1.
Talakaveri
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Talakaveri, is the place that is generally considered to be the source of the river Kaveri. It is located by Brahmagiri hill near Bhagamandala in Kodagu district, however, there is not a permanent visible flow from this place to the main rivercourse except during the rainy season. A tank or kundike has been erected on a hillside by kodavas and it is also marked by a small temple, and the area is frequented by pilgrims mainly it is the worship place of kodavas. The river originates as a spring feeding this tank, which is considered to be a place to bathe on special days. The waters are said to flow underground to emerge as the Kaveri river some distance away. The temple has been renovated extensively by the government recently. The cauvery changrandi is observed across pilgrim towns in Kaveris banks, Talakaveri is about 8 km away from Bhagamandala and 48 km from Madikeri. The temple here is dedicated to Goddess Kaveriamma, other deities worshipped here are Lord Agasthiswara, which denotes the link between Kaveri and Sage Agasthya and Maha Ganapathi. The legend goes that the Kaveri river was held in a Kamandalu by Sage Agastya, vinaayaka took the form of a crow and perched on the kamandalu of Agasthya when Agasthya was meditating. When Agastya realised this, he shooed away the crow, but the devine crow tipped the kamandalu and toppled it. Out poured Kaveri which started flowing, the crow disappeared and in its place stood a small boy. Agasthya thought that the boy was playing some prank and clenching both his fists, went to pound the head of the small boy, but the boy escaped and Agasthya gave chase. Finally the boy vanished and Lord Ganesha showed himself to Agasthya, Agasthya was aghast at the realisation that he had just tried to knock the head of Lord Ganesha himself. As atonement, he knocked his own head with both of his clenched fists, the link between Kaveri and Lord Ganesha also extends to Srirangam as well, in Lord Ganeshas role in setting up the Ranganatha temple there. The temple at Tirumakudalu Narasipura ) is also dedicated to Agasthiwara, ahi Kshetra is mentioned in the Mahabharata as lying north of the Ganges, and as being the capital of Northern Panchala. It is apparently the Adisadra of Ptolemy, and its remains are visible near Ramnagar in Tahsil Aonla in Bareilly district, the Brahmins who first landed in Shivalli in Tulunadu and then spread across 31 villages came to be known as Shivalli Brahmins or Tulu Brahmins. It is from Shivalli and Tulu Brahmins, that the priests of Talakaveri temple have come from, Lingaraja the First was the ruler of Kodagu. One night God appeared in Lingarajas dream and indicated there was a Brahmin family currently visiting Talakaveri
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
4.
Karnataka
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Karnataka is a state in south western region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The capital and largest city is Bangalore, the state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres, or 5.83 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is the seventh largest Indian state by area, with 61,130,704 inhabitants at the 2011 census, Karnataka is the eighth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada, one of the languages of India, is the most widely spoken. Most of these rivers flow out of Karnataka eastward into the Bay of Bengal, though several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka, the generally accepted one is that Karnataka is derived from the Kannada words karu and nādu, meaning elevated land. Karu nadu may also be read as karu, meaning black, the British used the word Carnatic, sometimes Karnatak, to describe both sides of peninsular India, south of the Krishna. With an antiquity that dates to the paleolithic, Karnataka has been home to some of the most powerful empires of ancient, the philosophers and musical bards patronised by these empires launched socio-religious and literary movements which have endured to the present day. Karnataka has contributed significantly to both forms of Indian classical music, the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions, Karnatakas pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to large areas of Karnataka. The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the Kadambas, the Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi, the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital. These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription, the Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century. Parts of modern-day Southern Karnataka were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century, the Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the early 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule. At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region, literature flourished during this time, which led to the emergence of distinctive Kannada literary metres, and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh, in the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, in 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota
5.
Malenadu
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Malenadu is a region in the state of Karnataka in India. Malenadu covers the western and eastern slopes of the Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountain range and it is situated between Coastal Karnataka and Bayaluseeme regions of Karnataka. The word Malenadu is derived from word male meaning rain and nādu meaning land, Malenadu covers portions of Belagavi, Shivamogga, Chikkamagaluru, Hassan, Kodagu and parts of Uttara Kannada, Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts. The hills of Malenadu are richly forested, coffee and Arecanut are grown in many places. Sirsi, Siddapura, Yellapur, Sagara, Thirthahalli, Koppa, Sringeri, Narasimharajapura, Mudigere, Sakleshpura, madikeri and Somavarapete, Chikkamagaluru are towns in the coffee-growing region. Mullayanagiri, at 6,317 feet, is the highest peak in Karnataka, Kemmangundi at 4,702 feet above sea level is a popular hill station and was a favorite retreat of Mysores former Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV. Kalhatti Falls,10 km from Kemmangundi, has a drop of 122 meters, gangamoola peak,10 km from the town of Kudremukh, is revered as the source of the Bhadra, Nethravathi and Tunga rivers. Banavasi is an ancient temple town in Sirsi Taluk, kali Tiger Reserve in Dandeli Angadi in Mudigere taluk, Chikkamagaluru district is famous as the birthplace of the Hoysala dynasty. Horanadu in Chickmagalur District is religious place, with Annapurneswari temple, Sringeri in Chickmagalur District is religious place with Sharadamba Temple established by Adi Shankaracharya. Kukke Subrahmanya in Mangalore district is a tourism and religious place, kodachadri is a mountain peak in Shimoga District. Kudremukh is a peak and name of a town situated in mudigere taluk. Kudremukh National Park lies in this region, shri Marikamba Temple in Sirsi is a religious place, The Sirsi Marikamba jaatre of the deity is held every alternate year in the month of February and taken through the town. It is attended by a large number of devotees. It is said to be the most famous. Sahasralinga in Sirsi Taluk, It is in the river Shalmala and is famous for being the location where around a thousand lingas are carved on rocks in the river, sathodi Falls and Magod Falls in Yallapur Taluk. Shiradi ghat, Bisle ghat, Charmadi ghat and Sampaje ghat are places for trekking and hiking, siganduru in Sagara Taluk is religious place with Chowdeshwari Devi temple Ulavi is an important center of pilgrimage for people of the Lingayat faith. The Samadhi of Channabasavanna, one of the most revered saints of the Lingayat faith lies here, kavaledurga in Thirthahalli taluk of Shimoga District Agumbe in Thirthahalli taluk of Shimoga District famous for Sunset view and is home to the largest venomous snake in the world The king cobra. There is a dedicated forest research station in agumbe as well, humcha in Hosanagara taluk of Shimoga district is a jain pilgrim center. Mandagadde in Thirthahalli taluk of Shimoga District is a bird sanctuary
6.
Madikeri
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Madikeri is a hill station town in Karnataka state, India. Also known as Mercara, it is the headquarters of the district of Kodagu and it is a popular tourist destination. Madikeri was formerly known as Muddu raja keri, muddurajakeri which means Muddurajas town, was named after the prominent Haleri king, Mudduraja who ruled Kodagu from 1633 to 1687. The form of the often used in English, Mercara, is derived from Madikeri by a standard transformation of the retroflex d to an r consonant. The history of Madikeri is related to the history of Kodagu, from the 2nd to the 6th century AD, the northern part of Kodagu was ruled by Kadambas. The southern part of Kodagu was ruled by Gangas from the 4th to the 11th century, after defeating the Gangas in the 11th century, Cholas became the rulers of Kodagu. In the 12th century, the Cholas lost Kodagu to the Hoysalas, Kodagu fell to the Vijayanagar kings in the 14th century. After their fall, the local chieftains like Karnambahu started ruling their areas directly and they were defeated by Haleri Dynasty founder Veeraraju, and his father in-law Bomma Gowda, the Seeme Gowda of Haleri kings. In the year 1700AD Ikkeri Somashekara Nayaka gifted Puttur and Amara Sullia Magnes of Tulunadu to Haleri Kings, descendants of Veeraraju who are known as Haleri Dynasty ruled Kodagu from 1600-1834 AD. Haleri king Mudduraja built the Fort in Madikeri and made itas their capital, Mudduraja, the third Haleri king started leveling the land around Madikeri and built a fort in the year 1681. Madikeri Fortwhich was original built of mud and was replaced by Tipu Sultan, Kodagu became the part of British India after 1834 AD. As of 2001 India census, Madikeri had a population of 47,257, males constitute 57. 2% of the population and females 42. 8%. Madikeri had a literacy rate of 81%, higher than the national average of 57.2, male literacy was 83%. 11% of the population was under 6 years of age and this town is situated at an elevation of over 4000 ft above sea level. Madikeri features a tropical climate as it has an elevation of 1170 metres. Madikeri is located at 12. 42°N75. 73°E /12.42,75.73, Madikeri lies in the Western Ghats and is a popular hill station. The nearest cities are Mangaluru to the west, and Mysuru to the east, the mean daily minimum temperature is lowest in January at about 11 °C. Maximum temperature in summer is around 24 °C to 27 °C. With the onset of the south-west monsoon, the temperature decreases in June, Madikeri lies on the Karnataka State Highway 88 that runs from Mangaluru to Mysuru
7.
Somwarpet
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Somwarpet is a panchayat town in Kodagu district in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is the town of the Somwarpet taluk, in the north-east of the district. The main crops grown in the area are coffee and spice crops such as cardamom, peppers, oranges, ginger, as of the 2001 India census, Somwarpet had a population of 7218. Males constitute 50% of the population and females 50%, Somvarpet has an average literacy rate of 75%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy is 80%, and female literacy is 70%. In Somvarpet, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age, even though most of the people living here are Kannadigas, other languages like Kodava Takk, Are Bhashe, Tulu, Beary bashe, Konkani, English and Hindi are spoken by the people. Coffee is the crop in the region. It is the major Arabica coffee growing region of India, other crops like pepper, cardamom, orange, vanilla are grown. Beelur Golf Club Beelur Golf Club is located 8 km from Somwarpet town, the lush green golf ground attracts movie makers. Malemalleshwara Betta Malemalleshwara Betta is located 13 km from Somwarpet and 7 km from Shanivarsanthe, pooja is conducted regularly and a Grand Celebration on Maha Shiva Rathri every year. Kotebetta Kotebetta is the third highest peak in Coorg after Tadiyandamol and Brahmagiri and its height above sea level is 1620 metres. It lies near the border between the Dakshina Kannada and Coorg districts, the trek starting point is a junction near a bridge called Hattihole. The peak is 10 km from Hattihole, there is a Shiva temple at the base of Kotebetta. Makkalagudi Betta is located in Kiraganduru 10 km between Somwarpet and Madikeri road, there is a view of paddy fields, forest, and the waters of the Harangi reservoir. Mallalli Falls Mallalli Abbi or Kumaradhara Falls is one of the tallest waterfalls in the Coorg where the river Kumaradhara drops down 200 feet, scattered along the stream are other misty waterfalls, situated on the foothills of the Pushpagiri hill-ranges,25 km from Somwarpet. Beauty Spot in mathanahaill, somwarpet, saniversante road, mountain Mist coffee valley Somwarpet at DMOZ
8.
Virajpet
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The town of Virajpet also spelled as Virajapete is the second town of the district of Kodagu, in Karnataka. It is the town of the Virajpet taluka, in the south of the district. The name is an abbreviation of Virarajendrapete after the ruler of Kodagu, Virarajendra. It is a town of importance for the local coffee. Nearby towns are Gonikoppal, Ammathi and Ponnampet, Virajpet is around 30 km away from Madikeri, the district headquarters and is about 250 km from Bangalore and 165 km from Mangalore. The only way to reach Virajpet is by road, the name Virajpet is a shorter version of previous name Virarajendrapet, named after the Haleri King Dodda Virarajendra who founded the town in 1792. He founded the town to commemorate his meeting with General Robert Abercromby, his ally against Tipu Sultan and it was the headquarters of Yedenalknad taluk. The history of the destination is rich as it was ruled by various South Indian dynasties, the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas, the Cholas, the Hoysalas, the Rastrakutas and the Vijaynagar Rayas also ruled the region. After the end of the period, the region was segmented into three major towns namely, Madikeri, Virajpet and Somwarpet. Virajpet town is situated in the Kodagu District of Karnataka and it is considered as the main town of Virajpet Taluka. Located at a distance of 30 km from the district headquarters Madikeri, it shares its borders with the major towns of the district – Ammathi, Gonikoppal. Annes church which is about 220 years old and has built in Gothic architecture style. The tower of the church has two bells of the ancient times and are in use till date, the clock tower, Tadiandamol. The town is famous for its plantations of local coffee. Virajpet is the largest honey producer in Asia, ayyappa Temple and Shiva Temple on the top of Malethirike Hill, a semi-spherical hill at Kakotuparambu, are the prominent attractions that attract thousands of devotees. Madikeri or Mercara Dasara is a prominent festival here, celebrated in the month of October, the celebration lasts for ten days along with cultural programmes depicting the victory of goddess of power over the asuras. A huge procession constituting singers, traditional dancers and music along with beautifully decorated ten tabloos is carried out, Virajpet can be visited in any season as the destination experiences pleasant climatic conditions throughout the year. Virajpet town has a population of 17,246 as per the 2011 Census of India, the number of males was 8,724 and females 8,522, thus a gender ration of 977 females to 1,000 males
9.
Deputy Commissioner (India)
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A District Collector, often abbreviated to Collector, is the foremost Indian Administrative Service officer in charge of revenue collection and administration of a district in India. The Collector is assisted by Deputy Collectors, Assistant Collectors, Sub Collectors, District Administration in India is a legacy of the British Raj. District Collectors were members of the Indian Civil Service, and were charged with supervising general administration in the district, warren Hastings introduced the office of the District Collector in 1772. As District Magistrate, he exercised general supervision over the courts and in particular. The office was meant to achieve the purpose of collecting revenue. The Superintendent of Police, Inspector General of Jails, the Surgeon General, the Divisional Forest Officer, until the later part of the nineteenth century, no native was eligible to become a district collector. But with the introduction of competitive examinations for the Indian Civil Services. The district continued to be the unit of administration after India gained independence in 1947, the role of the District Collector remained largely unchanged, except for separation of most judicial powers to judicial officers of the district. They are appointed by the State government, from among the pool of Indian Administrative Service officers in the state, the members of the IAS are either directly recruited by the Union Public Service Commission or promoted from Provincial Civil Services. A District Magistrate, District Collector, Deputy Commissioner or District Commissioner are transferred from this post by State government, District Collectors are entrusted with a wide range of duties in the jurisdiction of the district. Acts as ex-officio chairman of the District Development Authority in absence of Divisional Commissioner, a District Magistrate/District Collector/Deputy Commissioner/District Commissioner is assisted by some I. A. S and P. C
10.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
11.
Kannada
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The language has roughly 40 million native speakers who are called Kannadigas, and a total of 50.8 million speakers according to a 2001 census. It is one of the languages of India and the official. The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script, which evolved from the 5th-century Kadamba script, Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia, and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th-century Ganga dynasty and during the 9th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Kannada has a literary history of over a thousand years. Based on the recommendations of the Committee of Linguistic Experts, appointed by the ministry of culture, in July 2011, a centre for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages at Mysore to facilitate research related to the language. Kannada is a Southern Dravidian language, and according to Dravidian scholar Sanford B, steever, its history can be conventionally divided into three periods, Old Kannada from 450–1200 CE, Middle Kannada from 1200–1700, and Modern Kannada from 1700 to the present. Kannada is influenced to an extent by Sanskrit. Influences of other such as Prakrit and Pali can also be found in the Kannada language. Literary Prakrit seems to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times, the vernacular Prakrit-speaking people may have come into contact with Kannada speakers, thus influencing their language, even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes. Kannada phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax show significant influence from these languages, some examples of naturalised words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are, baṇṇa derived from vaṇṇa, hunnime from puṇṇivā. Examples of naturalized Sanskrit words in Kannada are, varṇa, arasu from rajan, paurṇimā, Kannada has numerous borrowed words such as dina, kopa, surya, mukha, nimiṣa and anna. Pre-old Kannada was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri has been suggested to contain words in identifiable Kannada. According to Jain tradition, Brahmi, the daughter of Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankara of Jainism, invented 18 alphabets, including Kannada, which points to the antiquity of the language. Supporting this tradition, an inscription of about the 9th century CE, containing specimens of different alphabets and it has been claimed that the Greek dramatists of the 5th–4th century BCE were familiar with the Kannada country and language. This would show a far more intimate contact of the Greeks with Kannada culture than with Indian culture elsewhere, the palm manuscripts contained texts written not only in Greek, Latin and Hebrew, but also in Sanskrit and Kannada. In the 150 CE Prakrit book Gaathaa Saptashati, written by Haala Raja, Kannada words like tIr, tuppa, on the Pallava Prakrit inscription of 250 CE of Hire Hadagalis Shivaskandavarman, the Kannada word kOTe transforms into koTTa. In the 350 CE Chandravalli Prakrit inscription, words of Kannada origin like punaaTa, in one more Prakrit inscription of 250 CE found in Malavalli, Kannada towns like vEgooraM, kundamuchchaMDi find a reference. Pliny the Elder was a naval and army commander in the early Roman Empire and he writes about pirates between Muziris and Nitrias
12.
Kodava language
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The Kodava or Coorg language is a Dravidian language and the original language of the Kodagu district in southern Karnataka, India. The term Kodava has two related usages, firstly, it is the name of the Kodava language and culture followed by a number of communities from Kodagu. Secondly, within the Kodava - speaking communities and region it describes the dominant Kodava people, hence, the Kodava language is not only the primary language of the Kodavas but also of a large number of other castes and tribes in Kodagu. The language has two dialects, Mendele and Kiggat, linguistically, Kodava language shows some deviations from other Dravidian languages. For instance, most Dravidian languages have 5 short and 5 long vowels, Kodava has two more vowels, namely the close central unrounded vowel /ɨ/ and the mid central unrounded vowel /ɘ̞/, which can likewise be short and long. These peculiarities and distinctness of the language had attracted the attention of scholars from the sixteenth century, however, they did not consider Kodava an independent language. It was considered as a dialect of Kannada, closer to Tulu, or closely related to Malayalam and it was in the early 20th century that the philologists and linguists recognized it as an independent language. It is closely related to and influenced by Tamil, Tulu, Kannada, a majority of the words are common between Kodava and Beary bashe, a dialect which is a mixture of Tulu and Malayalam spoken by the Beary and Belchada community. Family histories, rituals and other records were scripted on palm leaves called Pattole by astrologers in the ancient times, when Kodava was written, it was usually with Kannada script, sometimes with minor modifications, and sometimes in the Malayalam script as well. The folk songs of the Kodavas, called the Palame, were transmitted across several generations. The language had no significant written literature until the twentieth century, appaneravanda Hardas Appachcha Kavi, a playwright, and Nadikerianda Chinnappa, a folk compiler, are the two important poets and writers of Kodava language. Other important writers in the language were B D Ganapathy and I M Muthanna, the Pattole Palame, a collection of Kodava folksongs and traditions compiled in the early 1900s by Nadikerianda Chinnappa, was first published in 1924. The most important Kodava literature, it is said to be one of the earliest, if not the earliest, traditionally known as Balo Pat, these songs are sung by four men who beat dudis as they sing. Kodava folk dances are performed to the beat of many of these songs, the Kodava Cinema industry is very small. A few movies portraying the culture and traditions of the Kodavas have been produced in this language. The first Kodava film Nada Mann Nada Kool was directed by S. R. Rajan, R A Cole, An Elementary Grammar of the Coorg Language K. S. Rajyashree, Kodava speech community, An ethnolinguistic study Kodava Literature Kodava Samaj
13.
Postal Index Number
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A Postal Index Number or PIN or Pincode is a code in the post office numbering or post code system used by India Post, the Indian postal administration. The code is six digits long, the PIN Code system was introduced on 15 August 1972 by Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, an additional secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications. The system was introduced to simplify the manual sorting and delivery of mail by eliminating confusion over incorrect addresses, similar place names, there are nine PIN zones in India, including eight regional zones and one functional zone. The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region, the second digit indicates the sub-region, and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices, a state may have one or more sorting districts depending on the volumes of mail handled. The fourth digit represents the route on which a Delivery office is located in the sorting district and this is 0 for offices in the core area of the sorting district. The last two represent the delivery office within the sorting district starting from 01 which would be the GPO or HO. The numbering of the office is done chronologically with higher numbers assigned to newer delivery offices. If the volume of mails handled at an office is too large, a new delivery office is created. Thus two delivery offices situated next to each other only have the first four digits in common. Each PIN code is mapped to exactly one delivery post office which receives all the mail to be delivered to one or more lower offices within its jurisdiction, all of which share the same code. The delivery office can either be a General Post Office, a Head Office or Sub Office which are located in urban areas. The post from the office is sorted and routed to other delivery offices for a different PIN or to one of the relevant sub offices or branch offices for the same PIN. Branch offices are located in areas and have limited postal services
14.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
15.
Lok Sabha
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The Lok Sabha is the Lower house of Indias bicameral Parliament, with the Upper house being the Rajya Sabha. The house meets in the Lok Sabha Chambers of the Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi, under the current laws, the strength of Lok Sabha is 545, including the two seats reserved for members of the Anglo-Indian community. The total elective membership is distributed among the states in proportion to their population, a total of 131 seats are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The quorum for the House is 10% of the total membership, term of the House The Lok Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting and the expiration of the period of five years. An exercise to redraw Lok Sabha constituencies boundaries has been carried out by the Delimitation Commission based on the Indian census of 2001, the 16th Lok Sabha was elected in May 2014 and is the latest to date. The Lok Sabha has its own channel, Lok Sabha TV. A major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1858 to 1947, the Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive Council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established legislatures in each of the provinces of British India, although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power still remained limited, and the electorate very small. The Indian Councils Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919 further expanded the participation of Indians in the administration, the Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the separate nations, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it for the respective dominion. The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. This contained the principles of the law of the land which would govern India in its new form. The Lok Sabha was duly constituted for the first time on 17 April 1952 after the first General Elections held from 25 October 1951 to 21 February 1952 and he / She should not be less than 25 years of age. He / She possesses such other qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by Parliament, a seat in the Lok Sabha will become vacant in the following circumstances, When the holder of the seat, by writing to the speaker, resigns. When the holder of the seat is absent from 60 consecutive days of proceedings of the House, when the holder of the seat is subject to any disqualifications mentioned in the Constitution or any law enacted by Parliament. A seat may also be vacated when the holder stands disqualified under the Anti-Defection Law, a member both of Parliament and of a House of the Legislature of a State. System of elections in Lok Sabha Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people of India, for the purpose of holding direct elections to Lok Sabha, each state is divided into territorial constituencies. This provision does not apply for states having a population of less than 6 million, note, The expression population here refers to the population ascertained at the preceding census of which relevant figure have been published. Lok Sabha has certain powers that make it more powerful than the Rajya Sabha, motions of no confidence against the government can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha
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Climate of India
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The climate of India comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalisations difficult. Many regions have different microclimates. The nation has four seasons, winter, summer, a rainy season. As Earths highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayas bar the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia. Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter, though the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical. There is one scientific opinion which states that in South Asia such climatic events are likely to change in unpredictability, frequency, during the Triassic period of some 251–199.6 Ma, the Indian subcontinent was part of a vast supercontinent known as Pangaea. India later merged into the southern supercontinent Gondwana, a process beginning some 550–500 Ma and this is underscored by Indias vast coal reserves—much of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequence—the fourth-largest reserves in the world. During the Mesozoic, the world, including India, was warmer than today. With the coming of the Carboniferous, global cooling stoked extensive glaciation, which spread northwards from South Africa towards India, tectonic movement by the Indian Plate caused it to pass over a geologic hotspot—the Réunion hotspot—now occupied by the volcanic island of Réunion. This resulted in a flood basalt event that laid down the Deccan Traps some 60–68 Ma. This may have contributed to the global Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which caused India to experience significantly reduced insolation, elevated atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formed aerosols such as sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid, similar to those found in the atmosphere of Venus, these precipitated as acid rain. Elevated carbon dioxide emissions also contributed to the effect, causing warmer weather that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the Laurasian landmass, were enough to cause the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. The nations climate is influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. Simultaneously, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, four major climatic groupings predominate, into which fall seven climatic zones that, as designated by experts, are defined on the basis of such traits as temperature and precipitation. Groupings are assigned according to the Köppen climate classification system. A tropical rainy climate governs regions persistent to warm or high temperatures, India hosts two climatic subtypes- tropical monsoon climate, tropical wet and dry climate that fall under this group. 1) The most humid is the tropical wet climate—also known as a tropical monsoon climate—that covers a strip of southwestern lowlands abutting the Malabar Coast, the Western Ghats, Indias two island territories, Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are also subject to this climate
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Climatic regions of India
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India has a large variation in climate from region to region, due to its vast size. India experiences climate from four major climate groups and these can be further subdivided into seven climatic types. For ecological regions, see Ecoregions of India, for Regions see List of regions of India, the regions belonging to this group experience persistent high temperatures which normally do not go below 18 °C even in the coolest month. Tropical wet The west coastal lowlands, the Western Ghats, and it is characterised by high temperatures throughout the year, even in the hills. The rainfall here is seasonal, but heavy and is above 78 cm in a year, Most of the rain is received in the period from May to November, and is adequate for the growth of vegetation during the entire year. December to March are the dry months with little rainfall. The heavy rain is responsible for the wet forests in these regions. Tropical wet and dry or savannah climate Most of the plateau of peninsula India enjoys this climate, winter and early summer are long dry periods with temperature above 18 °C. Summer is very hot and the temperatures in the low level areas can go above 45 °C during May. The rainy season is from June to September and the rainfall is between 75 and 150 cm. Only central eastern Tamil Nadu falls under this tract and receives rainfall during the months of late November to January. This group consists of regions where the rate of evaporation of water is higher than the rate of moisture received through precipitation. Tropical semi-arid climate A long stretch of land situated to the south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the western ghats and the Cardamom Hills experiences this climate. It includes Karnataka, interior and western Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh and this region is a famine prone zone with very unreliable rainfall which varies between 40 and 75 cm annually. Towards the north of Krishna River the summer monsoon is responsible for most of the rainfall, the coldest month is December but even in this month the temperature remains between 20 °C and 24 °C. The months of March to May are hot and dry with mean temperatures of around 32 °C. The vegetation mostly comprises grasses with a few scattered trees due to the rainfall, hence this area is not very well suited for permanent agriculture. Sub-tropical arid climate Most of western Rajasthan falls under this climate type characterised by scanty rainfall, cloud bursts are largely responsible for the all the rainfall seen in this region which is less than 30 cm
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Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
19.
Art and culture of Karnataka
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The southern state of Karnataka, in India, has a distinct art and culture. The diverse linguistic and religious ethnicity that are native to state of Karnataka combined with their long histories have contributed immensely to the cultural heritage of the state. Apart from Kannadigas, Karnataka is home to Tuluvas, Kodavas, minor populations of Tibetan Buddhists and Siddhi tribes plus a few other ethnic groups also live in Karnataka. The traditional folk arts cover the gamut of music, dance, drama, storytelling by itinerant troupes. Yakshagana, a folk play, is one of the major theatrical forms of coastal Karnataka. Veeragase, Kamsale and Dollu Kunitha are popular dance forms, bharatanatya also enjoys wide patronage in Karnataka. Karnataka is the only Indian state where both Hindustani and Carnatic singers flourish, north Karnataka is predominantly famous for Hindustani music and South Karnataka is well known for Carnatic music. Other haridasas of medieval times were Kanakadasa, Vyasatirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, one of the earliest and prominent composers in South India was the saint, and wandering bard of yore Purandara Dasa. Though historians claim Purandara Dasa composed 75,000 -475,000 songs in Sanskrit and Kannada and he was a source of inspiration to the later composers like Tyagaraja. Karnataka has achieved a prominent place in the world of Hindustani music as well, several of Karnatakas Hindustani musicians won the Kalidas Sanman, Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan awards. Some famous performers are Gangubai Hangal, Puttaraj Gawai, Pt. Bhimsen Joshi, Pt. Mallikarjun Mansur, Basavaraj Rajguru, Sawai Gandharva, Pt. Ravindra Yavagal, Pt. Udayraj Karpur, Pt. Raghunath Nakod. There are Harmonium exponents like, Pt. Rambhau Bijapure, Pt. Vasant Kanakapur Yakshagana a form of drama is one of the major theatrical forms in coastal Karnataka. A fusion of folk and classical tradition makes Yakshagana a unique form of art which includes colourful costumes, music, dance, singing, award winning performers include Shambhu Hegde, Chittani Ramachandra Hegde. Yakshagana and Dollu Kunitha are two of the dance forms of Karnataka. Gamaka is a music form based on Karnakata Sangeetha. The Bengal renaissance, along with the influence of Ravi Varma school of painting. King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III patronised famous painters including Sundarayya, Tanjavur Kondayya and Alasinrayya, king Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV patronised K. Venkatappa, Keshavayya, Y. The Chamarajendra Technological Institute, Jaganmohan Art Gallery and Venkatappa Art Gallery are reminders of this heyday, chitrakala Parishat is an organisation in Karnataka dedicated to promote visual arts, particularly the folk and traditional art
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Coat of arms of Karnataka
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The coat of arms of Karnataka is the state emblem of Karnataka, India. The coat of arms is based on that of the Kingdom of Mysore and is carried on all official correspondences made by Government of Karnataka, the arms has a red shield charged with a white two-headed bird, Gandaberunda bordured in blue. The shield is flanked on either side by red-maned, yellow lion-elephant Sharabha supporters standing on a green, below the compartment lies written in stylized Devanāgarī, the national motto of India, सत्यमेव जयते. Emblems of Indian States National Emblem of India
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History of Karnataka
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The recorded history of Karnataka goes back more than two millennia. The credit for doing extensive study of prehistoric Karnataka goes to Robert Bruce-Foote. The pre-historic culture of Karnataka is called the culture, as opposed to the Sohan culture of North India. There are reports that a stone axe was discovered at Lingasugur in the Raichur district Neolithic sites of importance are Maski in Raichur district. To the end of the Neolithic era, during the Megalithic age, people in Karnataka began to use swords, sickles, axes, hammers, spikes, chisels and arrows. Scholarly hypothesis postulates contacts between the Indus Valley cities of Harappa and Lothal, citing the discovery of gold found in the Harappan sites that was imported from mines in Karnataka. Evidence of Neolithic habitation of areas in modern Karnataka and celts dating back to the 2nd century BCE were first discovered in 1872, there are reports that a polished stone axe was discovered at Lingsugur in the Raichur district, however the authenticity of these reports remains unverifiable. Megalithic structures and burial grounds were discovered in 1862 in the regions of Kodagu and Moorey Betta hills, while Neolithic sites were discovered in north Karnataka. Scholarly hypothesis postulates of contacts between the Indus Valley city of Harappa in 3000 BCE, citing the discovery of gold found in the Harappan sites that was imported from mines in Karnataka. Around 230 BCE, the Satavahana dynasty came to power and its rule lasted four centuries till the early 3rd century CE. These were the first kingdoms to give status to Kannada language as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription of 450. Also, recent discovery of a 5th-century copper coin in Banavasi, ancient capital of the Kadambas, with Kannada script inscription on it, parts of Karnataka were conquered by the Chola Empire in the 11th century. Natives of the malnad Karnataka, the Hoysalas established the Hoysala Empire at the turn of the first millennium, the expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought large parts of modern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu under their rule. In the early 14th century, the Vijayanagara Empire with its capital at Hosapattana rose to challenge the Muslim invasions into the South. This empire was established by Harihara I and Bukka Raya who many historians claim were commanders of the last Hoysala King Veera Ballala III and the empire prospered for over two centuries. The Bahamani and Bijapur rulers encouraged Urdu and Persian literature and Indo Saracenic architecture, parts of Karnataka were conquered by Marathas, earlier under Chhatrapati Shivaji and later on after the War of 27 years. The Wodeyars of Mysore, former vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire, after Indian independence, the Wodeyar Maharaja acceded to India. In 1950, Mysore became an Indian state, and the former Maharaja became its rajpramukh, or governor, Mysore state was renamed Karnataka in 1973
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Political history of medieval Karnataka
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The political history of medieval Karnataka spans the 4th to the 16th centuries, when the empires that evolved in the Karnataka region of India made a lasting impact on the subcontinent. Before this, alien empires held sway over the region, and this is the historical starting point in studying the development of the region as an enduring geopolitical entity and of Kannada as an important regional language. In the southern regions of Karnataka, the Western Gangas of Talakad were contemporaries of the Kadambas, the Muslim invasion of the Deccan resulted in the breaking away of the feudatory Sultanates in the 14th century. The rule of the Bahamani Sultanate of Bidar and the Bijapur Sultanate from the northern Deccan region caused a mingling of the ancient Hindu traditions with the nascent Islamic culture in the region. The hereditary ruling families and clans ably served the large empires and upheld the local culture, with the weakening of the Satavahanas, the Pallavas of Kanchi took control for a brief duration. The Kadambas were natives of the Talagunda region as proven by inscriptions, Mayurasharma, a Brahmin native of Talagunda who was humiliated by a Pallava guard, rose in rage against the Pallava control of the Banavasi region and declared his independence in 345. After many wars, the Pallava king had to accept the sovereignty of the Kadambas and Mayurasharma, the fact that the Kadambas cultivated marital ties with the imperial Vakatakas and Gupta dynasties attests to their power. Here Kalidasa describes his visit to the Kadamba kingdom as an ambassador where he was not offered a seat in the court of the Kadamba king and had to sit on the ground. Historians view this act as one of assertion by the Kadambas who considered themselves equal to the imperial Gupta dynasty, the Kadambas would continue to rule parts of Karnataka and Goa for many centuries to come but never again as an independent kingdom. The oldest surviving Kadamba structure is one dating to the late 5th century in Halsi in modern Belgaum district. The most prominent feature of their style, one that remained popular centuries later and was used by the Hoysalas. The Western Ganga Dynasty, contemporaries of the Kadambas, came to power from Kolar and they ruled the region historically known as Gangavadi comprising most of the modern southern districts of Karnataka. Acting as a state between the Kannada kingdoms of Karnataka region and the Tamil kingdoms of Tamilakam, the Western Ganga architectural innovations show mixed influences. Their sovereign rule ended around the time as the Kadambas when they came under the Badami Chalukya control. The Western Gangas continued to rule as a feudatory till the beginning of the century when they were defeated by the Cholas of Tanjavur. Their free standing pillars and Hero stones with sculptural detail are also considered a unique contribution, the Chalukya dynasty, natives of the Aihole and Badami region in Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas. They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration, in the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own when Pulakeshin I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power. The inscription describes how King Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha on seeing a number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II
23.
Unification of Karnataka
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Decades earlier, during British rule the first demands for a state based on Kannada demographics had been made. In effect, nearly two-thirds of what is now Karnataka fell outside the rule of the Wodeyar kings of Mysore and this meant that the Kannadigas in these regions in spite of their large numbers they did not have an administrative patronage. Kannadigas in the Hubli-Karnataka region for example, came under the rule of the Bombay Presidency where Marathi was the official language and those in the Hyderabad-Karnataka region came under the Nizams rule where Urdu was the main language. Kannadigas in South Canara came under the rule from Madras Presidency which used Tamil as the main language, under these conditions, a feeling of discontent began among Kannadigas outside Mysore. Thus, while the Kannadigas under the Nizam felt that Urdu was being forced on them at the expense of Kannada and these areas also remained economically undeveloped. This was called the Ekikarana or Unification movement, almost the entire southern half of Karnataka was then under the Wodeyars of Mysore with Nalvadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar. The official language of the state was Kannada and the state was one of the more progressive states of the day. Important protagonists of the Ekikarana movement including Aluru Venkata Rao were from parts of Karnataka. One of the earliest and most important organisations that was chosen to lead the movement, the Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha, Dharwad was established in 1890. The Vidyavardhaka Sangha became the aegis under which leaders from all over Karnataka gathered to further their agitation, the influence and success of the Vidyavardhaka Sangha soon lead to more such organisations being set up throughout Karnataka. The most notable of these were the Kannada Sahitya Parishat that was set up in 1915, the Karnataka Sangha that began in 1916, Karnataka Samithi, Kasaragod was established in 1955 to advocate a merger of Kasaragod with Karanataka state. Umesha Rao, popularly known as Gadinadu Gandhi, was the first president of the organisation, on his death in 1957, B. S. Kakkillaya succeeded him as president until 1967. His photograph was among those used in the Karnataka Governments Suvarna Karnataka calendar of 2006, kallige Mahabala Bhandari, an advocate, was elected to the Kerala Assembly from Manjeshwaram Constituency in Kasaragod under the Samithi banner. U. P. Kunikullaya was similarly elected in 1967, the efforts of the Samithi led to the Kasgarod unification issue being referred to the Justice Mahajan Commission by the government of India in 1966. The commission upheld the claim for merger of Kasaragod with the state of Karnataka, the Parliament of India is yet to take a final decision in the matter. B. V. Kakkillaya took over the presidency of the Samithi in 2000, during his term as president, the government of Kerala nominated him as a member of the State Level Committee for Linguistic Minorities in Kerala. He, too, received the Rajyotsava award in 2006, speaking at a meeting of the Sangha in 1903, Alur Venkata Rao made a case for integrating all Kannada regions of Madras Province and north Karnataka with Mysore kingdom. Aluru himself was inspired by the protests that followed the British partitioning of Bengal, in 1907 and again in 1908, Rao organised the All-Karnataka Writers Conference in Dharwad
24.
Alupa dynasty
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The Alupa also known as Alva were a royal dynasty who ruled what is now coastal Karnataka, India. They ruled independently their kingdom known as Alvakheda since the beginning of the common era, Later with the dominance of Kadambas from Banavasi, they became feudatory to them. With the changing political scenario, soon became the vassals of the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas. Their influence over coastal Karnataka lasted for about 1200 years, there is evidence that the Alupas followed the law of matrilineal inheritance since the Alupa king Soyideva was succeeded by his nephew Kulasekhara Bankideva. Ptolemy, the 2nd century geographer identifies the Tulu Nadu region as Olokhoira which is believed to be a corruption of the term Alva Kheda. Regarding the origin of the name B. A. Saletore has suggested that the name Alupa is derived from its variant Aluka which is an epithet of the divine serpent Shesha of Hindu epics. Fleet has suggested that the name Aluka may possibly denote the Nāgas who in early times were included in Chalukya dominions, Saletore further adds that the Naga origin of the Alupas is proved by two facts. The figure of a serpent which is found in an effaced Alupa stone inscription in the Gollara Ganapati temple in Mangalore. Saletore dismisses the idea regarding the Dravidian origin of the name from the Tamil word Alu meaning to rule or govern, the rule of other Chutu dynasty was restricted only to Banavasi, and the rule of Sadakanas were confined to Chandravalli region. The region of North Karnataka was more under so-called Elephant, Lion, Horse, again, later Shatavahana branch and Later Kuras moved southward to establish only in Banavasi. The region of Dakshina Kannada was free from any such an external influence, in south India, only three of the local dynasties are known to the history, namely the Sangam-age Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas. Alupas migrated to the region of Mangalore and took control of the coastal land stretching from Southern Kasaragod till modern Udupi with Mangalore as the epicenter. The region of South Canara prior to this rule is still tagged to the same ruling house though the ruling was more informal. With the Kadambas rule from Banavasi, Karnataka saw developments in the field of art, land of Karnataka saw more and more epigraphs that recorded the activities of the past, mostly erected in the temple premises. The first clear mention of Alupas comes from the Halmidi inscription of 450 CE where their possible early ruler Pashupathi of Alapa gana is mentioned, Pashupathi was the contemporary of the Kadambas. Hence for historical record, we can assume that the dynastic formation of Alupas took place around 5th century CE. Their royal emblem was the fish and they claimed to belong to the Pandyavamsha. Their coins carried the dynastic title Sri Pandya Dhananjaya which means Arjuna among the Pandyas, in the ancient times, the region was referred as Alvakheda and during the later part of the reign, the region was referred as Tulunadu
25.
Kadamba dynasty
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Kadamba was an ancient royal brahmin dynasty of Karnataka, India that ruled northern Karnataka and the Konkan from Banavasi in present-day Uttara Kannada district. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, the Kadambas of Banavasi ruled large parts of modern Karnataka state, King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the language of the soil and their legacy was so impressive that even the Vijayanagar rulers who fought Deccan Sultanates hired descendants of the Kadambas to manage their Goa military naval fleet. There is no shortage of myths about the origin of the Kadambas, according to one account the dynasty was founded by one Trilochana Kadamba also known from the Halsi and Degamve records as Jayanta who had three eyes and four arms. He was born out of the sweat of Shiva, which had fallen under a Kadamba tree, according to another myth, Mayurasharma himself was born to Lord Shiva and mother earth and had three eyes. An inscription of the Nagarakhanda Kadambas, a later descendent dynasty, gives a legendary account, there are two theories to the origin of the Kadamba dynasty, a native Kannadiga origin and the other a north Indian origin. Mention of the north Indian origin of the Kadambas are only found in their records of their offshoot descendent dynasty and is considered legendary. But this theory has not found popularity as there is no indication of this account in any of their early records, on the contrary, the family derives its name from the Kadamba tree that is common only to the South India region. A claim has made that the Kadambas were none other than a tribe called the Kadambu. The Kadambus find mention in the Tamil Sangam literature as totemic worshippers of the Kadambu tree, being native Kannadigas, the Kadambas promptly gave administrative and political importance to their language, Kannada, after coming to power. It is thus claimed that the family of the Kadambas were undoubtedly of Kanarese descent, the Naga descent of the Kadambas has been stated in early inscriptions of King Krishna Varma I too, which confirms the family was from present day Karnataka. Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the sources of the Kadamba history. The Talagunda, Gundanur, Chandravalli, Halasi and Halmidi inscription are some of the important inscriptions that throw light on this ancient ruling family of Karnataka. They belonged to the Manavya Gotra and were Haritiputras, which connects them to the native Chutus of Banavasi, inscriptions of the Kadambas in Kannada and Sanskrit ascribed to the main dynasty and branch kingdoms have been published by historians. The Kadambas minted coins with Nagari, Kannada and Grantha legends which provide additional evidence of their history. Kadambas were the first rulers to use Kannada as an official administrative language
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Chalukya dynasty
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The Chalukya dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties, the earliest dynasty, known as the Badami Chalukyas, ruled from Vatapi from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi, after the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century and these Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani until the end of the 12th century. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India, the political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers, the rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called Chalukyan architecture. Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain, the 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas. While opinions vary regarding the origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus among noted historians such as John Keay. Sircar, Hans Raj, S. Sen, Kamath, K. V. Ramesh, a theory that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the Andhra Ikshvaku was put forward. This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage, the Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the Hiranyakagotra. The Chalukyas, however, address themselves as Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra in their inscriptions, which is the lineage as their early overlords. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas, the Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas. A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and she had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakeshin Is father. However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was Pulakeshin Is grandfather and Ranaranga, his father. Kamath and Moraes claim it was a practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin, while the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination. Hence, the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region. The writing of 12th century Kashmiri poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra caste while other sources claim they were Kshatriyas, the historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D. C
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Rashtrakuta dynasty
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Rashtrakuta was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapura, other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur and the rulers of Kannauj. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native home and this clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753. At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Malwa were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively, an Arabic text, Silsilat al-Tawarikh, called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by Hinduism and the kings by Jainism. During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada, Amoghavarsha I, the most famous king of this dynasty wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora in modern Maharashtra. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, the origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, the sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval inscriptions, ancient literature in the Pali language, contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit and Kannada and the notes of the Arab travellers. Scholars debate over which ethnic/linguistic groups can claim the early Rashtrakutas, possibilities include the north western ethnic groups of India, the Kannadiga, Reddi, the Maratha, or the tribes from the Punjab region. Scholars however concur that the rulers of the dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the Kannada language as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit, and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages, the earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty. Though these Rashtrakutas were Kannadigas, they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well, the heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of Karnataka, Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh, an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. He then helped his father-in-law, Pallava King Nandivarman regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras of Malwa, dantidurgas successor Krishna I brought major portions of present-day Karnataka and Konkan under his control. During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha who took control in 780 and he led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the Gurjara Pratiharas and the Palas of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought the Eastern Chalukyas and Gangas of Talakad under his control, according to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule. The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarshas third son, Govinda III, to the throne heralded an era of success like never before, there is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time. During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains and his military exploits have been compared to those of Alexander the Great and Arjuna of Mahabharata
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Hoysala Empire
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The Hoysala empire was a prominent Southern Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the modern-day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was moved to Halebidu. The Hoysala rulers were originally from Malnad Karnataka, a region in the Western Ghats range. By the 13th century, they governed most of present-day Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh, the Hoysala era was an important period in the development of art, architecture, and religion in South India. The empire is remembered primarily for its temple architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka, well known temples which exhibit an amazing display of sculptural exuberance include the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The Hoysala rulers also patronised the arts, encouraging literature to flourish in Kannada. Kannada folklore tells a tale of a young man Sala, who saved his Jain guru Sudatta by striking dead a Tiger he encountered near the temple of the Goddess Vasantika at Angadi, the word strike literally translates to hoy in Hale Kannada, hence the name Hoy-sala. This legend first appeared in the Belur inscription of Vishnuvardhana, early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that the Hoysalas were descendants of the Yadava by referring to the Yadava vamsa as Hoysala vamsa. But there are no early records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas of North India, historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or Lord of the Male chiefs. This title in the Kannada language was used by the Hoysala kings as their royal signature in their inscriptions. Literary sources from that time in Kannada and Sanskrit have also helped confirm they were natives of the region known today as Karnataka, the first Hoysala family record is dated 950 and names Arekalla as the chieftain, followed by Maruga and Nripa Kama I. The next ruler, Munda, was succeeded by Nripa Kama II who held titles as Permanadi that show an early alliance with the Western Ganga dynasty. From these modest beginnings, the Hoysala dynasty began its transformation into a subordinate of the Western Chalukyas. Through Vishnuvardhanas expansive military conquests, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a kingdom for the first time. He wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas in 1116 and moved the capital from Belur to Halebidu, Vishnuvardhanas ambition of creating an independent empire was fulfilled by his grandson Veera Ballala II, who freed the Hoysalas from subordination in 1187–1193. During this time, peninsular India saw a four way struggle for hegemony – Pandya, Kakatiya, Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom. He assumed the title Establisher of the Chola Kingdom, Emperor of the south and he founded the city of Bangalore according to Kannada folklore
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Western Ganga dynasty
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Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling from Kolar and later, after the rise of the imperial Chalukyas of Badami, the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchi. The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 753 CE as the dominant power in the Deccan, after a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the Chola Dynasty of Tanjavur. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire, the defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region. Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, the kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. Chavundarayas writing, Chavundaraya Purana of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose, many classics were written on various subjects ranging from religion to elephant management. Multiple theories have been proposed regarding the ancestry of the founders of the Western Ganga dynasty, some mythical accounts point to a northern origin, while theories based on epigraphy suggest a southern origin. These regions encompass an area of the southern Deccan where the three modern states merge geographically, the area they controlled was called Gangavadi and included regions of the modern districts of Mysore, Hassan Chamarajanagar, Tumkur, Kolar, Mandya and Bangalore in Karnataka state. At times, they controlled some areas in modern Tamil Nadu. The founding king of the dynasty was Konganivarma Madhava who made Kolar his capital around 350, by the time of Harivarma in 390, the Gangas had consolidated their kingdom with Talakad as their capital. Their move from the early capital Kolar may have been a one with the intention of containing the growing Kadamba power. In 529, King Durvinita ascended the throne after waging a war with his brother who was favoured by his father. Some accounts suggest that in this struggle, the Pallavas of Kanchi supported Avinitas choice of heir. From the inscriptions it is known that these battles were fought in Tondaimandalam, considered the most successful of the Ganga kings, Durvinita was well versed in arts such as music, dance, ayurveda and taming wild elephants. Some inscriptions sing paeans to him by comparing him to Yudhishthira and Manu – figures from Hindu mythology known for their wisdom, politically, the Gangas were feudatories and close allies who also shared matrimonial relations with the Chalukyas. This is attested by inscriptions which describe their joint campaigns against their arch enemy, from the year 725 onwards, the Gangavadi territories came to be called as the Gangavadi-96000 comprising the eastern and western provinces of modern south Karnataka. King Sripurusha fought the Pallava King Nandivarman Pallavamalla successfully, bringing Penkulikottai in north Arcot under his control temporarily for which he earned the title Permanadi
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Vijayanagara
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Vijaya Nagara was the capital city of the historic Vijayanagara Empire which extended over South India. The citys ruins, surrounding the village of Hampi, are in Ballari district. Most of the city lies on the bank of the Tungabhadra River. The city was built around the center of the Virupaksha temple complex at Hampi. Other holy places lie within its environs, including the site that legend calls as Kishkindha, which includes the historically important Hanuman temple and it is known to house the cave home of Sugriva, the monkey king in the Hindu epic Ramayana. The city at its greatest extent was considerably larger than the described here. The central areas of the city, which include what are now called the Royal Centre and it includes the modern village of Hampi. Another village, Kamalapura, lies just outside the old walled city, surrounded by ruins, the nearest town and railway is in Hospet, about 13 kilometres by road. Hosapete lies within the extents of the old city, though most of the items of interest are walking distance of Hampi. The natural setting for the city is a landscape, dotted with granite boulders. The Tungabhadra river runs through it and provides protection from the north, beyond the hills, on the south bank on which the city was built, a plain extended further the south. Large walls and fortifications of hewn granite defended the centre of the city, the name translates as City of Victory, from vijaya and nagara. As the prosperous capital of the largest and most powerful kingdom of its time in all of India, after Timurs sack of Delhi, North India remained weak and divided up. South India was better off, and the largest and most powerful of the kingdoms was Vijayanagar. This state and city attracted many of the Hindu refugees from the north, the whole city was full of gardens, and because of them, as an Italian visitor in 1420, Nicolo Conti writes, the circumference of the city was sixty miles. A later visitor was Paes, a Portuguese who came in 1522 after having visited the Italian cities of the Renaissance. The city of Vijayanagar, he says, is as large as Rome and very beautiful to the sight, it is full of charm and wonder with its lakes and waterways. It is the city in the world and everything abounds
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Vijayanagara Empire
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The Vijayanagara Empire was based in the Deccan Plateau region in South India. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty, the empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka. The writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò Da Conti, Archaeological excavations at Vijayanagara have revealed the empires power and wealth. The empires legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi, the previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan, efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empires patronage enabled fine arts and literature to new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor, differing theories have been proposed regarding the origins of the Vijayanagara empire. Others claim that they were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, irrespective of their origin, historians agree the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery to fight the Muslim invasion of South India. He created the Kampili kingdom, but this was a short lived kingdom during this period of wars, Kampili existed near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra river in northeastern parts of the present-day Karnataka state. It ended after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate, the triumphant army led by Malik Zada sent the news of its victory, over Kampili kingdom, to Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi by sending a straw-stuffed severed head of the dead Hindu king. Within Kampili, on the day of certain defeat, the populace committed a jauhar in 1327/28 CE, eight years later, from the ruins of the Kampili kingdom emerged the Vijayanagara Kingdom in 1336 CE. In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the south of the Tungabhadra river. The original capital was in the principality of Anegondi on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in todays Karnataka. The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha, italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India. Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers and he quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu, the Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when the latter defaulted in paying the tribute
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Medieval City of Vijayanagara
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The City of Vijayanagara was the urban core of the imperial city and the surrounding principalities of the capital of the Vijayanagar empire during the 14th century to 16th century CE. Notes by foreign travellers such as Abdur Razzak, the Persian who visited Vijayanagara in 1440, the large area between the first and third fortifications contained agricultural fields, gardens and residences. The notes of Robert Sewell describe countless shops and bazaars filled with people from different nationalities between this fortification and the palace, the capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire was founded on the banks of the Tungabhadra River by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I in the early 14th century. The capital city grew with extraordinary rapidity in the decades of Sangama rule. The capital city had splendid layout with forts, palaces, gardens, the Italian traveler Nicolo Conti who visited the city in 1420 CE, estimated the circumference of the city to be sixty miles and was impressed by the strength of its fortifications. Recent excavations have unearthed archaeological artifacts dating from the 3rd century BC to early in the 2nd millennium and these sites include ash mounds, ancient settlements, megalithic cemeteries, temples and rock art. These findings show that the Vijayanagar area was settled for a long period before the creation of the empire. Starting at its outermost fortifications, the principality of Vijayanagar spans from Anegondi in the north to Hosapete in the south, vijayanagaras core, an area of 25 km², includes the Tungabhadra River flowing through rocky terrain with huge boulders piled in massive formations. In addition to this naturally daunting landscape, builders constructed fortifications surrounding the city in several layers. The rocky hillocks made excellent sentinel points for watch towers and granite boulders provided the raw material for temple construction, south of the river the rocky landscape disappears, replaced by flat cultivable land where large and small temples complexes were built. The largest human populations were located to the south of the lands that were watered by a system of clever ducts. At its peak, Vijayanagara may have had up to a million residents, for the sake of simplicity archaeologists have divided the capital area into many zones. Of these, the two zones are the Sacred Centre and the Royal Centre. The former, generally spread along the bank, is characterized by the highest concentration of religious structures. The Royal Centre is notable for its stately structures, both civil and military, the very seat of power of the empire was located at the core of this area. Islamic Quarter also sometimes called, as the Moorish Quarter is located between the slope of the Malyavanta hill towards and the Talarigatta Gate. According to the archaeologists, high-ranking Muslim officers of the kings court, two important legends associated with Hampi, the core area of Vijayanagar, had an important part in making it a pilgrim destination for several centuries prior to the Vijayanagara era. One legend describes a local Goddess, Pampa, who married Virupaksha on the Hemakuta Hill and was considered to be an incarnation of Parvati
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Military of Vijayanagara
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The Military of Vijayanagara supported the Vijayanagara Empire in particular with regard to the empires long-lasting rivalry with the Bahmani Sultanate. Besides a large standing army, the Vijayanagara rulers also maintained a powerful navy and this helped make the Viayanagara empire the most centralised polity ever to have emerged in South India. However, a portion of the imperial income was committed to military purposes. The numerical strength of the Vijayanagara army is disputed, rayawacha countered that the force contained 500,000 foot soldiers,60,000 cavalry and 1,200 war elephants. Deva Raya II, to counter the superior Bahmani cavalry, is believed to have enrolled 2000 Muslim cavalrymen to teach the art of archery to his Hindu soldiers and officers, the Vijayanagara army contained two main branches, being the Kaijeeta Sainya and the Amaranayaka Sainya. Razak Rayala says that the army was on salary, being paid four months rather than by the award of jagirs. The Amaranayaka Sainya was maintained using the feudal system of the Kakatiyas. For this purpose, the empire was divided into Amaras, that were granted to leaders called Nayakas, in return, these Nayakas supplied soldiers when required. The number supplied depended on the rank of the Nayaka, who himself divided lands among his subordinates, the Vijayanagara army consisted primarily of infantry, cavalry and war elephants, armed with bows and arrows, swords and lances as its principal weapons. Although the Vijayanagran kings had little interest in guns, the infantry did have a regiment of matchlockmen, the powerful navy enabled the Vijayanagara rulers to invade Sri Lanka repeatedly. Forts played an important role in medieval warfare, according to tradition, there were eight types of forts. However, Rayawachaka mentions four types of forts and they are giri, stala, jala and vana forts. Krishnaraya suggests that forts were constructed in Gadi and border areas. Pace wrote that many forts were present in border areas, deep forests were grown around forts. Catapults and damboli were used for fort defense, damboli is a cannon which throws stones on enemies. To occupy forts they used lagga systems, krishnadevaraya used them to occupy Kondaveedu fort. Emperor Krishna Deva Raya recruited soldiers, tulu, Kabbali and Morasa State clan members joined in large numbers. Forest tribes including Chenchu, Koya and Boya also sent recruits, Empire training facilities improved bravery, interest in war, and body strength
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Battle of Talikota
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The Battle of Talikota was a watershed battle fought between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan sultanates. It ended in the defeat of Vijayanagara, resulting in its subsequent weakening, the battle took place at Talikota, today a town in northern Karnataka, about 80 kilometres to the southeast from the city of Bijapur. The Vijayanagara Empire was one of the largest Indian Empires originating from Southern India before the Maratha Empire, the throne of the Vijayanagara Empire had passed from Achyuta Raya, upon his death, to Rama Raya. The Sultanates were in constant fear of a much bigger Vijayanagara Empire united against it, the excessive pride of Vijayanagara in its strength and internal conflicts also added to the cause of the battle. By 29 December 1564 the first battles broke out, Qutb Shah and Nizam Shah, who were friends, decided to go on their own first and led their divisions to clash with Tirumala Deva Rayas division. The vijayanagar army inflicted defeat on the enemy and the Sultans fled in disarray losing thousands of men in the encounter, the Sultans were shaken by this encounter and asked Adil Shah to forget previous arguments and stand by them for the intended counter-attack. The Sultans met secretly and decided that the way to succeed was to resort to stratagem. Nizam Shah and Qutb Shah decided to parley with the Raya who was now planning a large counter-thrust into the flanks, at the same time Adil Shah sent a false message to the Hindu commander that he wished to remain neutral. As a result of these parleys Ramaraya delayed his counter-thrust giving a small, Sultan Imad Shah of Berar made the first thrust by attacking Tirumala Deva Raya s division guarding the Krishna ford. Tirumala fell upon him with his force and in a short but intense encounter destroyed the Sultans army. However, the sultans Nizam Shah, Qutb Shah, Barid Shah on one side and Adil Shah on the other used this distraction to cross the Krishna, Rama Raya, though surprised, rapidly responded. Despite being in his 70s he decided to lead the Hindu armies. He was faced by Nizam Shahs division, Ramarayas first brother Tirumala hurriedly returned to form the left wing of the Hindu army that was countered by Adil Shah and traitorous Hindus under the Maharatta chief Raja Ghorpade. His second brother Venkatadri formed the Hindu right wing that was opposed by Qutb Shah and Barid Shah, on 23 Jan 1565, the armies clashed on the plains near the villages of Rakshasi and Tangadi. Several reports claimed that over a million men were involved, Venkatadri struck early and within the first two hours the Hindu right wings heavy guns fired constantly on the ranks of Barid Shah. As the ranks were softened the Hindu infantry under Venkatadri ploughed through the divisions of Barid Shah annihilating them, the assault was so vigorous that it looked like a Hindu victory was imminent. Qutb Shah was also in retreat, when Nizam Shah sent his forces to shore up the ranks of the Sultans, Nizam Shah himself was then pressed hard by the heavy cannonade from Rama Rayas division and was facing a Hindu infantry thrust with Ramaraya at the helm. At this point the Sultans signaled to the Muslim officers in the Vijayanagaran army to launch a subversive attack, suddenly Ramaraya found his rear surprised by the two Muslim divisions in his ranks turning against him
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Sultanate
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Sultan is a noble title with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning strength, authority, rulership, derived from the verbal noun سلطة sulṭah, the dynasty and lands ruled by a sultan are referred to as a sultanate. A feminine form of sultan, used by Westerners, is Sultana or Sultanah, but Turkish and Ottoman Turkish also uses sultan for imperial lady, because Turkish grammar uses the same words for women and men. However, this styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans, in a similar usage, the wife of a German field marshal might be styled Frau Feldmarschall. The female leaders in Muslim history are known as sultanas. Special case in Brunei, the Queen Consort is known as Raja Isteri with suffix Pengiran Anak if the queen consort is a royal princess. Among those modern hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law and these are generally secondary titles, either lofty poetry or with a message, e. g. g. Sultan ul-Mujahidin as champion of jihad, ghaznavid Sultanate Sultans of Great Seljuk Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, the Osmanli Elisu Sultanate and a few others. A Sultan ranked below a Khan and this usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as sultan, but Ottomans themselves used padişah or hünkar to refer to their ruler, the emperors formal title consisted of sultan together with khan. In formal address, the children were also entitled sultan, with imperial princes carrying the title before their given name. Example, Şehzade Sultan Mehmed and Mihrimah Sultan, son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent, henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title sultan. In Kazakh Khanate a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty elected by clans, the best of sultans was elected as khan by people at Kurultai. See ru, Казахские султаны In a number of states under Mongol or Turkic rule. These administrations were often decimal, using originally princely titles such as khan, malik, in the Persian empire, the rank of sultan was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day captain in the West, socially in the fifth-rank class, styled Ali Jah
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Ahmadnagar Sultanate
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The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was a late medieval Indian kingdom, located in the northwestern Deccan, between the sultanates of Gujarat and Bijapur. Initially his capital was in the town of Junnar with its fort, in 1494, the foundation was laid for the new capital Ahmadnagar. In 1636 Aurangzeb, then Mugal viceroy of Deccan finally annexed the sultanate to the Mughal empire, Malik Ahmad was the son of Nizam-ul-Mulk Malik Hasan Bahri. After the death of his father, he assumed the appellation of his father and he founded the new capital Ahmadnagar on the bank of the river Sina. After several attempts, he secured the fortress of Daulatabad in 1499. After the death of Malik Ahmad in 1510, his son Burhan, in the initial days of his reign, the control of the kingdom was in the hands of Mukammal Khan, an Ahmadnagar official and his son. Burhan Shah I died in Ahmadnagar in 1553 and he left six sons, of whom Hussain succeeded him. After the death of Hussain Shah I in 1565, his minor son Murtaza ascended the throne, during his minority, his mother Khanzada Humayun Sultana better known in history as Chand Sultana or Chand Bibi ruled as a regent for several years. Murtaza Shah annexed Berar in 1572, on his death in 1588, his son Miran Hussain ascended the throne. But his reign could last only a more than ten months as he was poisoned to death. Ismail, a cousin of Miran Hussain was raised to the throne, but the power was in the hands of Jamal Khan. Jamal Khan was killed in the battle of Rohankhed in 1591 and soon Ismail Shah was also captured and confined by his father Burhan, winning the kingdom, Chand Bibi ascended the throne. After the death of Chand Bibi in July,1600 Ahmadnagar was conquered by the Mughals, although, Ahmadnagar city and its adjoining areas were occupied by the Mughals, an extensive part of the kingdom still remained in possession of the influential officials of the Nizam Shahi dynasty. Malik Ambar and other Ahmadnagar officials defied the Mughals and declared Murtaza Shah II as sultan in 1600 at a new capital Paranda, Malik Ambar became prime minister and Vakil-us-Saltanat of Ahmadnagar. Later, the capital was shifted first to Junnar and then to a new city Khadki, soon, Shah Jahan ordered the Subhedar of Deccan, Mahabat Khan to finish off the Nizamshahi when the commander-in-chief, Shahaji Bhosale was away. But soon, Shahaji with the assistance of Bijapur, placed an infant scion of the Nizam Shahi dynasty, Murtaza on the throne, the scion Nizam and Shahajis family was stationed in the Mahuli Fort. Shah Jahan quickly made an alliance with Mohammed Adilshah of Bijapur, Shahaji tried to break the siege externally several times, but failed. So Jijabai along with young Shivaji successfully escaped from Mahuli in disguise, however, the mother of scion Nizam, Sajeeda was caught while fleeing along with the Nizam
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Berar Sultanate
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Berar was one of the Deccan sultanates. It was established in 1490 following the disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate, the origin of the name Berar or Warhad as it is spelled in Marathi, is not known. Possibly it may be a corruption of Vidarbha, the name of a kingdom in the Deccan which is mentioned in the Mahabharata, the first authentic records show it to have been part of the Andhra or Satavahana empire. On the fall of the Chalukyas in the 12th century, Berar came under the sway of the Yadavas of Deogiri, the perils of this system became apparent when the province was divided into two separate provinces, named after their capitals Gawil and Mahur. The Bahmani dynasty was, however, already tottering to its fall and he proceeded to annex Mahur to his new kingdom and had capital at Ellichpur. Imad-ul-Mulk was by birth a Kanarese Hindu, but had captured as a boy in one of the expeditions against the Vijayanagara empire. Gavilgad and Narnala were also fortified by him and he died in 1504 and his successor, Ala-ud-din resisted the aggression of Ahmadnagar with the help from Bahadur Shah, sultan of Gujarat. The next ruler, Darya tried to align with Bijapur to prevent aggression of Ahamdnagar, in 1568 when Burhan Imad Shah was deposed by his minister Tufal Khan, and assumed the kingship
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Bidar Sultanate
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Bidar sultanate was one of the Deccan sultanates of late medieval southern India. The sultanate was founded in 1492 by Qasim Barid, who was a Turk from Georgia and he joined the service of the Bahmani sultān Muhammad Shah III. He started his career as a sar-naubat but later became the mir-jumla of the Bahmani sultanate, during the reign of Mahmud Shah Bahmani, he became the de facto ruler. After his death in 1504, his son Amir Barid became the prime minister, after the death of Mahmud Shah Bahmani in 1518, he was succeeded by four sultans, one after another, but they were mere puppets in the hands of Amir Barid. When the last Bahmani ruler Kalimullah fled to Bidar in 1527, but he never assumed any royal title. In 1542, he was succeeded by his son Ali Barid, Ali Barid joined the other Deccan sultans in the battle of Talikota against the Vijaynagar Empire in January,1565. After his death in 1580, Ali Barid was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Barid, after his death in 1591, he was succeeded by his infant son Ali Barid II, who was soon dethroned by one of his relative, Amir Barid II. In 1601, he was overthrown by one of his relative. In 1609, he was succeeded by the last ruler, Amir Barid III, in 1619, he was defeated by the Bijapur sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II. Bidar was annexed to Bijapur sultanate, Amir Barid III and his sons were brought to Bijapur and kept under surveillance Ali Barid Shah I was an important figure during the Battle of Talikota. In 1619, Amir Barid III was defeated by the Bijapur sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II, Bidar was annexed to Mughal sultanate
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Adil Shahi dynasty
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Bijapur had been a province of the Bahmani Sultanate, before its political decline in the last quarter of the 15th century and eventual break-up in 1518. The Bijapur Sultanate was absorbed into the Mughal Empire on 12 September 1686, the founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah, was appointed Bahmani governor of the province, before creating a de facto independent Bijapur state. Yusuf and his son, Ismail, generally used the title Adil Khan, Khan, meaning Chief in Mongolian and adopted in Persian, conferred a lower status than Shah, indicating royal rank. Only with the rule of Yusufs grandson, Ibrahim Adil Shah I, the Bijapur Sultanates borders changed considerably throughout its history. Its northern boundary remained relatively stable, straddling contemporary Southern Maharashtra, the Sultanate expanded southward, first with the conquest of the Raichur Doab following the defeat of the Vijayanagar Empire at the Battle of Talikota in 1565. Later campaigns, notably during the reign of Mohammed Adil Shah, extended Bijapurs formal borders, Bijapur was bounded on the West by the Portuguese state of Goa and on the East by the Sultanate of Golconda, ruled by the Qutb Shahi dynasty. The former Bahmani provincial capital of Bijapur remained the capital of the Sultanate throughout its existence, Bijapur was caught up in the instability and conflict resulting from the collapse of the Bahmani Empire. Bijapur eventually conquered the neighbouring Sultanate of Bidar in 1619, the Portuguese Empire exerted pressure on the major Adil Shahi port of Goa, until it was conquered during the reign of Ibrahim II. The Sultanate was thereafter relatively stable, although it was damaged by the revolt of Shivaji, Shivaji founded an independent Maratha Kingdom which went on to become the Maratha Empire, one of largest empires in India, just before the British conquered India. The greatest threat to Bijapurs security was, from the late 16th century, although it may be the case that the Mughals destroyed the Adilshahi it was Shivajis revolt which weakened the Adilshahi control. Various agreements and treaties imposed Mughal suzerainty on the Adil Shahs, by stages, the demands of their Mughal overlords sapped the Adil Shahs of their wealth until the Mughal conquest of Bijapur in 1686. The founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah, may have been a Georgian slave who was purchased by Mahmud Gawan from Iran, yet, Salma Ahmed Farooqui, states, Yusuf was a son of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II. According to the historian Mir Rafi-uddin Ibrahim-i Shirazi, or Rafi, Yusufs full name was Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah Savah or Sawahi, the son of Mahmud Beg of Sawa in Iran. Rafis history of the Adil Shahi dynasty was written at the request of Ibrahim Adil Shah II, Rafi-uddin later became the governor of Bijapur for about 15 years. Yusufs bravery and personality raised him rapidly in Sultans favour, resulting in his appointment as the Governor of Bijapur and he built the Citadel or Arkilla and the Faroukh Mahal. Yusuf was a man of culture and he invited poets and artisans from Persia, Turkey and Rome to his court. Hes well known as a ruler who took advantage of the decline of the Bahmani power to himself as an independent sultan at Bijapur in 1498. He married Punji, the sister of a Maratha warrior, when Yusuf died in 1510, his son Ismail was still a boy
India
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Coorg". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 91–92.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
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