japan. Completed in 1972, the building is a remaining example of Japanese Metabolism. It was the worlds first example of architecture built for permanent. The building still exists but has fallen into disrepair, as of October 2012, around thirty of the 140 capsules remained in use as apartments, while others were used for storage or office space, or simply abandoned and allowed to deteriorate. The building is composed of two interconnected towers, respectively eleven and thirteen floors, which house 140 self-contained prefabricated capsules. Each capsule measures 2.3 m by 3.8 m by 2.1 m, capsules can be connected and combined to create larger spaces. Each capsule is connected to one of the two main shafts only by four high-tension bolts and is designed to be replaceable, no units have been replaced since the original construction. The capsules were fitted with utilities and interior fittings before being shipped to the building site, each capsule is attached independently and cantilevered from the shaft, so that any capsule may be removed easily without affecting the others. The capsules are all-welded lightweight steel-truss boxes clad in galvanized, rib-reinforced steel panels, after processing, the panels were coated with rust-preventative paint and finished with a coat of Kenitex glossy spray. The cores are rigid-frame, made of a frame and reinforced concrete. From the basement to the floor, ordinary concrete was used, above those levels. Shuttering consists of large panels the height of a storey of the tower. In order to make use of the staircase, precast concrete was used in the floor plates. Because of the pattern in two days of steel-frame work were followed by two days of precast-concrete work, the staircase was completely operational by the time the framework was finished. On-site construction of the elevators was shortened by incorporating the 3-D frames, the rails, the original target demographic were bachelor salarymen. The compact apartments included a wall of appliances and cabinets built into one side, including a stove, a refrigerator, a television set. A bathroom unit, about the size of a lavatory, is set into an opposite corner. A large circular window over a bed dominates the far end of the room, construction occurred on site and off site
2.
Art and architecture of Japan
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It has a long history, ranging from the beginnings of human habitation in Japan, sometime in the 10th millennium BC, to the present. Japan has been subject to invasions of new and strange ideas followed by long periods of minimal contact with the outside world. Over time the Japanese developed the ability to absorb, imitate, the earliest complex art in Japan was produced in the 7th and 8th centuries in connection with. After the Ōnin War, Japan entered a period of political, social, in the state that emerged under the leadership of the Tokugawa shogunate, organized religion played a much less important role in peoples lives, and the arts that survived were primarily secular. Painting is the artistic expression in Japan, practiced by amateurs. Until modern times, the Japanese wrote with a rather than a pen. With the rise of popular culture in the Edo period, a style of woodblock prints became a major form, Japanese ceramics are among the finest in the world and include the earliest known artifacts of their culture. In architecture, Japanese preferences for natural materials and an interaction of interior and exterior space are clearly expressed and they built simple houses of wood and thatch set into shallow earthen pits to provide warmth from the soil. They crafted lavishly decorated pottery vessels, clay figurines called dogū. The next wave of immigrants was the Yayoi people, named for the district in Tokyo where remnants of their settlements first were found. These people, arriving in Japan about 350 BC, brought their knowledge of rice cultivation, the manufacture of copper weapons and bronze bells. The third stage in Japanese prehistory, the Kofun period, represents a modification of Yayoi culture, the period is named for the large number of kofun megalithic tombs created during this period. In this period, diverse groups of people formed political alliances, typical artifacts are bronze mirrors, symbols of political alliances, and clay sculptures called haniwa which were erected outside tombs. The transmission of Buddhism provided the impetus for contacts between China, Korea and Japan. Throughout the 7th and 8th centuries, however, the focus in contacts between Japan and the Asian continent was the development of Buddhism. The most common designations are the Suiko period, 552–645, the Hakuhō period, 645–710, the earliest Japanese sculptures of the Buddha are dated to the 6th and 7th century. After the Chinese Northern Wei buddhist art had infiltrated a Korean peninsula, many historians portray Korea as a mere transmitter of Buddhism. The Three Kingdoms, and particularly Baekje, were instrumental as active agents in the introduction and formation of a Buddhist tradition in Japan in 538 or 552 and they illustrate the terminal point of the Silk Road transmission of art during the first few centuries of our era
3.
Metabolist Movement
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Metabolism was a post-war Japanese architectural movement that fused ideas about architectural megastructures with those of organic biological growth. It had its first international exposure during CIAMs 1959 meeting and its ideas were tested by students from Kenzo Tanges MIT studio. They were influenced by a variety of sources including Marxist theories. Although the World Design Conference gave the Metabolists exposure on the stage their ideas remained largely theoretical. Some smaller, individual buildings that employed the principles of Metabolism were built, after the 1973 oil crisis, the Metabolists turned their attention away from Japan and toward Africa and the Middle East. The Congrès Internationaux dArchitecture Moderne was founded in Switzerland in 1928 as an association of architects who wanted to advance modernism into an international setting. During the early 1930s they promoted the idea that urban development should be guided by CIAMs four functional categories of, dwelling, work, transportation, by the mid-1930s Le Corbusier and other architects had moulded CIAM into a pseudo-political party with the goal of promoting modern architecture to all. This view gained some traction in the immediate post-war period when Le Corbusier, by the early 1950s it was felt that CIAM was losing its avant-garde edge so in 1954 a group of younger members called Team 10 was formed. This included the Dutch architects Jacob Bakema and Aldo van Eyck, the Team 10 architects introduced concepts like human association, cluster and mobility, with Bakema encouraging the combination of architecture and planning in urban design. This was a rejection of CIAMs older four function mechanical approach and it would lead to the break-up. Kenzo Tange was invited to the CIAM59 meeting of the association in Otterlo, in what was to be the last meeting of CIAM he presented two theoretical projects by the architect Kiyonori Kikutake, the Tower-shaped City and Kikutakes own home, the Sky House. This presentation exposed the fledgling Metabolist movement to its first international audience, like Team 10s human association concepts Metabolism too was exploring new concepts in urban design. Tower-shaped City was a 300 metre tall tower that housed the infrastructure for an entire city and it included transportation, services and a manufacturing plant for prefabricated houses. The tower was vertical artificial land onto which steel, pre-fabricated dwelling capsules could be attached, Kikutake proposed that these capsules would undergo self-renewal every fifty years and the city would grow organically like branches of a tree. Constructed on a hillside, the Sky House is a platform supported on four panels with a hyperbolic paraboloid shell roof. It is a space divided by storage units with the kitchen. These latter two were designed so that they could be moved to suit the use of the house -, at one point a small childrens room was attached to the bottom of main floor with a small child-sized access door between the two rooms. After the meeting, Tange left for Massachusetts Institute of Technology to begin a period as a visiting professor
4.
Kanie, Aichi
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Kanie is a town located in Ama District, Aichi Prefecture, Japan. As of May 2015, the town had an population of 36,789. The total area was 11.09 square kilometres, the origin of the towns name comes from the once-plentiful crab population. Kanie Town was created with the establishment of the system on April 1,1889. In October 2003, Kanie participated in discussions with regards to a merge with neighboring town of Yatomi. However, negotiations failed in 2004 and Kanie decided to remain as an independent municipality, Kanie is located in the southwest Aichi Prefecture. All of the town is at sea level, Aichi Prefecture Nakagawa-ku, Nagoya Minato-ku, Nagoya Tsushima Aisai Yatomi Ama Tobishima Kanie is primarily a regional commercial center and bedroom community for the Nagoya metropolis. Owari Onsen hot spring Sunari Festival Media related to Kanie, Aichi at Wikimedia Commons Official website
5.
Kyoto University
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Kyoto University, or Kyodai is a national university in Kyoto, Japan. It is the second oldest Japanese university, one of Asias highest ranked universities, Kyoto Universitys forerunner was the Chemistry School founded in Osaka in 1869, which, despite its name, taught physics as well. Later, the Third Higher School was established in the place of Seimi-kyoku in 1886, Kyoto Imperial University as a part of the Imperial University system was established on June 18,1897, using the Third Higher Schools buildings. The higher school moved to a patch of land across the street, in the same year of the universitys establishment, the College of Science and Technology was founded. The College of Law and the College of Medicine were founded in 1899, the faculty was dissolved with the foundation of the Faculty of Integrated Human Studies in 1992. Kyoto University has since 2004 been incorporated as a national university corporation under a new law which applies to all national universities, despite the incorporation which has led to increased financial independence and autonomy, Kyoto University is still partly controlled by the Japanese Ministry of Education. The Universitys Department of Geophysics and their Disaster Prevention Research Institute are represented on the national Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction. The university has three campuses in Yoshida, Kyoto, in Katsura, Kyoto, in Gokashō, Uji Yoshida Campus is the main campus, the Graduate School of Engineering is currently under process of moving to the newly built Katsura Campus. The university has about 22,000 students enrolled in its undergraduate and graduate programs, the university claims ten Nobel Laureates and two Fields Medalists among its faculty and alumni. The university is known as the starting point for the Kyoto School philosophical movement. It can be seen in the several such as shown below. In another ranking, Japanese prep school Kawaijuku ranked Kyodai as the 2nd best university in Japan, Kyodai is also one of the top universities in the world. The following rankings are the example of Kyodais ranking positions in the world rankings, Kyoto University was ranked 24th in the world in the 2010 Academic Ranking of World Universities 11th worldwide in the Global University Ranking. A human competitiveness index and analysis by the Human Resources & Labor Review, QS World University Rankings in 2011 placed Kyoto University 32nd overall in the world, one behind University of Melbourne, seven places lower than the previous year. The 2011 QS Asian Rankings make Kyoto University the seventh highest ranked university in Asia, Kyodai is usually considered as one of the top research institution in Japan. In fact, the 2nd largest amount of investment from Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research and this financial support from the Japanese government has a direct effect on Kyodais research outcomes. According to Thomson Reuters, Kyodai is the 1st best research university in Japan and its research excellence is especially distinctive in Chemistry, Biology & Biochemistry, Pharmacology & Toxicology, Immunology, Material Science, and Physics. Kyodai was placed in the 10th position in this ranking, Kyodai also has a high research standard in Social Sciences & Humanities
6.
Bachelor's degree
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A bachelors degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years. In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelors degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, by the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word came to be associated with bacca lauri in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours. An honours degree generally requires an academic standard than a pass degree. In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power, for example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French. The degree is typically identical to the program of Frances universities, bachelors degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Bachelors degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years, the system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One, Second Class Division Two and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition, but in recent years there have been a numbers of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library, in Morocco, a bachelors degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah. The course of study takes three years, which are divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year, after successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization or professional specialization. The second cycle is one long, after whose completion students receive the licence détudes fondamentales or the licence professionnelle. This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003, University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelors degree, in cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course, students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. B. Arch. and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B. Eng, Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, the classifications of degrees, first-class, second-class, third-class and a pass
7.
University of Tokyo
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The University of Tokyo, abbreviated as Todai, is a research university located in Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan. The university has 10 faculties with a total of around 30,000 students,2,100 of whom are foreign and its five campuses are in Hongō, Komaba, Kashiwa, Shirokane and Nakano. It is the first of Japans National Seven Universities, the university was chartered by the Meiji government in 1877 under its current name by amalgamating older government schools for medicine and Western learning. It was renamed the Imperial University in 1886, and then Tokyo Imperial University in 1897 when the Imperial University system was created, in September 1923, an earthquake and the following fires destroyed about 700,000 volumes of the Imperial University Library. The books lost included the Hoshino Library, a collection of about 10,000 books, the books were the former possessions of Hoshino Hisashi before becoming part of the library of the university and were mainly about Chinese philosophy and history. In 1947, after Japans defeat in World War II, it re-assumed its original name, although the university was founded during the Meiji period, it has earlier roots in the Astronomy Agency, Shoheizaka Study Office, and the Western Books Translation Agency. These institutions were government offices established by the 徳川幕府 Tokugawa shogunate, kikuchi Dairoku, an important figure in Japanese education, served as president of Tokyo Imperial University. For the 1964 Summer Olympics, the university hosted the running portion of the pentathlon event. On 20 January 2012, Todai announced that it would shift the beginning of its academic year from April to September to align its calendar with the international standard, the shift would be phased in over five years. But this unilateral announcement by the president was received badly and the university abandoned the plans, according to the Japan Times, the university had 1,282 professors in February 2012. In 2014, the School of Science at the University of Tokyo introduced an undergraduate transfer program called Global Science Course. Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked the University of Tokyo 1st in Asia, Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked the University of Tokyo 27th in the world in 2013 and 1st in the Asia University ranking in 2013. In 2015, Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked the institution 23rd in the world and it ranks 12th in the world according to the Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings 2016. QS World University Rankings in 2011 ranked the University of Tokyo 25th in the world, in the 2011 QS Asian University Rankings, which employs a different methodology, the University of Tokyo came 4th. Currently, University of Tokyo holds ranks 9th & 11th respectively for Natural Sciences & Engineering, Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings ranked the University of Tokyo 12th in the world also 1st in Asia in 2016. Global University Ranking ranked the University of Tokyo 3rd in the world, Human Resources & Labor Review, a human competitiveness index & analysis published in Chasecareer Network, ranked the university 21st internationally and 1st in Asia in 2010. Mines ParisTech, Professional Ranking World Universities ranked the University of Tokyo 2nd in the world on the basis of the number of alumni listed among CEOs in the 500 largest worldwide companies, nature Publishing Index ranked the University of Tokyo 5th in the world in 2011. The main Hongo campus occupies the estate of the Maeda family
8.
Master's degree
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A masters degree normally requires previous study at the bachelors level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. The original meaning of the degree was thus that someone who had been admitted to the rank of master in one university should be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the licentia docendi, initially, the Bachelor of Arts was awarded for the study of the trivium and the Master of Arts for the study of the quadrivium. The nineteenth century saw an expansion in the variety of masters degrees offered. By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by Cambridge and Durham in England, when the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, the same as that in Europe. In the United States, the first masters degrees were awarded at Harvard University soon after its foundation, at Harvard the 1700 regulations required that candidates for the masters degree had to pass a public examination, but by 1835 this was awarded Oxbridge-style 3 years after the BA. In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid nineteenth century, in Scotland all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were a dead letter. Probably the most important masters degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of Science, at the University of Michigan this was introduced in two forms in 1858, in course, first awarded in 1859, and on examination, first awarded in 1862. The in course MS was last awarded in 1876, in Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to arrive. The same two degrees, again omitting the masters, were awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the undergraduate degree for Arts in Scotland. In 1862, a Royal Commission suggested that Durham should award masters degrees in theology and science and this scheme would appear to have then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science. The Master of Science degree was introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham. At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed the lead of Durhams MA in requiring an examination for those with an ordinary bachelors degree. The Bologna declaration in 1999 started the Bologna Process, leading to the creation of the European Higher Education Area, as the process continued, descriptors were introduced for all three levels in 2004, and ECTS credit guidelines were developed. This led to questions as to the status of the masters degrees. In 1903, the London Daily News criticised the practice of Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs the most stupendous of academic frauds, in 1900, Dartmouth College introduced the Master of Commercial Science, first awarded in 1902. This was the first masters degree in business, the forerunner of the modern MBA, the idea quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903. Over the first half of the century the masters degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate qualification in the UK
9.
Doctorate of philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
10.
Honorary Doctorate
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An example of identifying a recipient of this award is as follows, Doctorate in Business Administration. The degree is conferred as a way of honouring a distinguished visitors contributions to a specific field or to society in general. It is sometimes recommended that such degrees be listed in ones CV as an award, rev. Theodore Hesburgh held the record for most honorary degrees, having been awarded 150 during his lifetime. The earliest honorary degree on record was awarded to Lionel Woodville in the late 1470s by the University of Oxford and he later became Bishop of Salisbury. In the latter part of the 16th century, the granting of honorary degrees became quite common, generally, universities nominate several persons each year for honorary degrees, these nominees usually go through several committees before receiving approval. Under certain circumstances, a degree may be conferred on an individual for both the nature of the office they hold and the completion of a dissertation, the dissertation et jure dignitatis is considered to be a full academic degree. Although higher doctorates such as DSc, DLitt, etc. are often awarded honoris causa, the university will appoint a panel of examiners who will consider the case and prepare a report recommending whether or not the degree be awarded. Usually, the applicant must have some strong connection with the university in question, for example full-time academic staff. The Archbishop of Canterbury has the authority to award degrees, some institutes of higher education do not confer honorary degrees as a matter of policy - see below. Some learned societies award honorary fellowships in the way as honorary degrees are awarded by universities. A typical example of university regulations is, Honorary graduates may use the approved post-nominal letters and it is not customary, however, for recipients of an honorary doctorate to adopt the prefix Dr. In some universities, it is however a matter of preference for an honorary doctor to use the formal title of Doctor. Written communications where an honorary doctorate has been awarded may include the letters h. c. after the award to indicate that status. In some countries, a person who holds an honorary doctorate may use the title Doctor prenominally, abbreviated Dr. h. c. or Dr. Sometimes, they use Hon before the letters, for example. In recent years, some universities have adopted entirely separate post nominal titles for honorary degrees and this is in part due to the confusion that honorary degrees have caused. It is now common in countries to use certain degrees, such as LLD or HonD. For instance, a doctor of the Auckland University of Technology takes the special title HonD. Some universities, including the Open University grant Doctorates of the University to selected nominees, most American universities award the degrees of LLD, LittD, LHD, ScD, PedD and DD only as honorary degrees
11.
Universiti Putra Malaysia
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Universiti Putra Malaysia, or UPM, is recognised by the independent government assessments as one of Malaysias leading research Universities. It was formerly known as Universiti Pertanian Malaysia or Agricultural University of Malaysia, UPM is a research university offering undergraduate and postgraduate courses with a research focus on agricultural sciences and its related fields. It was ranked as the joint 376th best university in the world in 2014 by Quacquarelli Symonds, on 2015, UPM was ranked 45th in Best Global Universities for Agricultural Sciences of U. S. News & World Report College and University Ranking. The School of Agriculture was officially instituted on 21 May 1931 by John Scott, the school was located on a 22-acre piece of land in Serdang and offered two programmes - a three-year diploma programme and a one-year certificate course in Agriculture. In 1947, the school was declared the College of Agriculture Malaya by Sir Edward Gent, the establishment of Universiti Pertanian Malaysia came about when the College of Agriculture in Serdang merged with the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Malaya. In the early 80s, UPM extended its area of studies to include the field of Science, in 1997, the name Universiti Pertanian Malaysia was changed to Universiti Putra Malaysia by former Prime Minister, Tun Dr. The university since its inception as Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, has had two branch campuses apart from the campus at Serdang, Selangor. It is also believed that it has a branch in North Korea. However, due to the nature of the North Koren education system and also the ineffectiveness of the Malaysian government. The UPM branch campuses were located in Bintulu, Sarawak and Mengabang Telipot, the campus in Terengganu has been upgraded to the University College of Science and Technology Malaysia, with its own management and administration. KUSTEM officially broke away from UPM on 1 July 2001, the Medicine and Health Sciences faculty maintains a campus complex adjacent to a local hospital in Serdang. UPM began its life in 1973 with three founding Faculties and a Division of Basic Sciences. UPM now offers 59 bachelor programmes,7 diploma programmes, and 12 Masters, there are 16 Faculties, eight Centres, nine Institutes, two Schools, a University Park and a branch campus in Bintulu, Sarawak. The Doctor of Medicine program provided by the Medical and Health Science division of the university was recognised by the Malaysia Medical Council on 5 June 2001. Faculty of Engineering The Faculty of Engineering of Universiti Putra Malaysia was established on 1 January 1975 at the main Serdang Campus and it is one of the largest faculties at UPM with a student population of over 3000. The campus’ location at the heart of the Multimedia Super Corridor provides the faculty with access to the array of IT, the eight academic departments housed in the faculty offer a similar number of Bachelor of Engineering degree programs. Out of 800 postgraduates, almost 50% are international students, in addition to providing facilities and opportunities for teaching and research, the faculty has established Research Centres in engineering and related fields. The Centres of Excellence organise research and development programs, consultancy, the objective is to secure contracts from the public or private sectors to generate income for the faculty
12.
Metabolism (architecture)
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Metabolism was a post-war Japanese architectural movement that fused ideas about architectural megastructures with those of organic biological growth. It had its first international exposure during CIAMs 1959 meeting and its ideas were tested by students from Kenzo Tanges MIT studio. They were influenced by a variety of sources including Marxist theories. Although the World Design Conference gave the Metabolists exposure on the stage their ideas remained largely theoretical. Some smaller, individual buildings that employed the principles of Metabolism were built, after the 1973 oil crisis, the Metabolists turned their attention away from Japan and toward Africa and the Middle East. The Congrès Internationaux dArchitecture Moderne was founded in Switzerland in 1928 as an association of architects who wanted to advance modernism into an international setting. During the early 1930s they promoted the idea that urban development should be guided by CIAMs four functional categories of, dwelling, work, transportation, by the mid-1930s Le Corbusier and other architects had moulded CIAM into a pseudo-political party with the goal of promoting modern architecture to all. This view gained some traction in the immediate post-war period when Le Corbusier, by the early 1950s it was felt that CIAM was losing its avant-garde edge so in 1954 a group of younger members called Team 10 was formed. This included the Dutch architects Jacob Bakema and Aldo van Eyck, the Team 10 architects introduced concepts like human association, cluster and mobility, with Bakema encouraging the combination of architecture and planning in urban design. This was a rejection of CIAMs older four function mechanical approach and it would lead to the break-up. Kenzo Tange was invited to the CIAM59 meeting of the association in Otterlo, in what was to be the last meeting of CIAM he presented two theoretical projects by the architect Kiyonori Kikutake, the Tower-shaped City and Kikutakes own home, the Sky House. This presentation exposed the fledgling Metabolist movement to its first international audience, like Team 10s human association concepts Metabolism too was exploring new concepts in urban design. Tower-shaped City was a 300 metre tall tower that housed the infrastructure for an entire city and it included transportation, services and a manufacturing plant for prefabricated houses. The tower was vertical artificial land onto which steel, pre-fabricated dwelling capsules could be attached, Kikutake proposed that these capsules would undergo self-renewal every fifty years and the city would grow organically like branches of a tree. Constructed on a hillside, the Sky House is a platform supported on four panels with a hyperbolic paraboloid shell roof. It is a space divided by storage units with the kitchen. These latter two were designed so that they could be moved to suit the use of the house -, at one point a small childrens room was attached to the bottom of main floor with a small child-sized access door between the two rooms. After the meeting, Tange left for Massachusetts Institute of Technology to begin a period as a visiting professor
13.
Avant-garde
–
The avant-garde are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, with respect to art, culture, and society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant-garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, the avant-garde also promotes radical social reforms. Several writers have attempted, with limited success, to map the parameters of avant-garde activity, the Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the best-known analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dellarte davanguardia. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggiolis study, bürgers essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh. Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry critically argues for an approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to cultural values. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch, phony, faked or mechanical culture, for instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales became the measure. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as avant-garde, nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Since then it has been flanked by what he called avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and this has seen culture become, in his words, a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it. Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether, although most avant-garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant-gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, there are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada, Avant-garde – Wikipedia book Barron, Stephanie, and Maurice Tuchman. The Avant-garde in Russia, 1910–1930, New Perspectives, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-095-3, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 0-671-20422-X Berg, Hubert van den, and Walter Fähnders
14.
Expo '70
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Expo 70 was a worlds fair held in Suita, Osaka, Japan, between March 15 and September 13,1970. The theme of the Expo was Progress and Harmony for Mankind, in Japanese, Expo 70 is often referred to as Osaka Banpaku. This was the first worlds fair held in Japan, the master plan for the Expo was designed by the Japanese architect Kenzo Tange helped by 12 other Japanese architects who designed elements within it. Bridging the site along an axis was the Symbol Zone. Planned on three levels it was primarily a space which had a unifying space frame roof. Osaka was chosen as the site for the 1970 World Exposition by the Bureau International des Expositions in 1965,330 hectares in the Senri Hills outside Osaka had been earmarked for the site and a Theme Committee under the chairmanship of Seiji Kaya was formed. Kenzo Tange and Uzo Nishiyama were appointed to produce the master plan for the Expo, the main theme would be Progress and Harmony for Mankind. Tange invited 12 other architects to elucidate designs for elements within the master plan and these architects included, Arata Isozaki for the Festival Plaza mechanical, electrical and electronic installations, and Kiyonori Kikutake for the Landmark Tower. Two main principles informed the idea of the master plan, the designers thought that unlike previous expositions they wished to produce a central, unifying, Festival Plaza where people could meet and socialise. They called this the Symbol Zone and covered it and the pavilions with a giant space frame roof. The designers liked the idea that like the 1851 Great Exhibition in London and they did not want the constraint imposed by the London Exhibition of having everything contained under one roof, so the space frame contained only the Festival Plaza and themed pavilions. Tange compared the concept to a tree, the idea was that although the national pavilions were like individual flowers they needed to be connected to the whole via branches and a trunk. Thus the Symbol Zone became the trunk and the pedestrian walkways. These elements were reinforced with colour, with the trunk and branches in plain white, the Symbol Zone ran north/south across the site, spanning an arterial road running east/west. The Festival Plaza was to the north of road and had the gate on its southern end. The Theme Space under the frame was divided into three levels, each designed by the artist Tarō Okamoto, The underground level represented the past and was a symbol of the source of humanity. The surface level represented the present, symbolising the dynamism of human interaction, the space frame represented the future and a world where humanity and technology would be joined. Tange envisioned that the exhibition for the future would be like a city and he asked Fumihiko Maki, Noboru Kawazoe, Koji Kamiya
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Ayako Wakao
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Ayako Wakao is a Japanese actress. Contracted to Daiei Studios in 1951 as part of the fifth New Face group and she has appeared in nearly 160 films since her debut in 1952. Wakao appeared in Kenji Mizoguchis Street of Shame and she also appeared in Yasujirō Ozus Floating Weeds
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Industrial design
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Industrial design is a process of design applied to products that are to be manufactured through techniques of mass production. This distinguishes industrial design from craft-based design, where the form of the product is determined by the creator at the time of its creation. The role of a designer is to create and execute design solutions for problems of form, function, usability, physical ergonomics, marketing, brand development, sustainability. The division of labour that underlies the practice of design did have precedents in the pre-industrial era. The use of drawing to specify how something was to be constructed later was first developed by architects and shipwrights during the Italian Renaissance. The emergence of industrial design is linked to the growth of industrialisation and mechanisation that began with the industrial revolution in Great Britain in the mid 18th century. The first use of the industrial design is often attributed to the industrial designer Joseph Claude Sinel in 1919. Christopher Dresser is considered among the first independent industrial designers, Industrial designs origins lie in the industrialization of consumer products. The earliest use of the term may have been in The Art Union, the Practical Draughtsmans Book of Industrial Design by Jacques-Eugène Armengaud was printed in 1853. The subtitle of the work explains, that it wants to offer a course of mechanical, engineering. The study of those types of drawing, according to Armengaud. This work paved the way for a big expansion in the drawing education in France, the United Kingdom. Robert Lepper helped to establish one of the countrys first industrial design programs at Carnegie Institute of Technology. Product design and industrial design overlap in the fields of user interface design, information design, except for certain functional areas of overlap between industrial design and engineering design, educational programs in the U. S. Most industrial designers complete a design or related program at a school or university. Diplomas and degrees take two to four years of study, the study results in a Bachelor of Industrial Design, Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Fine Arts. Afterwards, the programme can be extended to postgraduate degrees such as Master of Design, Master of Fine Arts. Industrial design studies function and form—and the connection between product, user, and environment, generally, industrial design professionals work in small scale design, rather than overall design of complex systems such as buildings or ships
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Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
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Tokyo
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Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
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Nagoya
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Nagoya is the largest city in the Chūbu region of Japan. It is Japans third-largest incorporated city and the fourth most populous urban area and it is located on the Pacific coast on central Honshu. It is the capital of Aichi Prefecture and is one of Japans major ports along with those of Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe, Yokohama, Chiba and it is also the center of Japans third-largest metropolitan region, known as the Chūkyō Metropolitan Area. As of 2015,2.28 million people lived in the city, the citys name was historically written as 那古野 or 名護屋. One possible origin is the adjective nagoyaka, meaning peaceful, the name Chūkyō is also used to refer to Nagoya. Notable examples of the use of the name Chūkyō include the Chūkyō Industrial Area, Chūkyō Metropolitan Area, Chūkyō Television Broadcasting, Chukyo University, oda Nobunaga and his protégés Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu were powerful warlords based in the Nagoya area who gradually succeeded in unifying Japan. In 1610, Tokugawa Ieyasu moved the capital of Owari Province from Kiyosu, about seven kilometers away, during this period Nagoya Castle was constructed, built partly from materials taken from Kiyosu Castle. During the construction, the town around Kiyosu Castle, consisting of around 60,000 people. Around the same time, the nearby ancient Atsuta Shrine was designated as a waystation, called Miya, on the important Tōkaidō road, a town developed around the temple to support travelers. The castle and shrine towns formed the city, during the Meiji Restoration Japans provinces were restructured into prefectures and the government changed from family to bureaucratic rule. Nagoya was proclaimed a city on October 1,1889, and designated a city on September 1,1956, Nagoya became an industrial hub for the region. Its economic sphere included the famous pottery towns of Tokoname, Tajimi and Seto, as well as Okazaki, other industries included cotton and complex mechanical dolls called karakuri ningyō. Mitsubishi Aircraft Company was established in 1920 in Nagoya and became one of the largest aircraft manufacturers in Japan, the availability of space and the central location of the region and the well-established connectivity were some of the major factors that lead to the establishment of the aviation industry there. Nagoya was the target of US air raids during World War II, the population of Nagoya at this time was estimated to be 1.5 million, fourth among Japanese cities and one of the three largest centers of the Japanese aircraft industry. It was estimated that 25% of its workers were engaged in aircraft production, important Japanese aircraft targets were within the city itself, while others were to the north of Kagamigahara. It was estimated that produced between 40% and 50% of Japanese combat aircraft and engines, such as the vital Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter. The Nagoya area also produced machine tools, bearings, railway equipment, metal alloys, tanks, motor vehicles, the bombing continued through the spring of 1945, and included large-scale firebombing. Nagoya was the target of two of Bomber Command’s attacks and these incendiary attacks, one by day and one by night, devastated 15.3 square kilometres
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Astana
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Astana is the capital city of Kazakhstan. It is located on the Ishim River in the portion of Kazakhstan, within the Akmola Region. The 2014 census reported a population of 835,153 within the city limits, founded in 1830 as a settlement of Akmoly or Akmolinsky prikaz, it served as a defensive fortification for the Siberian Cossacks. In 1832 the settlement was granted a status and renamed Akmolinsk. On March 20,1961 the city was renamed Tselinograd to mark the evolution as a cultural. In 1992 it was renamed Akmola, the original name meaning a white grave. On December 10,1997 Akmola replaced Almaty as the capital of Kazakhstan, on May 6,1998 it was renamed Astana, which means the capital city in Kazakh. Modern Astana is a city, like Brasília in Brazil, Canberra in Australia. After Astana became the capital of Kazakhstan, the city changed its shape. The master plan of Astana was designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa, as the seat of the Government of Kazakhstan, Astana is the site of the Parliament House, the Supreme Court, the Ak Orda Presidential Palace and numerous government departments and agencies. It is home to many buildings, hotels and skyscrapers. Astana also has extensive healthcare, sports and education systems, the settlement of Akmoly, also known as Akmolinsky prikaz, was established on the Ishim River in 1830 as the seat of an okrug by a unit of the Siberian Cossacks headed by Fyodor Shubin. The name was given after a local landmark—Akmola literally means a white grave in Kazakh—although this theory is not universally accepted. In 1832, the settlement was granted town status and named Akmolinsk, the fairly advantageous position of the town was clear as early as 1863 in an abstract from the Geographic and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire. It describes how picket roads and lines connected this geographic centre to Kargaly in the East, Aktau fort in the South, in 1838, at the height of the great national and liberation movement headed by Kenesary Khan, Akmolinsk fortress was burned. After the repression of the movement, the fortress was rebuilt. On 16 July 1863, Akmolinsk was officially declared an uyezd town, during the rapid development of the Russian capitalist market, the huge Saryarka areas were actively exploited by the colonial administration. To draft Regulation governing the Kazakh steppe the Government of the Russian Empire formed Steppe Commission in 1865, on 21 October 1868, Tsar Alexander II signed a draft Regulation on governing Turgay, Ural, Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk Oblasts
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Kuala Lumpur
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Kuala Lumpur, officially the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, or more commonly called KL is the national capital of Malaysia as well as its largest city. Being rated as an Alpha world city, Kuala Lumpur is the global city in Malaysia which covers an area of 243 km2 and has an estimated population of 1.73 million as of 2016. Greater Kuala Lumpur, also known as the Klang Valley, is an agglomeration of 7.25 million people as of 2017. It is among the fastest growing regions in South-East Asia, in terms of population. Kuala Lumpur is the seat of the Parliament of Malaysia, the city was once home to the executive and judicial branches of the federal government, but they were moved to Putrajaya in early 1999. Some sections of the judiciary still remain in the city of Kuala Lumpur. The official residence of the Malaysian King, the Istana Negara, is situated in Kuala Lumpur. Kuala Lumpur is the cultural, financial and economic centre of Malaysia due to its position as the capital as well as being a key city. Kuala Lumpur is one of three Federal Territories of Malaysia, enclaved within the state of Selangor, on the central west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Since the 1990s, the city has played host to international sporting, political and cultural events including the 1998 Commonwealth Games. Kuala Lumpur has undergone rapid development in recent decades and it is home to the tallest twin buildings in the world, the Petronas Twin Towers, which have become an iconic symbol of Malaysias futuristic development. Kuala Lumpur means muddy confluence, kuala is the point where two rivers join together or an estuary, and lumpur means mud. One suggestion is that it was named after Sungai Lumpur, it was recorded in 1824 that Sungei Lumpoor was the most important tin-producing settlement up the Klang River. It has also proposed that Kuala Lumpur was originally named Pengkalan Lumpur in the same way that Klang was once called Pengkalan Batu. Another suggestion is that it was initially a Cantonese word lam-pa meaning flooded jungle or decayed jungle, there is however no firm contemporary evidence for these suggestions other than anecdotes. It is also possible that the name is a form of an earlier. It is unknown who founded or named the settlement called Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur was originally a small hamlet of just a few houses and shops at the confluence of Sungai Gombak and Sungai Klang before it grew into a town. The miners landed at Kuala Lumpur and continued their journey on foot to Ampang where the first mine was opened
22.
Beijing
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Beijing is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China and the worlds third most populous city proper. It is also one of the worlds most populous capital cities, the city, located in northern China, is governed as a direct-controlled municipality under the national government with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. Beijing is the second largest Chinese city by population after Shanghai and is the nations political, cultural. It is home to the headquarters of most of Chinas largest state-owned companies, and is a hub for the national highway, expressway, railway. The citys history dates back three millennia, as the last of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing has been the political centre of the country for much of the past eight centuries. Beijing was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium A. D, the city is renowned for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, walls and gates. Its art treasures and universities have made it centre of culture, encyclopædia Britannica notes that few cities in the world have served for so long as the political headquarters and cultural centre of an area as immense as China. Siheyuans, the traditional housing style, and hutongs, the narrow alleys between siheyuans, are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing. The city hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics and was chosen to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, many of Beijings 91 universities consistently rank among the best in China, of which Peking University and Tsinghua University are ranked in the top 60 universities in the world. Beijings Zhongguancun area is known as Chinas Silicon Valley and Chinas center of innovation. According to the 2016 InterNations Expat Insider Survey, Beijing ranked first in Asia in the subcategory Personal Finance Index, expats live primarily in urban districts such as Dongcheng and Chaoyang in the east, or in suburban districts such as Shunyi. Over the past 3,000 years, the city of Beijing has had other names. The name Beijing, which means Northern Capital, was applied to the city in 1403 during the Ming Dynasty to distinguish the city from Nanjing, the English spelling is based on the pinyin romanisation of the two characters as they are pronounced in Standard Mandarin. Those dialects preserve the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 京 as kjaeng, the single Chinese character abbreviation for Beijing is 京, which appears on automobile license plates in the city. The official Latin alphabet abbreviation for Beijing is BJ, the earliest traces of human habitation in the Beijing municipality were found in the caves of Dragon Bone Hill near the village of Zhoukoudian in Fangshan District, where Peking Man lived. Homo erectus fossils from the date to 230,000 to 250,000 years ago. Paleolithic Homo sapiens also lived more recently, about 27,000 years ago. Archaeologists have found neolithic settlements throughout the municipality, including in Wangfujing, the first walled city in Beijing was Ji, a city from the 11th to 7th century BC
23.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
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Politics of Tokyo
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The Tokyo Metropolitan Government is the government of the Tokyo Metropolis, one of the 47 prefectures of Japan. The government consists of an elected governor and assembly. The headquarters building is located in the ward of Shinjuku, the metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, as well as the other cities and towns that constitute the prefecture. Under Japanese law, Tokyo is designated as a to, translated as metropolis, in addition to these 23 local governments, Tokyo also encompasses 26 cities, five towns, and eight villages, each of which has a local government. These other municipalities are located in the part of the prefecture, as well as the outlying island chains of Izu. The Metropolitan Assembly is the organ of the whole prefecture of Tokyo. It consists of 127 members elected each four years, regular sessions are held four times each year, in February, June, September and December. These sessions typically lasts for 30 days, between these are plenary sessions where discussions on bills are held. As in other prefectures of Japan, the people of Tokyo directly elect the governor to four-year terms of office, there is no limit to the number of terms a person may serve. Unlike collegiate cabinet systems, where the decisions are made unanimously, in contrast to other prefectures, the governor of Tokyo has a relatively important role given the size of Tokyos budget. The Tokyo metropolitan government also has relative freedom in how it allocates the budget, Tokyos gubernatorial elections had always been held as part of the unified local elections from 1947 to 2011. But following Shintarō Ishiharas resignation in October 2012, Tokyo held a gubernatorial election in December 2012 and has left the unified election cycle. The four largest established national parties of the past decade are represented in the Tokyo Assembly. The Social Democratic Party, formerly the Japanese Socialist Party, which had been the major party for much of the postwar era. The previous governor Naoki Inose, endorsed by LDP, Kōmeitō and JRP, Inose resigned in December 2013 and his successor Yoichi Masuzoe was elected in the Tokyo gubernatorial election,2014. The last assembly election was held in June 2013, the LDP won 36% of the vote and 59 of 127 seats in the Tokyo prefectural election,2013. In the previous election of 2009, the Democratic Party had managed to become strongest party after forty years of LDP dominance, in 2012, the DPJ was reduced to fourth party with 15 seats as the Kōmeitō won 23 seats and Communists 17 seats
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Japanese House of Councillors election, 2007
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The 21st Elections to the House of Councillors for the upper house of the legislature of Japan were held on July 29,2007. The House of Councillors consists of 242 members who serve six-year terms, approximately half the members are elected every three years. The last election took place in 2004 when Junichiro Koizumi, Abes predecessor, was in office, the house ended its 166th session on July 5,2007, marking the unofficial beginning of campaign. The official campaign began on July 12, the ruling coalition of Liberal Democratic Party and New Komeito lost control, creating the first divided Diet since 1999. The LDP became the party for the first time, while the DPJ became first party for the first time. The DPJ had 79 seats after the 2004 Upper House elections, winning 50 out of the 121 up for election, gaining 12, as of February 17,2007, the DPJ held 82 seats to the LDPs 111. Ichirō Ozawa, the leader of the DPJ, addressed a workers May Day rally in Yoyogi Park on April 28,2007 setting out the agenda for the election. He pledged that the key areas would be an end to self-righteous government, pension and medical reforms, and that the DPJ would stand in the shoes of workers, residents. Reports throughout 2007 showed Shinzō Abes approval ratings falling, and public support for the DPJs position on the recent pension scandal, several other scandals right up until the start of official campaigning did not improve the outlook for the LDP. Loss of records for millions of payments in the pension system. Series of gaffes by cabinet members, the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare Hakuo Yanagisawa and the Minister of Defense Fumio Kyuma, who later resigned. Financial scandals of two Ministers of Agriculture, Toshikatsu Matsuoka, who committed suicide, and his successor Norihiko Akagi. According to results by NHK, the LDP lost its majority in the Upper House, meanwhile, the DPJ managed to gain the largest margin since its formation in 1996. LDPs coalition partner New Komeito lost 3 of its twelve seats, although the opposition made it clear that they intended to officially ask for Abes resignation, he vowed to continue pitching for leadership. Most of the candidates who received international coverage were defeated in the elections - including Alberto Fujimori, Kaori Tahara, Kanako Otsuji, Yoshiro Nakamatsu, the election resulted in the removal of numerous LDP councillors representing doctors, dentists, the construction industry and other special interest groups. Historically, such individuals had been elected solely by the votes of members of their own industries, in a multi-member district, there is no difference between Councillors elected with the highest and lower vote shares. Yet, top tōsen, i. e. being elected with the highest vote, is considered a special achievement, akita, Toyama, Ehime and Miyazaki are counted as a DPJ/PNP pickups because the elected Councillors joined the DPJ/PNP parliamentary group shortly after the election. Gifu is counted as a LDP hold because the elected Councillor re-joined the LDP shortly after the election, in Kanagawa, the LDPs Yutaka Kobayashi was disqualified for violating the law on elections for public office
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The National Art Center, Tokyo
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The National Art Center, Tokyo is a museum in Roppongi, Minato, Tokyo, Japan. The building has been designed by Kisho Kurokawa and it is one of the largest exhibition spaces in the country. Access is from Nogizaka Station on the Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line, unlike Japans other national art museums, NACT is an empty museum, without a collection, permanent display, and curators. Like Kunsthalle in German-speaking regions, it accommodates temporary exhibitions sponsored and curated by other organizations, in its first fiscal year in 2007, it had 69 exhibitions organized by arts groups and 10 organized by NACT. Its Monet exhibition, held between 7 April and 2 July 2007, was the second most visited exhibition of the year, not only in Japan, ＜国立新美術館＞東京・六本木に２１日オープン 「国立新美術館」２１日開館 The National Art Center, Tokyo website in English
27.
Kyoto
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Kyoto is a city located in the central part of the island of Honshu, Japan. It has a close to 1.5 million. Kyoto is also known as the thousand-year capital, in Japanese, the city has been called Kyō, Miyako, or Kyō no Miyako. In the 11th century, the city was renamed Kyoto, after the Chinese word for capital city, after the city of Edo was renamed Tokyo in 1868, and the seat of the Emperor was transferred there, Kyoto was known for a short time as Saikyō. Obsolete spellings for the name include Kioto, Miaco and Meaco. Another term commonly used to refer to the city in the period was Keishi. His last choice for the site was the village of Uda, the new city, Heian-kyō, a scaled replica of the then Tang capital Changan, became the seat of Japans imperial court in 794, beginning the Heian period of Japanese history. The city suffered destruction in the Ōnin War of 1467–1477. Battles between samurai factions spilled into the streets, and came to involve the court nobility and religious factions as well, nobles mansions were transformed into fortresses, deep trenches dug throughout the city for defense and as firebreaks, and numerous buildings burned. The city has not seen such widespread destruction since, Hideyoshi also built earthwork walls called odoi encircling the city. Teramachi Street in central Kyoto is a Buddhist temple quarter where Hideyoshi gathered temples in the city, throughout the Edo period, the economy of the city flourished as one of three major cities in Japan, the others being Osaka and Edo. The Hamaguri rebellion of 1864 burnt down 28,000 houses in the city, the modern city of Kyoto was formed on April 1,1889. The construction of Lake Biwa Canal in 1890 is one taken to revive the city. The population of the city exceeded one million in 1932, stimson, Secretary of War in the Roosevelt and Truman administrations, the city was removed from the list of targets and replaced by Nagasaki. The city was spared from conventional bombing as well, although small-scale air raids did result in casualties. As a result, the Imperial City of Kyoto is one of the few Japanese cities that still have an abundance of prewar buildings, however, modernization is continually breaking down the traditional Kyoto in favor of newer architecture, such as the Kyōto Station complex. Kyoto became a city designated by government ordinance on September 1,1956, in 1997, Kyoto hosted the conference that resulted in the protocol on greenhouse gas emissions that bears the citys name. Kyoto is located in a valley, part of the Yamashiro Basin, in the part of the mountainous region known as the Tamba highlands
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Kanazawa, Ishikawa
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Kanazawa is the capital city of Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan. It has a population of 462,478 and an area of 467.77 km². The name Kanazawa, which means marsh of gold, is said to derive from the legend of the peasant Imohori Togoro. The well in the grounds of Kenrokuen known as Kinjo Reitaku was recreated by the Maeda lords to acknowledge these roots, the area where Kanazawa is was originally known as Ishiura, and the Ishiura Shrine near Kenrokuen is a remnant of this period. The centre of the town was the castle. While many castle towns in Japan had the castle placed to one side of the city, during the fifteenth century, the powers of the central Shoguns in Kyoto was waning, and their regional governors were assuming even greater powers, carving out their own little fiefs. In Kaga, the priest Rennyo, of the Jodo Shinshu sect, rennyos brand of Buddhism quickly spread among the samurai and peasants. The followers of Rennyo were only loosely under the control of the central Honganji in Kyoto, and were known as the Ikko sect, the Single-Minded sect. For the next hundred years, Kaga was ruled by the Ikko peasants and their principle stronghold was the Basilica of Kanazawa Gobo, on the tip of the Kodatsuno Ridge. Backed by high hills and flanked on two sides by rivers, it was a fortress, and the eventual home of the Maeda lords. Many of these districts have survived to the present day, in name if nothing else, in the year 1580, a general under Oda Nobunaga named Sakuma Morimasa attacked the Peasants Kingdom, and succeeded in overthrowing Kanazawa Gobo. Granted an income of 50,000 koku from Nobunaga, Sakuma proceeded to recreate the town as a military base, Maeda Toshiie was born in 1537, in the village of Arako in the Owari Province, the son of Maeda Toshiharu, the lord of Arako Castle. In the same year, in the province, Toyotomi Hideyoshi was born. And five years later in neighbouring Mikawa Province, Tokugawa Ieyasu was born and these men would go on to become some of the most powerful lords of the Warring States era. Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu were primarily responsible for the reunification of Japan after 150 years of civil war, after his father died in 1569, Toshiie found himself the head of the Maeda Clan, and the lord of Arako Castle with its fairly minor 2450 kan income. He was known as a warrior, in 1551, the fifteen-year-old Toshiie won his first victory at the Battle of Kayazu. He took his first head in battle, and in another battle in 1556 he defeated a man known for his ferocity. Toshiies income was tripled, and due to his courage he was given a position directly serving Nobunaga
29.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
30.
Earthquake
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An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earths lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to people around. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type, Earthquakes are measured using measurements from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe and these two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause damage over larger areas. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the damage to structures it causes. At the Earths surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground, when the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity, in its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether natural or caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts. An earthquakes point of rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter, tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior, once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the portion of the fault. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface and this process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of a total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction
31.
Typhoon
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A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develops in the western part of the North Pacific Ocean between 180° and 100°E. This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin, and is the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth, for organizational purposes, the northern Pacific Ocean is divided into three regions, the eastern, central, and western. While the RSMC names each system, the name list itself is coordinated among 18 countries that have territories threatened by typhoons each year. Only the Philippines use their own naming list for systems approaching the country, a typhoon differs from a cyclone or hurricane only on the basis of location. A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, within the northwestern Pacific there are no official typhoon seasons as tropical cyclones form throughout the year. While the majority of storms form between June and November, a few storms do occur between December and May, on average, the northwestern Pacific features the most numerous and intense tropical cyclones globally. Like other basins, they are steered by the ridge towards the west or northwest, with some systems recurving near. The Philippines receive the brunt of the landfalls, with China, some of the deadliest typhoons in history have struck China. Southern China has the longest record of typhoon impacts for the region, Taiwan has received the wettest known typhoon on record for the northwest Pacific tropical cyclone basins. The term typhoon is the name in the northwest Pacific for a severe tropical cyclone, whereas hurricane is the regional term in the northeast Pacific. Elsewhere this is called a cyclone, severe tropical cyclone. The Oxford English Dictionary cites Urdu ṭūfān and Chinese tai fung giving rise to early forms in English. The earliest forms -- touffon, later tufan, tuffon, and others -- derive from Urdu ṭūfān, from 1699 appears tuffoon, later tiffoon, derived from Chinese with spelling influenced by the older Urdu-derived forms. The modern spelling dates to 1820, preceded by tay-fun in 1771 and ty-foong. The Urdu source word توفان ṭūfān comes via Persian from Arabic طوفان, the Chinese source is the word tai fung, cited as a common dialect form of Mandarin dà big and fēng wind. In Mandarin the word for the windstorm is 大风 and in Cantonese 大風, the modern Japanese word is also derived from Chinese, 台風. The first character in Japanese has a modern meaning of pedestal or stand. So the Japanese characters originally had a meaning of typhoon wind, the Ancient Greek Τυφῶν is not unrelated and has secondarily contaminated the word
32.
Volcanism
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It includes all phenomena resulting from and causing magma within the crust or mantle of the body, to rise through the crust and form volcanic rocks on the surface. Magma from the mantle or lower crust rises through its crust towards the surface, if magma reaches the surface, its behavior depends on the viscosity of the molten constituent rock. Viscous magma produces volcanoes characterised by explosive eruptions, while non-viscous magma produce volcanoes characterised by effusive eruptions pouring large amounts of lava onto the surface, in some cases, rising magma can cool and solidify without reaching the surface. Instead, the cooled and solidified igneous mass crystallises within the crust to form an igneous intrusion, as magma cools the chemicals in the crystals formed are effectively removed from the main mix of the magma, so the chemical content of the remaining magma evolves as it solidifies slowly. Fresh unevolved magma injections can remobilise more evolved magmas, allowing eruptions from more viscous magmas, movement of molten rock in the mantle, caused by thermal convection currents, coupled with gravitational effects of changes on the earths surface drive plate tectonic motion and ultimately volcanism. Volcanoes are places where magma reaches the earths surface, the type of volcano depends on the location of the eruption and the consistency of the magma. These are formed where magma pushes between existing rock, intrusions can be in the form of batholiths, dikes, sills, earthquakes are generally associated with plate tectonic activity, but some earthquakes are generated as a result of volcanic activity. These are formed where water interacts with volcanism and these include geysers, fumaroles, hotsprings and mudpots, they are often used as a source of geothermal energy. The amount of gas and ash emitted by volcanic eruptions has a significant effect on the Earths climate, large eruptions correlate well with some significant climate change events. When the magma cools it solidifies and forms rocks, the type of rock formed depends on the composition of the magma. Magma that reaches the surface to become lava cools rapidly resulting in rocks with small crystals such as basalt, some of this magma may cool extremely rapidly and will form volcanic glass such as obsidian. Magma that remains trapped below ground in thin intrusions cools slower than magma exposed to the surface, magma that remains trapped in large quantities below ground cools most slowly resulting in rocks with larger crystals - such as granite and gabbro. Existing rocks that come into contact with magma may be melted and assimilated into the magma, other rocks adjacent to the magma may be altered by contact metamorphism or metasomatism as they are affected by the heat and escaping or externally circulating hydrothermal fluids. Volcanism is not confined only to Earth, but is thought to be found on any body having a solid crust, evidence of volcanism should still be found on any body that has had volcanism at some point in its history. It can be surmised that volcanism exists on planets and moons of this type in other systems as well. In 2014, scientists found 70 lava flows which formed on the Moon in the last 100 million years, bimodal volcanism Continental drift Hotspot Volcanic arc Glossary of Volcanic Terms. G. J. Hudak, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh,2001, crumpler, L. S. and Lucas, S. G. Volcanoes of New Mexico, An Abbreviated Guide For Non-Specialists. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, archived from the original on 2007-03-21
33.
Kisho Kurokawa Green Institute
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Anaheim University is a nationally accredited for-profit university based in Anaheim, California. It was founded in 1996 as the Newport Asia Pacific University, the University is accredited by the Distance Education and Training Council, an educational accreditation agency founded in 1926 located in Washington, D. C. The DETC is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation, Anaheim University claims to be one of the first online universities in the United States to offer graduate degree programs entirely online. The University, is based in the City of Anaheim in Orange County, the University is made up of three graduate schools, the Graduate School of Education, the Akio Morita School of Business, and the Akira Kurosawa School of Film. It also contains three institutes, the David Nunan TESOL Institute, the Carland Entrepreneurship Institute and the Kisho Kurokawa Green Institute, the university is best known for its online degree and certificate programs in TESOL. Dr. Ellis is often referred to as the Father of Second Language Acquisition, the Director of the MA in TESOL Program is Dr. David Nunan, former President of TESOL, Inc. Dr. Nunan is author of a number of widely used academic textbooks, one of the founding TESOL Professors at Anaheim University Emeritus Dr. Ruth Wajnryb, an Australian linguist and Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press author, died in 2012. The Akio Morita School of Business is Anaheim Universitys Business School and it was named in honor of Sony founder Akio Morita. The School is run under the direction of its Dean Dr. William Hartley, the Morita Estate in Tokyo’s Aoyama fashion district was converted to a learning center that hosted Anaheim University’s School of Business during its many years in Tokyo. Anaheim University’s MBA program was ranked #1 in Japan for faculty expertise in 2008 and 2009 by the Nikkei BP, Anaheim University discontinued its on-campus Tokyo operations in March 2011 following the Tohoku earthquake. The Online Green MBA is a program jointly developed by the Anaheim University Kisho Kurokawa Green Institute. The Akira Kurosawa School of Film is the universitys Film School, located in Anaheim, California, the school is primarily an online film school, although its headquarters are in Anaheim, California it also has a learning center in Tokyo, Japan. It was established on March 23,2009 during a tribute to celebrate the 99th anniversary of Kurosawas birth, a celebration was held on March 23,2010, the 100th anniversary of Kurosawas birth, to commemorate the development of the school of films programs. The school is one of the worlds premier online digital film schools which offer online degree. The Carrie Hamilton Entertainment Institute is a unit of Anaheim University established in 2010 which plans to offer online entertainment-related programs and it was established with a donation from Emmy-Award-winning actress and comedian Carol Burnett in memory of Burnetts daughter, actress Carrie Hamilton. The Universitys headquarters and digital film studios/publishing division Anaheim University Press are located in Anaheim, California, the Anaheim University Akio Morita Learning Center was located on the former estate of Sony Founder Akio Morita in the Minami Aoyama district of Minato, Tokyo, Japan
34.
Ginza
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Ginza is a district of Chūō, Tokyo, located south of Yaesu and Kyōbashi, west of Tsukiji, east of Yūrakuchō and Uchisaiwaichō, and north of Shinbashi. It is a upscale shopping area of Tokyo, with numerous internationally renowned department stores, boutiques, restaurants. Ginza is recognized by many as one of the most luxurious shopping districts in the world, Ginza was built upon a former swamp that was filled in during the 16th century. The name Ginza comes after the establishment of a mint established there in 1612. After a devastating fire in 1872 burnt down most of the area, the government planned the construction of fireproof brick buildings and larger, better streets connecting Shimbashi Station all the way to the foreign concession in Tsukiji. Designs for the area were provided by the Irish-born architect Thomas Waters and these bricktown buildings were initially offered for sale and later were leased, but the high rent prevented many of them from being permanently occupied. Moreover, the construction was not adapted to the climate, ironically, the new Ginza was not popular with visiting foreigners, who were looking for a more Edo-styled city. Isabella Bird visited in 1878 and in 1880 implied that Ginza was less like an Oriental city than like the outskirts of Chicago or Melbourne, philip Terry, the English writer of tour guides, likened it to Broadway, not in a positive sense. Nevertheless, the area flourished as a symbol of civilization and enlightenment thanks to the presence of newspapers and magazine companies, the area was also known for its window displays, an example of modern marketing techniques. Everyone visited so the custom of killing time in Ginza developed strongly between the two world wars, most of these European-style buildings disappeared, but some older buildings still remain, most famously the Wakō building with the now-iconic Hattori Clock Tower. The building and the tower were originally built by Kintarō Hattori. Its recent history has seen it as a prominent outpost of western luxury shops, Ginza is a popular destination on weekends, when the main north-south artery is closed to traffic since the 1960s, under governor Ryokichi Minobe. Many leading fashion houses flagship stores are located here, in the area with the highest concentration of shops in Tokyo. It is one of two locations in Tokyo considered by Chevalier and Mazzalovo to be the best locations for a goods store. Prominent are Chanel, Carolina Herrera, Dior, Gucci, flagship electronic retail stores like the Sony showroom and the Apple Store are also here. Ricoh is headquartered in the Ricoh Building in Ginza, the neighborhood is a major shopping district. It is home to Wako department store, which is located in a building dating from 1894, the building has a clock tower. There are many department stores in the area, including Hankyu, Seibu, each Saturday and Sunday, from 12,00 noon until 5,00 pm, the main street through Ginza is closed off to road traffic, allowing people to walk freely
35.
Hiroshima, Hiroshima
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Hiroshima is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture and the largest city in the Chūgoku region of western Honshu - the largest island of Japan. The citys name, 広島, means Broad Island in Japanese, Hiroshima gained city status on April 1,1889. On April 1,1980, Hiroshima became a designated city, as of August 2016, the city had an estimated population of 1,196,274. The GDP in Greater Hiroshima, Hiroshima Metropolitan Employment Area, is US$61.3 billion as of 2010, kazumi Matsui has been the citys mayor since April 2011. Hiroshima was established on the river delta coastline of the Seto Inland Sea in 1589 by powerful warlord Mōri Terumoto, Hiroshima Castle was quickly built, and in 1593 Terumoto moved in. Terumoto was on the side at the Battle of Sekigahara. The winner of the battle, Tokugawa Ieyasu, deprived Mōri Terumoto of most of his fiefs, including Hiroshima and gave Aki Province to Masanori Fukushima, after the han was abolished in 1871, the city became the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture. Hiroshima became an urban center during the imperial period, as the Japanese economy shifted from primarily rural to urban industries. During the 1870s, one of the seven government-sponsored English language schools was established in Hiroshima, Ujina Harbor was constructed through the efforts of Hiroshima Governor Sadaaki Senda in the 1880s, allowing Hiroshima to become an important port city. The Sanyō Railway was extended to Hiroshima in 1894, and a line from the main station to the harbor was constructed for military transportation during the First Sino-Japanese War. During that war, the Japanese government moved temporarily to Hiroshima, New industrial plants, including cotton mills, were established in Hiroshima in the late 19th century. Further industrialization in Hiroshima was stimulated during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, the Hiroshima Prefectural Commercial Exhibition Hall was constructed in 1915 as a center for trade and exhibition of new products. Later, its name was changed to Hiroshima Prefectural Product Exhibition Hall, during World War I, Hiroshima became a focal point of military activity, as the Japanese government entered the war on the Allied side. About 500 German prisoners of war were held in Ninoshima Island in Hiroshima Bay, during World War II, the 2nd General Army and Chugoku Regional Army were headquartered in Hiroshima, and the Army Marine Headquarters was located at Ujina port. The city also had large depots of supplies, and was a key center for shipping. The bombing of Tokyo and other cities in Japan during World War II caused widespread destruction, there were no such air raids on Hiroshima. However, a real threat existed and was recognized, in order to protect against potential firebombings in Hiroshima, school children aged 11–14 years were mobilized to demolish houses and create firebreaks. On Monday, August 6,1945, at 8,15 a. m, by the end of the year, injury and radiation brought the total number of deaths to 90, 000–166,000
36.
Japanese Red Cross
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The Japanese Red Cross Society is the Japanese affiliate of the International Red Cross. The Imperial Family of Japan traditionally has supported the society, with the Empress as Honorary President and its headquarters is located in Tokyo and local chapters are set up in all 47 prefectures. 9,610,000 individual and 120,000 corporate members belong to the society, the Japanese Red Cross Society conducts relief activities when major disasters take place. Large earthquakes which occur in Japan are an area of work for the society. Its name was changed to the Japanese Red Cross Society on 2 September 1887 following Japans admission to the International Committee of the Red Cross, later that year, the Society engaged in its first disaster relief after the eruption of Mount Bandai. From the beginning, the Japanese Imperial family, especially Empress Shōken, the attendance of the imperial family made membership in the Society socially attractive to members of the kazoku aristocracy and leading members of society. By the start of the Russo-Japanese War, the Japanese Red Cross Society was the largest in the world, the Society played an outstanding role with regards to the many Russian prisoners of war, gaining Japan a considerable amount of good public relations in the western press. This image was cultivated by the hosting of volunteer nurses and medical staff from the United States, France, Germany, a report from Anita Newcomb McGee on conditions in Japan was instrumental in obtaining government assistance in the revitalization of the American Red Cross. After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the Japanese Red Cross Society collected $146,000 for the American relief effort, marking the first overseas operation by the Society. During World War I, German prisoners of war, captured by the Imperial Japanese Army at Tsingtao, were treated well with the help of the Red Cross. In 1934, the Japanese Red Cross Society hosted the 15th International Conference of the Red Cross at Tokyo, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese Red Cross Society played a vital role in assisting Japanese civilians and wounded soldiers. After World War II, the Japanese Red Cross Society was reformed under American advisers, on 14 August 1952, it was given legal status as a special non-profit corporation. International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement List of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Official website of Japanese Red Cross Society
37.
Saitama, Saitama
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Saitama is the capital and the most populous city of Saitama Prefecture in Japan, situated in the south-east of the prefecture. Its area incorporates the cities of Urawa, Ōmiya, Yono. It is a city designated by government ordinance, being in the Greater Tokyo Area and lying 15 to 30 kilometres north of central Tokyo, many of its residents commute into Tokyo. As of 1 February 2016, the city had an population of 1,226,656. Its total area was 217.43 square kilometres, the city was founded on May 1,2001, and was designated on April 1,2003 as a government ordinance. For the histories of Urawa, Ōmiya and Yono before the merger, see, Urawa-ku, Saitama Ōmiya-ku, Saitama and Yono, Saitama, on April 1,2005, Saitama absorbed the city of Iwatsuki to its east, which became a new ward, Iwatsuki-ku. The name Saitama originally comes from the Sakitama district of what is now the city of Gyōda in the part of what is now known as Saitama Prefecture. Sakitama has an ancient history and is mentioned in the famous 8th century poetry anthology Manyōshū, the pronunciation has changed from Sakitama to Saitama over the years. With the merger of Urawa, Ōmiya, and Yono it was decided that a new name, the prefectural name Saitama was changed from kanji into hiragana, thus Saitama City was born. It is the prefectural capital in Japan whose name is always written in hiragana. However, Saitama written in hiragana actually finished in place in public polling to Saitama written in kanji. Despite this, government officials decided to name the new city Saitama in hiragana, in third place in the poll was Ōmiya. In fourth was Saitama, written with a kanji for sai which means colorful. The sai used in the name is a rare form of a common character that means cape or promontory. The city is located 20 to 30 km north of central Tokyo, the western portion of the city lies on the lowland created by the Arakawa River along with those created by small rivers such as the Moto-Arakawa River, Shiba River, and Ayase River. The rest of the area mostly resides on the Ōmiya Plateau lying in the north-south direction, dispersed in this region, major rivers flow southward, almost paralleling to one another. The city is one of commercial centers of the Greater Tokyo area and serves Saitama Prefecture, North Kanto. Saitama is also home to manufacturers, exporting automotive, food, optical, precision
38.
National Bunraku Theater
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The National Bunraku Theatre is a complex consisting of two halls and an exhibition room, located in Chūō-ku, Osaka, Japan. The complex was opened in 1984 as the national theatre of the country. The Japan Arts Council, an Independent Administrative Institution of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, operates the National Theatre. The Large Theatre has a capacity of around 700 seats depending on stage setup, in the Small Hall are performed other type of traditional arts such as, rakugo, manzai and Japanese music. Media related to National Bunraku Theatre at Wikimedia Commons National Theatre of Japan official site
39.
Nagoya City Art Museum
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The Nagoya City Art Museum is located in the city of Nagoya in central Japan. The museum building itself was constructed by Kisho Kurokawa, one of the leading Japanese architects, works by the surrealist Kansuke Yamamoto, Sean Scully, and Alexander Calder belong to its permanent collection. Artists such as Hakuyō Fuchikami, Nakaji Yasui and Jean-Michel Othoniel have exhibited their works there, media related to Nagoya City Art Museum at Wikimedia Commons Homepage of the Nagoya City Art Museum
40.
Central Plaza 1
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Central Plaza One a skyscraper in the city of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, and was designed by renowned Japanese architect Kurokawa Kisho. The height of the tower is 174 m and it contains 44 floors, construction was completed in 1988 and it became synonymous with Australian Bicentenary and World Expo 88 Brisbane. It is located at 345 Queen Street, in the Brisbane central business district, the building is owned by Industry Superannuation Property Trust, who bought the building for $385 million. At the time of its completion it was the tallest building in Brisbane, located next to Central Plaza One is a smaller version of the tower with a similar design, Central Plaza Two, which has a height of 110 m. In 2008, Central Plaza Three was built to 57 metres, Central Plaza One has a unique window cleaning mechanism in which a section at the top of the building rotates, allowing for the suspension of outdoor window cleaners. Plush foyers, a facade and the integration of advanced technology systems have resulted in the structure being described as one of the most iconic in Australia. AAMI Insurance signs located outside and on top of the building as well as branch on the bottom floor has resulted in Central Plaza 1 being nicknamed the AAMI Building. List of tallest buildings in Brisbane Central Plaza Online
41.
Van Gogh Museum
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The Van Gogh Museum is an art museum dedicated to the works of Vincent van Gogh and his contemporaries in Amsterdam in the Netherlands. It is located at the Museum Square in the borough Amsterdam South, close to the Stedelijk Museum, the Rijksmuseum, the museum opened on 2 June 1973. It is located in buildings designed by Gerrit Rietveld and Kisho Kurokawa, the museums collection is the largest collection of Van Goghs paintings and drawings in the world. In 2015, the museum had 1.9 million visitors, and was the 2nd most visited museum in the Netherlands, upon Vincent van Goghs death in 1890, his work not sold fell into the possession of his brother Theo. Theo died six months after Vincent, leaving the work in the possession of his widow, selling many of Vincents paintings with the ambition of spreading knowledge of his artwork, Johanna maintained a private collection of his works. Design for a Van Gogh Museum was commissioned by the Dutch government in 1963 to Dutch architect, Rietveld died a year later, and the building was not completed until 1973, when the museum opened its doors. In 1998 and 1999, the building was renovated by the Dutch architect Martien van Goor, starting in late 2012, the museum was closed for renovations for six months. During this period,75 works from the collection were shown in the Hermitage Amsterdam, on 9 September 2013, the museum unveiled a long-lost Van Gogh painting that spent years in a Norwegian attic believed to be by another painter. It is the first full-size canvas by him discovered since 1928, sunset at Montmajour depicts trees, bushes and sky, painted with Van Goghs familiar thick brush strokes. It can be dated to the day it was painted because he described it in a letter to his brother, Theo. In 1991, twenty paintings were stolen from the museum, among them Van Goghs early painting The Potato Eaters, although the thieves escaped from the building,35 minutes later all stolen paintings were recovered from an abandoned car. Three paintings – Wheatfield with Crows, Still Life with Bible, four men, including two museum guards, were convicted for the theft and given six or seven-year sentences. It is considered to be the largest art theft in the Netherlands since the Second World War, in 2002, two paintings were stolen from the museum, Congregation Leaving the Reformed Church in Nuenen and View of the Sea at Scheveningen. Two Dutchmen were convicted for the theft to four-and-a-half-year sentences, the museum offered a reward of €100,000 for information leading to the recovery of the paintings. The FBI Art Crime Team listed the robbery on their Top Ten Art Crimes list, in September 2016, both paintings were discovered by the Guardia di Finanza in Naples, Italy. The two artworks were found in a good state, according to the Van Gogh Museum. The museum is situated at the Museumplein in Amsterdam-Zuid, on the Paulus Potterstraat 7, the museum consists of two buildings, the Rietveld building, designed by Gerrit Rietveld, and the Kurokawa wing, designed by Kisho Kurokawa. The museum offices are housed on Stadhouderskade 55 in Amsterdam-Zuid, the Rietveld building is the main structure of the museum and exhibits the permanent collection
42.
Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
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Netherlands
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The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
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