1.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
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Flag
India
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The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
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Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
2.
Kollam
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Kollam or Quilon, formerly Desinganadu, is an old seaport and city on the Laccadive Sea coast of Kerala, India. The city is on the banks Ashtamudi Lake, Kollam has had a strong commercial reputation since the days of the Phoenicians and Romans. Fed by the Chinese trade, it was mentioned by Ibn Battuta in the 14th century as one of the five Indian ports he had seen during the course of his twenty-four year travels, desinganadus rajas exchanged embassies with Chinese rulers while there was a flourishing Chinese settlement at Kollam. In the 9th Century, on his way to Canton, China, Marco Polo, the great Venetian traveller, who was in Chinese service under Kublai Khan in 1275, visited Kollam and other towns on the west coast, in his capacity as a Chinese mandarin. V. Nagam Aiya in his Travancore State Manual records that in 822 AD two East Syrian bishops Mar Sabor and Mar Proth, settled in Quilon with their followers. Two years later the Malabar Era began and Quilon became the city of the Malabar region ahead of Travancore. Kollam is a city on the banks of Ashtamudi Lake that took the title Gods Own Country without much demur. The braids of Ashtamudi Lake lie about 71 kilometres north of the state capital, the city hosts the administrative offices of Kollam district and is a prominent trading city for the state. The proportion of females to males in Kollam city is second highest among the 500 most populous cities in India, Kollam is the least polluted city in India. Four major trading centers/towns around Kollam are Kottarakara, Punalur, Paravur, There was also internal trade through the Punalur Pass connecting the ancient town to Tamil Nadu. The rail links later established to Tamil Nadu supported still stronger trade links, the factories processing marine exports and the processing and packaging of cashewnuts extended its trade across the globe. Kollam is the fourth most populous city in Kerala and the fifth largest in incorporated area and it is known for cashew processing and coir manufacturing. Ashtamudi Lake is considered the gateway to the backwaters of Kerala and is a prominent tourist destination at Kollam. The Kollam urban area includes towns such as Paravur in the south, Kundara in the east. Other important towns in the city suburbs are Eravipuram, Kottiyam, Kannanallur, Kollam appeared as Palombe in Mandevilles Travels, where he claimed it contained a Fountain of Youth. During the later stages of the rule of the Chera monarchy in Kerala, Kollam emerged as the point of trade. Kollam continues to be a business and commercial centre in the Southern Kerala. In 825 CE, the Malayalam calendar, or Kollavarsham, was created in Kollam at meetings held in the city, the present Malayalam calendar is said to have begun with the re-founding of the town, which was rebuilt after its destruction by a fire
Kollam
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From top clockwise:
RP Mall in
Downtown Kollam,
Lighthouse in
Tangasseri,
British Residency in
Asramam,
Kollam Junction railway station and
Kollam MEMU Shed, Aerial view of
Ashtamudi Lake,
Kollam Port,
Asramam Adventure Park, Jalakeli Kendram near
Kollam Beach
Kollam
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Kollam in the 1500s
Kollam
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Kollam in the 1700s
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
Downtown Kollam
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Downtown Kollam is the primary central business district in the city of Kollam, Kerala, India. Located entirely within the municipality of old Quilon, it is approximately bounded by Chinnakada to the east, Thangassery to the West, Cutchery to the north. The area is known for its business activities. Kollam was formerly an international emporium of trade and today remains a commercial centre. The downtown area of Kollam has a business history. Marco Polo, the Venician traveller, who was in Chinese service under Kubla Khan in 1275, visited Kollam and other towns on the west coast, in his capacity as a Chinese mandarin. He pointed out that Old Kollam was the town on the west coast of India with multi-story buildings. He found Christians and Jews living in Coilum as well as merchants from China, Polo left a detailed account of Kollam in his writings, extracts of which are reproduced in the Travancore State Manual. The proximity to Kollam Port makes this one of the biggest business centres in India. It also contains the buildings of the Kollam Municipal Corporation, nowadays Downtown Kollam is one of the largest central business districts in the state of Kerala. The area is noted for its rich history and culture. Kollams main road runs through the center of downtown business district of Old Quilon. The north-south area of downtown is popularly known as Big bazaar. As the name indicates, it is the biggest bazaar in city of Kollam, there are many rice, spice and cloth merchants doing business in the Big bazaar area. The area behind Kollam District hospital is known as Pharma city because of its number of pharmaceutical and surgical distributors. The place is also a destination of doctors and physicians in the city. There are also many electronics and laptop service centres. K Fabrics Boots & Boots Zipata Color Lab Bombay Dyeing R. K Fabrics
Downtown Kollam
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Paikkada road in Downtown Kollam - Once this road was the nerve centre of the
Malabar Coast 's business capital '
Quilon '
Downtown Kollam
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Aerial view of Downtown Kollam and Thangassery coastal area
Downtown Kollam
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Aerial view of off-Chinnakada in Downtown Kollam
Downtown Kollam
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RP Mall - A view from Downtown area,
Kollam
5.
Tangasseri
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Tangasseri or Thangassery is a heavily populated beach area on the shores of the Arabian Sea in Kollam city, Kerala, India. Tangasseri is located about 5 kilometres from the city centre and 71 kilometres from Thiruvananthapuram, archaeologists recently discovered Chinese coins and other artefacts along the coast, which reveal the historic background of the location. Kollam Port makes Tangasseri an important place on the world maritime map, in 1502, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish a trading centre in Tangasseri and the area soon became a major centre for the pepper trade. In the wars with the Moors and Arabs that followed, the ancient church of St Thomas was destroyed, tangasseris St Thomas Fort, built by the Portuguese in 1517, was destroyed in the subsequent wars with the Dutch. In 1661, the Dutch took possession of the city, the remains of both the Dutch and Portuguese forts can still be seen in Tangasseri. In the 18th century, the kingdom of Travancore first conquered Kollam, Tangasseri remains an Anglo-Indian settlement in character, though there are few Anglo-Indians in the population. The Infant Jesus Church in Tangasseri, an old Portuguese-built church, the old cathedral was demolished and replaced by a new cathedral at a cost of around ₹4.5 crore, it was consecrated and blessed on 3 December 2005. The metallic cross on the top is one of the largest crosses in India, Tangasseri is a picturesque seaside village with a three kilometre long beach on which stands a 144 feet tall lighthouse—a silent sentinel warning seamen since 1902 of the treacherous reefs. There are also ruins of Portuguese and Dutch forts and 18th century churches, the fishery harbour at Tangasseri is a basin for traditional fishermen, achieved by the construction of two breakwaters. The length of the breakwater is 2100 m and of the leeward breakwater 550 m. This provides sufficient beach length for landing facilities for all operational craft, Tangasseri is home to Keralas oldest schools, Mount Carmel Convent Anglo-Indian Girls High School and Infant Jesus School Kollam. Official website A brief history of Tangaserri
Tangasseri
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Tangasseri Gate
Tangasseri
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Tangasseri beach lighthouse
Tangasseri
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Fishing activities at Thangassery
6.
Thevalakkara
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Thevalakkara is a village in the Kollam district of the state of Kerala, India. Formerly known as Quilon, it is one of the 14 districts of Kerala, the district has a long coastline, a major Arabian Sea seaport and the inland Ashtamudi Lake while Kollam is also the capital of Keralas cashew industry. Plains, mountains, lakes, lagoons and backwaters, forests, farmland, the area historically had trading relationships with Phoenicia and Ancient Rome. About 30 percent of the district is covered by Ashtamudi Lake, the Thevalakara and Thekkumbagam panchayats established the ancient korekini port of Tarsish in 1500 BC. The kadappa at Thevalakara is where ship masts were made for centuries, nearby villages include Mynagappally, Sastham cottah, Thekkum bhagam, West Kallada, Panmana & Chavara The Symphony Thevalakkara Club in Kollam. Thevalakkara church web site Gramadeepam library arts&sports club, Thevalakkara https, //www. facebook. com/gramadeepamtvk
Thevalakkara
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City Corporations
7.
Mar Sabor and Mar Proth
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In 825 AD, the seaport of Quilon was part of the Venad Kingdom. The then ruling monarch, Iyyanadikal Thiruvadikal, welcomed the monks on their arrival and showered them with special privileges, maruvan Sapir Iso built the Nilalkkal ashram near St. Thomas Church in Chayal, he died and buried in Chayal ashram. The start of the Malayalam era, also referred to as Kollavarsham, is associated with Kollam, the era was started by these East Syrian Saints who settled in Korukeni Kollam, near to the present Kollam. The start of the ME has been dated to 825 AD and it also signified the independence of Malabar from the Cheraman Perumals. V. Nagam Aiya in his Travancore State Manual records that in 822 AD two Nestorian bishops Mar Sapor and Mar Peroz, settled in Quilon with their followers. Two years later the Malabar Era began and Quilon undoubtedly became the city of the Malabar region including Travancore. Tradition says that st. M. G. S and this was the period when the Cera-Pandya conflict was developing in the south. The foundation of Kollam in 825 A. D. must have coincided with victory of Chera in the Vel province. This incident reveals the practical wisdom of the rulers and throws light on the motivations of men who promoted ideas of religion. The Syrian Christian Monks who took advantage of the situation were equally clever, in the absence of materials for a detailed history, it is difficult to ascertain whether Mar Abo was a or missionary. Perhaps he was both at the time and there was no inherent contradiction between the two roles. ”This means that they did not remain as a separate group but rather they intermarried with the Hindus of Kerala. “The deity of the Tarsa Church was referred to the tevar. ”When they arrived on the Malabar Coast, Quilon, Angamaly, Kaduthuruthy and Cranganore had the largest population of Saint Thomas Christians in Kerala. Giovanni Empoli, who came to Quilon in 1503, estimated there were more than three thousand St. Thomas Christians in Quilon alone. Mar Sapor writes, the forgiving Miseha who saved me from persecution, though the Synod of Diamper in 1599 proclaimed Mar Sabor and Mar Proth heretics, the Christians of Malankara respected them. According to decisions of Synod of Diamper these saints of Malankara Nazranis were considered as schismatics, Mar Sabor gained the necessary rights from the local ruler of Kadamattom to build a church there. He established the church in the forest regions of Kadamattom in the 40th year of Kollam Era and he stayed there at first in a small home with a mother and a son. Afterwards he left for Thevalakara to visit an influential and reputed Nambuthiri family who were traditional ophthalmologists to the families in the adjoining area. This family is known as Thevalakara Vaidyan family and most of their members retain the surname Vaidyan
Mar Sabor and Mar Proth
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Kottakkavu Sliva, the Persian cross founded by Mar Sabor and Mar Proth, is preserved at
Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Pilgrim Center, North Paravur.
Mar Sabor and Mar Proth
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Mar Sabor
Mar Sabor and Mar Proth
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Tomb of Mar Sabor at Marth Mariam church,
Thevalakkara
8.
Malabar Coast
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The Malabar Coast is a long and narrow coastline on the south-western shore line of the mainland Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, the term Malabar Coast is also sometimes used to refer to the entire Indian coast from the western coast of Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Kanyakumari. The coast runs south of Goa to Kanyakumari on Indias southern tip. Indias southeastern coast is called the Coromandel Coast, the Malabar Coast is also sometimes used as an all-encompassing term for the entire Indian coast from Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Kanyakumari. It is flanked by the Arabian Sea on the west and the Western Ghats on the east, the southern part of this narrow coast is referred to as the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests. The Malabar Coast, throughout recorded history from about 3000 BC, had been a trading center in commerce with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Jerusalem. Its most famous ports were Naura, Balita, Kochi, Calicut, and Mangalore, the Oddeway Torre settlement, which have served as centers of the Indian Ocean trade, for centuries. During Ming Chinas treasure voyages in the early 15th century, Admiral Zheng Hes fleet often landed at the Malabar Coast, Malabar Portuguese Empire Portuguese India Dutch Malabar Coromandel Coast
Malabar Coast
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Bekal Fort Beach, Kerala.
Malabar Coast
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Fishing in Mukkah, near Mangalore, Karnataka.
9.
Travancore
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The Kingdom of Travancore (/ˈtrævəŋkɔər/, Malayalam, തിരുവിതാംകൂർ Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, the official flag of the state was red with a dextrally-coiled silver conch shell at its center. In the early 19th century, the became a princely state of the British Empire. When the region was part of the Chera empire, it was known as Thiruvazhumkode. It was contracted to Thiruvankode, and anglicised by the English to Travancore. In course of time, the Ay kingdom, part of the Chera empire, which ruled the Thiruvazhumkode area, became independent, the Aayis controlled the land from present day Kollam district in the north, through Thiruvananthapuram district, all in Kerala, to the Kanyakumari district. There were two capitals, the one at Kollam and a subsidiary one at Thrippapur. The kingdom was also called Venad. Kings of Venad had, at times, travelled from Kollam and built residential palaces in Thiruvithamcode. By the time of King Marthanda Varma, the half of the kingdom had become dominant. During his reign, it absorbed the north and Thiruvithamcode or Travancore became the official name, Travancore was located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, Travancore was divided into three distinct regions, the eastern highlands, the central midlands, and the western lowlands. Venad was a state at the tip of the Indian Subcontinent. Till the end of the 11th century AD, it was a principality in the Ay Kingdom. The Ays were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith and their capital during the first Sangam age was in Aykudi and later, towards the end of the 8th century AD, was at Quilon. Though a series of attacks by the resurgent Pandyas between the 7th and 8th centuries caused the decline of the Ays, the dynasty was powerful till the beginning of the 10th century, when the Ay power diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of the Second Chera Kingdom. An invasion of the Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096, however, the Chera capital, Mahodayapuram, also fell in the subsequent Chola attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam. Thus the end of the Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of Venad, the history of Travancore began with Marthanda Varma, who inherited the kingdom of Venad, and expanded it into Travancore during his reign
Travancore
Travancore
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Flag
Travancore
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Map of Travancore in 1871
Travancore
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Canal scene, Travancore
10.
Cochin
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Kochi, also known as Cochin, is a major port city on the south-west coast of India by the Arabian Sea and the Laccadive Sea and is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala. It is often called Ernakulam, which refers to the specific district, occupied by the Portuguese in 1503, Kochi was the first of the European colonies in colonial India. It remained the seat of Portuguese India until 1530, when Goa was chosen instead. The city was occupied by the Dutch and the British. Kochi ranks first in the number of international and domestic tourist arrivals in Kerala. Kochi has been ranked the sixth best tourist destination in India according to a survey conducted by the Nielsen Company on behalf of the Outlook Traveller magazine. Kochi is the home to Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy, Kochi is also home for Keralas National Law School, The National University of Advanced Legal Studies. Ancient travellers and tradesmen referred to Kochi in their writings, variously alluding to it as Cocym, Cochym, Cochin, the Cochin Jewish community called Cochin as Kogin, which is seen in the seal of the synagogue which is still owned by the community. The origin of the name Kochi is thought to be from the Malayalam word kochu azhi, yet another theory is that Kochi is derived from the word Kaci, meaning harbour. The name Cochin implies co-chin, meaning like-China and it looked like China when the Chinese came to the region during the 14th century and installed Chinese nets. Accounts by Italian explorers Nicolo Conti, and Fra Paoline in the 17th century say that it was called Kochchi, after the arrival of the Portuguese, and later the British, the name Cochin stuck as the official appellation. The city reverted to a closer Anglicization of its original Malayalam name, Kochi and this change in name was challenged by the city municipal corporation but court has later dismissed the plea. Kochi was the centre of Indian spice trade for centuries, and was known to the Yavanas as well as Jews, Syrians, Arabs. Kochi rose to significance as a trading centre after the port Muziris around Kodungallur was destroyed by flooding of Periyar in 1341. The earliest documented references to Kochi occur in books written by Chinese voyager Ma Huan during his visit to Kochi in the 15th century as part of Admiral Zheng Hes treasure fleet. There are also references to Kochi in accounts written by Italian traveller Niccolò Da Conti, according to many historians, the precursor state to Kingdom of Kochi came into existence in early 12th century, after the fall of the Chera Kingdom. The reign of the Kingdom was hereditary, and the family ruled over the region was known as the Perumpadappu Swaroopam in the local vernacular. Portuguese navigator, Pedro Álvares Cabral founded the first European settlement in India at Kochi in 1500, from 1503 to 1663, Fort Kochi was ruled by Portugal
Cochin
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Clockwise from top:
Marine Drive Skyline,
Chinese fishing nets Fort kochi,
Kochi Marina,
Marine Drive New Expansion,
InfoPark
Cochin
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Flag
Cochin
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Seal
Cochin
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Paradesi Synagogue Inscription
11.
Chera Dynasty
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The Cheras were the principal ruling dynasty of the present-day state of Kerala and to a lesser extent, parts of Tamil Nadu in South India. Along with the Ay kingdom and the Ezhimala kingdom, they formed the kingdoms of Kerala in the early years of the Common Era. The origins of the dynasty are unclear and it is understood that they were speakers of Proto-Tamil-Malayalam while some being practitioners of literary writing in Old Tamil. In fact, most of their history is reconstructed from the body of known as the Sangam literature written in Old Tamil around the 3rd century CE. While Pliny and Ptolemy refer to the Cheras as Calobotras, the Periplus refers to them as the Keprobotras, the earliest Sanskrit works which refer to the Cheras and Kerala is probably the Aitreya Aranyaka. It refers to the land as Chera-pada - and as one of the three peoples who did not follow some ancient injunctions, there are also brief references by Katyanana, Edicts of Ashoka, Patanjali and Kautilya though Panini does not mention of the land. However, it is the Tamil works collectively known as the Sangam literature that form the most important sources for a detailed history of the Cheras. These works roughly span the period 100 CE to 300 CE, among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the Pattittupattu, the Agananuru, the Purananuru and the Silappatikaram. The exact antiquity of the Chera dynasty is difficult to establish, however, based on the travellers accounts and the Sangam literature, it can be confirmed that they were already existing around the 4th century BCE. The Sangam literature describes a line of Chera rulers. It records the names of the kings, the princes, the internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled and a connected account of the history of the period is an area of research. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the exact location of the Chera capital has been subject to some speculation. The Chera capital has been called, Vanchi and Karur in several works and this has led to several theories identifying the Chera capital in places called Karur in both Kerala and Tamil Nadu. However, it is clear that the capital was near the famous port known as Muziris. Pliny refers to Muziris as the Chera capital, while the author of the Periplus identifies the capital to be a couple of away from the mouth of the river at Muziris. Ptolemy who identifies the capital as Karoura gives a location that is very close to Muziris as well. The Cheras also seem to have battles with other neighbouring dynasties such as the Pallavas, the Rashtrakutas
Chera Dynasty
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Extent of Chera kingdom
Chera Dynasty
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Family tree of the kings of the Chera dynasty based on Sangam literature. The monarchs ruled in the first two centuries of the Common Era.
12.
Pallava dynasty
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The Pallava dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a portion of what is today southern India. They gained prominence after the eclipse of the Satavahana dynasty, whom the Pallavas served as feudatories, Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of architecture, the finest example being the Shore Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Mahabalipuram. The Pallavas, who left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, established the foundations of medieval South Indian architecture and they developed the Pallava script from which Grantha ultimately descended. The Pallava script gave rise to other southeast Asian scripts. Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule, the Pallavas themselves claimed to descend from Brahma and Ashvatthama. Though Manimekalai posits Ilam Tiriyan as a Chola, not a Pallava, thence, came into existence the race of Pallavas. Vīrakūrcha, of celebrated name, who simultaneously with the daughter of the chief of serpents grasped also the insignia of royalty. The Proceedings of the First Annual Conference of South Indian History Congress also notes, The word Tondai means a creeper, historian K. R. Subramanian says the Pallavas were originally a Telugu power rather than a Tamil one. Telugu sources know of a Trilochana Pallava as the earliest Telugu king, the first Chalukya king is said to have been met, repulsed and killed by the same Trilochana near Mudivemu. A Buddhist story describes Kala the Nagaraja, resembling the Pallava Kalabhartar as a king of the region near Krishna district, the Pallava Bogga may be identified with the kingdom of Kala in Andhra which had close and early maritime and cultural relations with Ceylon. K. A. K. P. Jayaswal also proposed a North Indian origin, the Pallavas captured Kanchi from the Cholas as recorded in the Velurpalaiyam Plates, around the reign of the fifth king of the Pallava line Kumaravishnu I. Thereafter Kanchi figures in inscriptions as the capital of the Pallavas, the Cholas drove the Pallavas away from Kanchi in the mid-4th century, in the reign of Vishugopa, the tenth king of the Pallava line. The Pallavas re-captured Kanchi in the century, possibly in the reign of Simhavishnu, the fourteenth king of the Pallava line. Thereafter the Pallavas held on to Kanchi until the 9th century, until the reign of their last king, the Pallavas were in conflict with major kingdoms at various periods of time. A contest for political supremacy existed between the early Pallavas and the Kadambas, numerous Kadamba inscriptions provide details of Pallava-Kadamba hostlities. During the reign of Vishnugopavarman II, political convulsion engulfed the Pallavas due to the Kalabhra invasion of the Tamil country, towards the close of the 6th century, the Pallava Simhavishnu stuck a blow against the Kalabhras. Thereafter the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas in the north with Kanchipuram as their capital, and Pandyas in the south with Madurai as their capital, the royal custom of using a series of descriptive honorific titles, Birudas, was particularly prevalent among the Pallavas. The birudas of Mahendravarman I are in Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu, the Telugu birudas show Mahendravarmans involvement with the Andhra region continued to be strong at the time he was creating his cave-temples in the Tamil region
Pallava dynasty
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Kailasanathar Temple,
Kanchipuram,
Tamil Nadu,
India
Pallava dynasty
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Pallava territories during Narasimhavarman I c. 645. This includes the Chalukya territories occupied by the Pallavas.
Pallava dynasty
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Inner court or the circumambulatory passage with 58 subshrines.Kailasanathar Temple,
Kanchipuram,
Tamil Nadu,
India.
Pallava dynasty
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Typical design of pillar with multi-directional mythical lions.Kailasanathar Temple,
Kanchipuram,
Tamil Nadu,
India.
13.
Kerala
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Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land
Kerala
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A houseboat near
Alappuzha, Kerala
Kerala
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Parasurama, surrounded by settlers, commanding
Varuna (the
Hindu God of water) to part the seas and reveal Kerala.
Kerala
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A
dolmen erected by Neolithic people in
Marayur
Kerala
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Silk Road map. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).
14.
China
–
China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
China
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Yinxu, ruins of an ancient
palace dating from the
Shang Dynasty (14th century BCE)
China
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Flag
China
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Some of the thousands of life-size
Terracotta Warriors of the
Qin Dynasty, c. 210 BCE
China
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The
Great Wall of China was built by several dynasties over two thousand years to protect the sedentary agricultural regions of the
Chinese interior from incursions by
nomadic pastoralists of the northern
steppes.
15.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
Middle East
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The
Temple Mount in
Jerusalem
Middle East
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Map of the Middle East (green).
Middle East
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The
Kaaba, located in
Mecca,
Saudi Arabia
Middle East
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Islam is the largest religion in the Middle East. Here, Muslim men are
prostrating during prayer in a mosque.
16.
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
Netherlands
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The Netherlands in 5500 BC
Netherlands
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Flag
Netherlands
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The Netherlands in 500 BC
Netherlands
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An oak figurine found in
Willemstad, North Brabant (4500 BC).
17.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
Portugal
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Citânia de Briteiros, in the
Minho Province, is the best preserved
Iron Age and
Castro culture site in Portugal.
Portugal
–
Flag
Portugal
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The
Roman Temple of Évora, in the
Alentejo, is a symbol of
Lusitania, Roman rule in Portugal.
Portugal
–
Monument in Porto to
Vimara Peres, first ruler of the County of Portugal
18.
Brazil
–
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
Brazil
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Megaliths in the
Solstice Archaeological Park, in
Amapá, erected between 500 and 2000 years ago, probably to carry out
astronomical observations.
Brazil
–
Flag
Brazil
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Representation of the landing of
Pedro Álvares Cabral in
Porto Seguro, 1500.
Brazil
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Painting showing the arrest of
Tiradentes; he was sentenced to death for his involvement in the best known
movement for independence in Colonial Brazil.
19.
Oommen Chandy
–
Oommen Chandy is an Indian politician of the Indian National Congress who was the Chief Minister of Kerala from 2004 to 2006 and again from 2011 to 2016. He was also Leader of the Opposition in the Kerala Legislative Assembly from 2006 to 2011, Oommen Chandy is a Member of the Kerala Legislative Assembly, representing Puthuppally, since 1970. Oommen Chandy was born at Kumarakom, Kottayam district, Kerala in 1943, Chandy ventured into the political arena as an activist of Kerala Students Union, the student wing of the party. He was the president of KSU at St George High School, Puthupally. Chandy completed his education from CMS College, Kottayam, SB College. Later, he took a degree in law from Government Law College. Chandy started his career through the Kerala Students Union, which he served as president from 1967 to 1969. He was elected as the president of the State Youth Congress in 1970. He has represented the Puthuppally Constituency for decades, having elected to the Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1970,1977,1980,1982,1987,1991,1996,2001,2006,2011 and 2016. During his legislative career he had served as Chairman of the Public Accounts Committee during 1996–98. Chandy has been sworn in as a minister in Kerala four times and he was the Minister for Labour from 11 April 1977 to 25 April 1977 in the first K. Karunakaran Ministry and continued holding the same portfolio in the succeeding first A. K. Antony Ministry till 27 October 1978 and he was in the charge of Home portfolio in the second K. Karunakaran Ministry from 28 December 1981 to 17 March 1982. Again, he was sworn in as a minister in the fourth K. Karunakaran Ministry on 2 July 1991 and he was in charge of Finance Portfolio and resigned from the cabinet on 22 June 1994 due to difference with the Chief Minister. The results of the elections in May 2004 saw the Indian National Congress not winning a single seat in Kerala. Antony, was forced to resign and accept responsibility for the poor results, on 30 August 2004, Oommen was elected the Congress Legislature Party leader at the end of a meeting by AICC observers and clearance by the Congress president, Sonia Gandhi. He resigned as Chief Minister on 12 May 2006 following the defeat of his party in 2006 Assembly Elections, Oommen Chandy was the leader of opposition in the twelfth Kerala Legislative Assembly. Under his leadership UDF marked victories in Lok Sabha Election 2009, gaining 16 out of 20 parliament constituencies in Kerala, in the history of Kerala politics its the first time that the UDF got an upper hand in local body elections. After winning the closely contested 2011 assembly election, Congress legislative party unanimously elected Oommen Chandy as its leader, at the Congress Legislature Party meeting, Chandys name was proposed by Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee president Ramesh Chennithala and seconded by Aryadan Mohammed
Oommen Chandy
–
The Hon'ble Oommen Chandy
Oommen Chandy
–
Kerala CM Oomen Chandy with Prime Minister
Narendra Modi
20.
Thangassery
–
Tangasseri or Thangassery is a heavily populated beach area on the shores of the Arabian Sea in Kollam city, Kerala, India. Tangasseri is located about 5 kilometres from the city centre and 71 kilometres from Thiruvananthapuram, archaeologists recently discovered Chinese coins and other artefacts along the coast, which reveal the historic background of the location. Kollam Port makes Tangasseri an important place on the world maritime map, in 1502, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish a trading centre in Tangasseri and the area soon became a major centre for the pepper trade. In the wars with the Moors and Arabs that followed, the ancient church of St Thomas was destroyed, tangasseris St Thomas Fort, built by the Portuguese in 1517, was destroyed in the subsequent wars with the Dutch. In 1661, the Dutch took possession of the city, the remains of both the Dutch and Portuguese forts can still be seen in Tangasseri. In the 18th century, the kingdom of Travancore first conquered Kollam, Tangasseri remains an Anglo-Indian settlement in character, though there are few Anglo-Indians in the population. The Infant Jesus Church in Tangasseri, an old Portuguese-built church, the old cathedral was demolished and replaced by a new cathedral at a cost of around ₹4.5 crore, it was consecrated and blessed on 3 December 2005. The metallic cross on the top is one of the largest crosses in India, Tangasseri is a picturesque seaside village with a three kilometre long beach on which stands a 144 feet tall lighthouse—a silent sentinel warning seamen since 1902 of the treacherous reefs. There are also ruins of Portuguese and Dutch forts and 18th century churches, the fishery harbour at Tangasseri is a basin for traditional fishermen, achieved by the construction of two breakwaters. The length of the breakwater is 2100 m and of the leeward breakwater 550 m. This provides sufficient beach length for landing facilities for all operational craft, Tangasseri is home to Keralas oldest schools, Mount Carmel Convent Anglo-Indian Girls High School and Infant Jesus School Kollam. Official website A brief history of Tangaserri
Thangassery
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Tangasseri Gate
Thangassery
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Tangasseri beach lighthouse
Thangassery
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Fishing activities at Thangassery
21.
Kochi
–
Kochi, also known as Cochin, is a major port city on the south-west coast of India by the Arabian Sea and the Laccadive Sea and is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala. It is often called Ernakulam, which refers to the specific district, occupied by the Portuguese in 1503, Kochi was the first of the European colonies in colonial India. It remained the seat of Portuguese India until 1530, when Goa was chosen instead. The city was occupied by the Dutch and the British. Kochi ranks first in the number of international and domestic tourist arrivals in Kerala. Kochi has been ranked the sixth best tourist destination in India according to a survey conducted by the Nielsen Company on behalf of the Outlook Traveller magazine. Kochi is the home to Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy, Kochi is also home for Keralas National Law School, The National University of Advanced Legal Studies. An international art exhibition called Kochi-Muziris Biennale is conducted every two years across Kochi where artists from different parts of the world engage, ancient travellers and tradesmen referred to Kochi in their writings, variously alluding to it as Cocym, Cochym, Cochin, and Kochi. The Cochin Jewish community called Cochin as Kogin, which is seen in the seal of the synagogue which is owned by the community. The origin of the name Kochi is thought to be from the Malayalam word kochu azhi, yet another theory is that Kochi is derived from the word Kaci, meaning harbour. The name Cochin implies co-chin, meaning like-China and it looked like China when the Chinese came to the region during the 14th century and installed Chinese nets. Accounts by Italian explorers Nicolo Conti, and Fra Paoline in the 17th century say that it was called Kochchi, after the arrival of the Portuguese, and later the British, the name Cochin stuck as the official appellation. The city reverted to a closer Anglicization of its original Malayalam name, Kochi and this change in name was challenged by the city municipal corporation but court has later dismissed the plea. Kochi was the centre of Indian spice trade for centuries, and was known to the Yavanas as well as Jews, Syrians, Arabs. Kochi rose to significance as a trading centre after the port Muziris around Kodungallur was destroyed by flooding of Periyar in 1341. The earliest documented references to Kochi occur in books written by Chinese voyager Ma Huan during his visit to Kochi in the 15th century as part of Admiral Zheng Hes treasure fleet. There are also references to Kochi in accounts written by Italian traveller Niccolò Da Conti, according to many historians, the precursor state to Kingdom of Kochi came into existence in early 12th century, after the fall of the Chera Kingdom. The reign of the Kingdom was hereditary, and the family ruled over the region was known as the Perumpadappu Swaroopam in the local vernacular
Kochi
–
Clockwise from top:
Marine Drive Skyline,
Chinese fishing nets Fort kochi,
Kochi Marina,
Marine Drive New Expansion,
InfoPark
Kochi
–
Flag
Kochi
–
Seal
Kochi
–
Paradesi Synagogue Inscription
22.
Thoothukudi
–
Tuticorin, also known as Thoothukudi, is a port city and a Municipal Corporation and an industrial city in Thoothukudi district next to tirunelveli city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The city lies in the Coromandel Coast off Bay of Bengal, Thoothukudi is the headquarters of Thoothukudi District. It is located about 590 kilometres south of Chennai and 190 kilometres northeast of Thiruvananthapuram, according to Confederation of Indian Industry, Thoothukudi has the second highest Human Development Index in Tamil Nadu next to Chennai. Tuticorin City serves as the headquarters of Tamilnad Mercantile Bank Limited, Major educational establishments in the city include Thoothukudi Government Medical College, Fisheries College and Research Institute, Marine Training Academy, V. O. C. Arts & Science College, Government Polytechnic College, and Anna University Tuticorin Campus. Tuticorin Port is one of the Fastest growing Major Ports in India, Tuticorin is an Emerging Energy and Industrial hub of South India. Thoothukudi is known as Pearl City due to the pearl fishing carried out in the town and it is a commercial seaport which serves the inland cities of Southern India and is one of the sea gateways of Tamil Nadu. It is also one of the seaports in India with a history dating back to the 6th century AD. Thoothukudi was settled by the Portuguese, Dutch and later by the British East India Company, the city is administered by a Thoothukudi Municipal Corporation covering an area of 353.07 km2 and had a population of 237,830 in 2011. The urban agglomeration had a population of 410,760 as of 2011, the majority of the people of the city are employed in salt pans, sea-borne trading, fishing, and tourism. A major attraction in the city is Our Lady of Snows Basilica, the 21 islands between Thoothukudi and Rameswaram shores in the Gulf of Mannar are noted as the first Marine Biosphere Reserve of India, and have around 36,000 species of flora and fauna. This protected area is called Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park and our Lady of Snows Basilica festival is celebrated annually during August. This and the Shiva temple festivals, e. g. Adi Amavasai, Sasti, roadways are the major mode of transport to Thoothukudi, while the city also has rail, air, and sea transport. Thoothukudi is also known by the name Muthu Kuzhithurai and it is also called as Sea Gateway of Tamil Nadu. Thoothukudi is part of the Pearl Fishery Coast, and is known for its fishing and shipbuilding industries. The ancient town of Korkai has been a centre for maritime trade, ptolemys geography refers to Korkai as a centre of pearl fishery while describing commercial relations between western India and Alexandria, the chief eastern emporium of the Roman Empire. The Periplus says that the Pandyan kingdom extended from Comari towards the north, including Korkai, Thoothukudi was the seat of Portuguese during the 16th century, and the Dutch occupied in the 17th century as evidenced by Pagoda coins. During the 18th century the British overpowered and occupied the town, being a port town, the town received attention from the rulers for improving their trade, and so it was brought to Municipal status in 1866. Rao Bahadur Cruz Fernandez and J. L. P, Roche Victoria as the chairmen of municipal corporation made significant contributions, laying the foundations for a modern Tuticorin
Thoothukudi
–
View of the Dutch port Tuticorin, in 1752
Thoothukudi
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Murugan Temple,
Thiruchendur,Thoothukudi
Thoothukudi
–
NIght Scapes
23.
Chennai
–
Chennai /ˈtʃɛnnaɪ/, formerly known as Madras /məˈdrɑːs/ or /-ˈdræs/) is the capital of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Located on the Coromandel Coast off the Bay of Bengal, it is one of the biggest cultural, economic, according to the 2011 Indian census, it is the sixth-largest city and fourth-most populous urban agglomeration in India. The city together with the adjoining regions constitute the Chennai Metropolitan Area, Chennai is among the most visited Indian cities by foreign tourists. It was ranked 43rd most visited city in the world for year 2015, the Quality of Living Survey rated Chennai as the safest city in India. Chennai attracts 45 percent of tourists visiting India, and 30 to 40 percent of domestic health tourists. As such, it is termed Indias health capital, as a growing metropolitan city in a developing country, Chennai confronts substantial pollution and other logistical and socio-economic problems. Chennai has the third-largest expatriate population in India at 35,000 in 2009,82,790 in 2011, tourism guide publisher Lonely Planet named Chennai as one of the top ten cities in the world to visit in 2015. Chennai is ranked as a city in the Global Cities Index and was ranked the best city in India by India Today in the 2014 annual Indian city survey. In 2015 Chennai was named the hottest city by the BBC, National Geographic ranked Chennais food as second best in the world, it was the only Indian city to feature in the list. Chennai was also named the ninth-best cosmopolitan city in the world by Lonely Planet, the Chennai Metropolitan Area is one of the largest city economies of India. Chennai is nicknamed The Detroit of India, with more than one-third of Indias automobile industry being based in the city, in January 2015, it was ranked third in terms of per capita GDP. Chennai has been selected as one of the 100 Indian cities to be developed as a city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. The name Madras originated even before the British presence was established in India, the name Madras is said to have originated from a Portuguese phrase mae de Deus which means mother of god, due to Portuguese influence on the port city. According to some sources, Madras was derived from Madraspattinam, a north of Fort St George. However, it is whether the name was in use before the arrival of Europeans. The British military mapmakers believed Madras was originally Mundir-raj or Mundiraj, Madras might have also been derived from the word Madhuras meaning juice of honey or sugarcane in Sanskrit. The nativity of name Chennai, being of Telugu origin is clearly proved by the historians. The first official use of the name Chennai is said to be in a deed, dated 8 August 1639
Chennai
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Clockwise from top right:
Chennai Central,
Marina Beach,
Madras High Court,
TIDEL Park,
Ripon Building,
San Thome Basilica,
Kapaleeshwarar Temple,
Classical dance Bharata Natyam and
Valluvar Kottam.
Chennai
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Clive House at
Fort St. George, Madras said to be the first English settlement in
India during 1609
Chennai
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Surrender of the City of Madras in 1746 to de La Bourdonnais, by Jacques François Joseph Swebach
24.
Pathanamthitta
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Pathanamthitta is a town and a municipality situated in the Central Travancore region in the state of Kerala, south India, spread over an area of 23.50 km2. It is the capital of Pathanamthitta district. The town has a population of 37,538, the Hindu pilgrim centre Sabarimala is situated in the Pathanamthitta district, as the main transport hub to Sabarimala, the town is known as the Pilgrim Capital of Kerala. District, the thirteenth district of the State of Kerala. It was formed with effect from the 1st November,1982 vide G. O. No. 1026/82/RD dated 29 October 1982, forest covers more than half of the total area of the District. Pathanamthitta District ranks the 7th in area in the State, Pathanamthitta has an average elevation of 18 metres above sea level. The main trunk road to Sabarimala is from Pathanamthitta, the Main Eastern Highway and T. K. Road pass through Pathanamthitta. Main Roads passing through pathanamthitta are T. K Road, Adoor Road, Azhoor Road, Mannarakulanji Road Pathanamthitta has a moderate climate, annual temperatures range between 20 °C and 39 °C. The district experiences three weather conditions, winter, summer and the monsoon. The winter season is experienced from December to February and summer season from March to May, there are two rainy seasons, The South-West monsoon and the North-East monsoon. The South-West monsoon is very heavy. About 75% of its rainfall is received during this season. The town enjoys a climate, the monsoons start in June. The months of April–May can get pretty humid, the best weather is from October to February. Pathanamthitta experiences three seasons, summer, monsoon and winter. Typical summer months are from March to May, the warmest month in Pathanamthitta is April. Although summer doesnt end until May, the city often receives locally developed heavy thundershowers in May, the monsoon lasts from June to August, with moderate rainfall. Most of the rainfall in the city fall between June and July, and June is the wettest month of the year
Pathanamthitta
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Town Street after a monsoon shower
Pathanamthitta
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A Skyview of Thiruvalla. The Biggest Town and Commercial Centre of Pathanamthitta District
Pathanamthitta
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A sign-board that indicates the direction to Sabarimala. The multilingual board is written in
Hindi,
Malayalam,
Tamil,
Kannada,
Telugu and
English
Pathanamthitta
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The General Hospital Road stretch of the T.K. Road
25.
Kottayam district
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Kottayam is one of the 14 districts in the state of Kerala, India. Though the district is 157 km south to Kunnamkulam, the center of kerala, it is located in an area with biggest diameter and it is the only district having no border with either Western Ghats or Arabian sea. The Kerala government and Central govt both agreed to built an airport near Sabarimala, cheruvally Estate in Erumeli may be the site. Given it is a plateau with strong soil, Aviation ministry estimated that the airport could be completed in just six months. The district has its headquarters at Kottayam town, located at 9. 36° N and 76. 17° E. Pala or Kidangoor may be the point of district. Rubber Board campus located in Puthuppally with head office in Kottayam town is the central govt organization in the district. Kottayam is known as city of three Ls - Literacy, Lakes and Latex, Kottayam is the first town to achieve 100% literacy rate in India. On 27 September 2008, Kottayam district also became the first tobacco free districts in India, Kottayam City is also known as Akshara Nagari and Chuvar Chitra Nagari. Bordered by hills on the east and the Vembanad Lake and paddy fields of Kuttanad on the west, rulers of Munjanad and Thekkumkur had their headquarters at Thazhathangadi near Kottayam town. Marthanda Varma of Travancore attacked Thekkumkur and destroyed the palace and the Thaliyil Fort, the remnants of the palaces and forts are still seen here. Kottayam has played its role in all the political agitations of modern times, the Malayali Memorial agitation may be said to have had its origin in Kottayam. The Malayali Memorial sought to secure representation for educated Travancoreans in the Travancore civil service against persons from outside. The Memorial, which was presented to the Maharaja Sri Moolam Thirunal was drafted at a meeting held in the Kottayam Public Library. The event marked the beginning of the political movement in the state. It was in Kottayam that the famous Vaikom Satyagraha, a struggle for eradication of untouchability. Scheduled castes and other classes in Travancore were denied not only entry into temples. Vaikom, the seat of a celebrated Siva Temple, was the venue of the symbolic satyagraha and it is of immense historic significance that national leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, C. Rajagopalachari, Acharya Vinoba Bhave and E. V, ramswami Naykar, associated with this struggle
Kottayam district
–
House boat in Kumarakam
Kottayam district
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Location in Kerala
Kottayam district
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Cheria Pally Church
26.
Idukki district
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Idukki is one of the 14 districts of Kerala state, India, created on 26 January 1972. At that time, the headquarters was at Kottayam. In June 1976 it was moved to Painavu, Idukki which lies in the Western Ghats of Kerala. Idukki is the second largest district in area but has the lowest population density, Idukki has a vast forest reserve area, more than a half of the district is covered by forests. The urban areas are densely populated villages are sparsely populated. The name of the district is derived from the Malayalam word Idukku, Idukki has an area of 4,358 km2 and is the second largest District of Kerala. Rugged mountains and forests cover about 97 percent of the area of the District. The district is only by road. Rail and airlink is not available, National Highway NH49 and State highways 13 and 33 passes through the district. Anamudi, the highest peak in India south of the Himalayas, is in the Kuttampuzha Panchayat of Adimali Block, thirteen other peaks in the district exceed a height of 2,000 m. The Periyar, Thodupuzhayar and Thalayar are the important rivers of the district, Idukki Dam, Asias largest Arch Dam is located at Idukki Township of Idukki Taluk. The point where the Periyar flows through the gorge formed between two massive rocks known as Kuravan and Kurathi is the site of the Idukki arch dam. The Idukki Hydroelectic project caters for more than 60% of the requirements of the state of Kerala. According to the 2011 census Idukki district has a population of 1,107,453 and this ranks it as 416th among the 640 districts of India. The district has a density of 254 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 was −1. 93%, Idukki has a sex ratio of 1006 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 92.2 per cent. According to the 2011 census, Hindus make up 48, 86% of the population, Christians 43. 42%, Muslims 7. 41%. Idukki district is the first district in India to get connected with super-fast broad band system as a part of Digital India Munnar was the resort of the British Government in the south
Idukki district
–
Anamudi Peak
Idukki district
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Scenic view of Idukki Reservoir.
27.
Alappuzha district
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Alappuzha is one of the 14 districts in the state of Kerala in India. It was formed as Alleppey District on August 17,1957, the name of the district was officially changed to Alappuzha in 1990. The district is a known tourist destination and is well known for its Coir factories. Most of Keralas coir industries are situated in and around Alappuzha, the district is also known for its communist traditions. It is home to the Punnapra-Vayalar uprising against the British and also the revolt against the Feudal raj, Alappuzha is strongly connected by waterways to various other parts of Kerala, including the famous tourist destination, Kumarakom. The present town owes its existence to Raja Kesavadas in the half of the 18th century. Kuttanad, the bowl of Kerala, was well known from early in the Sangam period. History says Alappuzha had trade relations with ancient Greece and Rome in B. C. early members of the Chera dynasty had their home in Kuttanad and were called Kuttuvans. There is archaeological evidence of the period of the district, such as stone inscriptions and monuments, in temples and caves. The famous literary work of this period was Ascharya Choodamani a Sanskrit drama written by Sakthibhadra who was a scholar of Chengannur grammar and it is said that Sreekrishna Swami temple, at Ambalappuzha was constructed and the idol of Lord Krishna installed during that time. It is believed that Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri, Neelakanta Deekshithar, in the 17th century the Portuguese power declined and the Dutch had a predominant position in the principalities of this district. The church located at Kokkamangalam or Kokkothamangalam was one of the seven churches founded by St. Thomas the Apostle, the picturesque CSI Christ Church in Alappuzha town was built in 1818 by the first CMS missionary to India, Rev. Thomas Norton. It was the first Anglican Church to be established in the state of Travancore. It was at that time Maharaja Marthandavarma, the ‘Maker of modern Travancore’ interfered in the affairs of those principalities. Marthandavarma Maharaja had a role in the internal progress of the district. The Krishnapuram Palace, which is now a monument of the State Archaeology Department, was constructed during that period. It was at time that the great and talented poet Kunjan Nambiar was installed in the court. He was known as the ‘Maker of modern Alleppey’ and played a key role in making Alappuzha a premier port town of Travancore, during the reign of Balaramavarma Maharaja, Velu Thampi Dalava took keen interest in the development of the town and port
Alappuzha district
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Aroor bypass
Alappuzha district
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Alappuzha district ആലപ്പുഴ ജില്ല
Alappuzha district
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A beautiful sunrise from Aroor bridge
Alappuzha district
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Nooranad
Padanilam Sivarathri
28.
Kollam district
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Kollam district is one of 14 districts of the state of Kerala, India. The district has a cross-section of Keralas natural attributes, it is endowed with a coastline, a major Arabian Sea seaport. The district has many source of waterbodies, Kallada river is one among it and the east side land of river is EastKallada and the west side land is WestKallada. Kallada Boat race is one among the festival events of district. Even though it is a competition between two sides of river many boat clubs from various places even beyond the district use to participate in the event. Kollam is the capital of Keralas cashew industry, plains, mountains, lakes, lagoons and backwaters, forests, farmland and rivers make up the topography of the district. The area had trading relationships with Phoenicia and Ancient Rome and it covers 2,492 square kilometres, is the seventh-largest district in Kerala and is densely populated. It has the shortest coastal line among districts in Kerala, five major urban centres are, Kollam, Paravur, Punalur, Karunagapally, and Kottarakara. Sasthamkotta Lake, the largest freshwater lake in Kerala, is located in Kollam, two major rivers drain the district. Ashtamudi Lake and Paravur Lake are two important lakes in the district, Ashtamudi Lake covers 30 percent of total area of the district. Kollam is located on Ashtamudi Lake, Neendakara, a major fishing port in southern Kerala, is also located on this scenic lake. Edava and Nadayara Lakes are also located in Kollam district. The place is popular as Thangasseri. The lighthouse built at Quilon by the British in the year 1902 is visible as far as 13 miles in the sea, the lighthouse stands to an amazing height of 144 feet. The picturesque view of the sea from the place where the stands is breathtaking. In the vicinity lies the Portuguese Fort, the fort was built in the year 1517 and at present only a wall of the fort has escaped the assaults made by Time. Kollams temperature is almost steady throughout the year, the average temperature ranges from 25 to 32 degrees Celsius. Summer usually runs from March until May, the monsoon begins by June, Kollam receives an annual average rainfall of around 2,700 millimetres
Kollam district
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From top:
Paravur estuary, Light house and clock tower in
Kollam city, 13 Ring bridge of
Thenmala, Check dam across Kallada river
Kollam district
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Kollam District കൊല്ലം ജില്ല Quilon District
Kollam district
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Lighthouse, Thangasseri, Kollam
Kollam district
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Paravur estuary: Scenic beauty of backwaters and beaches
29.
Thiruvananthapuram district
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Thiruvananthapuram District is the southernmost district of the coastal state of Kerala. It is the largest city in Kerala and it came into existence in the year 1957. The headquarters is the city of Thiruvananthapuram which is also the city of Kerala. The district has an area of 2,192 square kilometres and a population of 3,307,284 and it is the densest district in Kerala with 1,509 inhabitants per square kilometre. It is divided into six taluks, Thiruvananthapuram, Chirayinkeezhu, Neyyattinkara, Nedumangadu, Varkala, the urban bodies in the district are the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation, Varkala, Neyyattinkara, Attingal and Nedumangad municipalities. Thiruvananthapuram district is situated between north latitudes 8°17 and 8°54 and east longitudes 76°41 and 77°17, the southern-most extremity, Kaliyikkavila, is 56 kilometres away from Kanyakumari, the Lands End of mainland India. The district has three rivers, several freshwater lakes and more than 300 ponds. The eastern region is forested, northern regions are mostly under rubber cultivation, built up areas and rice fields complete the land use. The district has the name as its headquarters city, Thiruvananthapuram. The city gets its name from the word Thiru-anantha-puram, meaning the Abode of Lord Anantha, the name derives from the deity of the Hindu temple at the center of the Thiruvananthapuram city. Anantha is the serpent Shesha on whom Padmanabhan or Vishnu reclines, the district was officially referred to as Trivandrum in English until 1991, when the government decided to reinstate the citys original name, Thiruvananthapuram, in all languages. Thiruvananthapuram city and several places in the district loom large in ancient tradition. The place had earlier been frequented by the Portuguese and later by the Dutch and it was from here that the English gradually extended their domain to other parts of Travancore. Modern history begins with Marthanda Varma,1729 CE–1758 CE, who is regarded as the Father of modern Travancore. Thiruvananthapuram was known as a center of intellectual and artistic activities in those days. The temple of Vishnu reclining on Anantha, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple, along with the presiding deity of Padmanabha, this temple has temples inside it, dedicated to Lord Krishna, Lord Narasimha, Lord Ganesha, and Lord Ayyappa. The temple was built by King Marthanda Varma of the Travancore royal family when, in 1745, he shifted the Travancore capital from Padmanabhapuram, King Marthanda Varma started reigning as Sree Padmanabhadasa, the Slave of Sree Padmanabha. The vast temple complex, with its tall Gopuram decorated with detailed carvings reflected in the temple tank, is today a center of attraction for the pious, the tourist
Thiruvananthapuram district
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Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple in Thiruvananthapuram
Thiruvananthapuram district
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Location of Thiruvananthapuram district in Kerala
Thiruvananthapuram district
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Cliffs at
Varkala, Thiruvanatnthapuram district. It is the only place in southern Kerala where cliffs are found adjacent to the
Arabian Sea
Thiruvananthapuram district
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A view from
Ponmudi Hills
30.
Kanyakumari district
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Kanyakumari district is the southernmost district in Tamil Nadu state and mainland India. It is the second largest district in the state in terms of population density, the district stands first in terms of literacy rate in the state. Kanyakumari district has a topography with sea on three sides and the mountains of the Western Ghats bordering the northern side. A few artifacts unearthed by excavations in there. The Presidency was later renamed Tamil Nadu and Kanyakumari, today, is one of the 32 districts of Tamil Nadu state, many historical assumptions persist in the district and state, which associate sages such as Vyasa, Agastya, Tolkappiyar, Avvaiyar and Thiruvalluvar to the district. The district is also the birthplace of Ayyavazhi, the area that comprises the current Kanyakumari district was a part of the old Ay kingdom of the first and second Sangham ages. Following the decline of the Ay kingdoms, the area became Venad, the wealth of the Nanjalnadu beckoned many invaded including the Nayaks and later an Islamist army during the reign of Umayamma Rani. The Venad region was in anarchy before Marthanda Varma ascended the throne in 1729 AD, before his reign the Samanthan Nairs ruled the province. Under their rule anarchy was dominant in Kanyakumari region, however, Marthanda Varma brought a sense of disorder under control by annexing the nearby territories, putting down the feudal lords and establishing the strong state of Travancore. He had also bought some portions of Kanyakumari from the then viceroy making it the southern boundary, under his rule the district improved in a social context as well as economically. The famous battle of Colachel took place in the district, later, the maharajahs of Travancore built the forts at Aramboly to prevent any invasion from the Carnatic. Key elements of Velu Thampi Dalawas revolt occurred in the area, in the year 1949, the area became a part of the reestablished Travancore Cochin state. The people of Agasteeswarem, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks, an extreme agitation by Tamil speaking residents under the leadership of Marshal Nesamony took place for including Kanyakumari within Tamil Nadu. Eventually the merger happened in 1956 based on language reorganization of states, the district of Kanyakumari is the southern most districts in the state of Tamil Nadu. It is situated between 77°15 and 77°36 east latitude and 8°03 and 8°35 north longitude, the district has borders with Tirunelveli district, the Gulf of Mannar, the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the state of Kerala. Kanyakumari includes the special grade village of Chinnamuttom, located at the southernmost point of the Indian Subcontinent, for administrative purposes, the district comprises four taluks, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Kalkulam, and Vilavancode. At the lower levels of administration, there are 99 village panchayats, the major towns of the district include, Agastheeswaram taluk, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari, Agastheeswaram, Suchindram and Rajakkamangalam. Kalkulam taluk, Padmanabhapuram-Thuckalay, Colachel, Kalkulam, Thiruvithamcode, Kurunthancode, Thiruvattar and Kulasekaram, Vilavancode Taluk, Karungal, Kuzhithurai-Marthandam, Vilavancode, Killiyur, Munchirai, Manjalumoodu Arumanai and Melpuram
Kanyakumari district
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Statue of ancient Tamil poet
Thiruvalluvar who wrote the
Thirukkural, in
Kanniyakumari
Kanyakumari district
–
An octo-circular
Ayyavazhi Nizhal Thangal near
Thiruvattar on the
Martandam -
Kulasekaram road.
Kanyakumari district
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View from the
Mathur Hanging Trough bridge with the
Pahrali river flowing below.
Kanyakumari district
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Keeriparai, the district comprises a sizeable area of lush forests
31.
Tirunelveli district
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Tirunelveli District is a district of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. The city of Tirunelveli is the district headquarters, Tirunelveli District was formed on 1 September 1790 by the East India Company, and comprised the present Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts and parts of Virudhunagar and Ramanathapuram districts. It is the second-largest district, after Villupuram district, as of 2011, the district had a population of 3,077,233. Under the rule of the Pandyan Dynasty, the district was known as Thenpandiyanadu, the Chola dynasty then named it Mudikonda Cholamandalam. The Madurai Nayaks called it Tirunelveli Seemai, under the British East India Company, it was Tinnevelly district, which included the modern Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts and parts of the Virudhunagar and Ramanathapuram districts. In 1910, Ramanathapuram District was formed from portions of the Madurai and Tirunelveli Districts, after the Independence of India, Tirunelveli District was bifurcated on 20 October 1986 to Nellai-Kattabomman district and Chidambaranar district. Subsequently, the Government of Tamil Nadu decided to each district according to the name of the headquarters town. The district is located in the part of Tamil Nadu. It borders Virudhunagar District to the north, Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and Pathanamthitta districts of Kerala to the west, Kanyakumari District to the south, the district covers an area of 6,823 square kilometres. It lies between 8°05 and 9°30 north latitude and 77°05 and 78°25 east longitude, the district contains mountains and lowland plains, including sandy soil and fertile alluvium, and a variety of flora, fauna and protected wildlife. The district also has inland and mountainous forests, Tirunelveli is said to be the only district of Tamil Nadu to have all the five types of ecological zones as described in the ancient Tamil Literature Kurunji, Mullai, Marutham, Neithal and Palai. Tirunelveli has rainfall in all seasons, and benefits both the northeast and southwest monsoons. Most precipitation came from the northeast monsoon followed by the southwest monsoon, the district is irrigated by several rivers originating in the Western Ghats, such as the Pachaiyar River, which flows into the perennial Tambaraparani River. The Tambaraparani and Manimuthar Rivers have many dams, with providing water for irrigation. The Tamiraparani River provides consistent irrigation to an agricultural area. The Chittar River also originates in this district, the Courtallam and Manimuthar waterfalls are the two major falls in the district. According to 2011 census, Tirunelvei district had a population of 3,077,233 with a sex-ratio of 1,023 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 321,687 were under the age of six, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 18. 51% and. 33% of the population respectively
Tirunelveli district
–
Thamirabarani River from Authoor Bridge
Tirunelveli district
–
Nellaippar Temple
Tirunelveli district
–
The
Agasthiyamalai hills cut off Tirunelveli from the
southwest monsoon, creating a
rainshadow region.
Tirunelveli district
–
Podhigai mountain's shadow falling on
Poovankurichi lake.
32.
Madurai district
–
Madurai district is second largest in population of the 32 districts of the state of Tamil Nadu, in southeastern India. The city of Madurai serves as the district headquarters and it houses the world-famous Sri Meenakshi Sundareshwarar temple and is situated on the banks of the river Vaigai. Thiruparankundram is one of the major tourist place in the district, as of 2011, the district had a population of 3,038,252 with a sex-ratio of 990 females for every 1,000 males. Aside from the city of Madurai, the towns are Melur, Avaniapuram, Thirumangalam. It is an important hub for film shootings. Madurai is called with various nicknames like Athens of the East, Thoonga Nagaram, Naan maada koodal, Malligai Managar, the main kingdoms which ruled Madurai during various times are the Pandyas and the Nayaks. According to 2011 census, Madurai district had a population of 3,038,252 up from 2,578,201 in the 2001 census, for a growth rate of 17. 95%. It had a sex-ratio of 990 females for every 1,000 males, up from 978 in 2001, a total of 313,978 were under the age of six, constituting 162,517 males and 151,461 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 13. 46% and. 37% of the population respectively, the average literacy of the district was 74. 83%, compared to the national average of 72. 99%. The district had a total of 794,887 households, Madurai district comprises 13 talukas and revenue blocks, same names same boundaries. Under the gram panchayat system rural administration or the district is done by panchayat villages, the revenue blocks are further sub-divided by firkas. The last three taluks, Tiruparankundram, Madurai West and Madurai East, were created in February 2014. The thirteen talukas/blocks are, In the 2001 census, Madurai district had only seven talukas, Madurai North, Madurai South, Melur, Peraiyur, Thirumangalam, Vadipatti, the climate is moderate with no extremes
Madurai district
–
Pilgrimage at
Meenakshi Amman Temple,
Madurai
Madurai district
–
Location in Tamil Nadu, India
Madurai district
–
Bull Taming,
Alanganallur
33.
Teni district
–
Theni District is a district of Tamil Nadu state in South India. The city of Theni is the district headquarters, as of 2011, Theni district had a population of 1,245,899 with a sex-ratio of 991 females for every 1,000 males. Theni District was formed by the bifurcation from erstwhile Madurai District as per G. O, ms. No.679 Revenue Department Dated July 7,1996. Consequent to the bifurcation, one new Revenue Division with headquarters at Uthamapalayam, Theni Municipal town was only a firka headquarters until December 31,1996. Consequent to the formation of the new District, Theni Municipal Town was upgraded as the Taluk, the region covered by present-day Theni District was sparsely populated before the 1900s. In 1886 Mullaperiyar dam project bought some part of the water from Periyar River downhill to the Cumbum Valley and this project helped more people to settle down in Cumbum Valley. Also to be noted that Theni was itself was a small though lesser-known town by the 1900s, after the Mullay-Periyaar merger project lots of people from nearby dry arid regions settled in Cumbum-Valley. So there was influx of people by the 1890s to 1920s, bodi and Periyakulam were famous places at that time. Later Theni developed rapidly due to lots of business activities, the 2,889 km2 district lies at the foot of the Western Ghats between 939 and 1030 North latitude and between 7700 and 7830 of East Longitude. The district is bounded by Dindigul District to the north, Madurai District to the east, Virudhunagar District to the southwest, kamatchipuram It is diversified by several ranges and hills. Many villages likes Sangakonampatti are depends only on agricultural incomes, a range of hills which runs parallel to Western Ghats from north to south separate it from the neighboring state of Kerala. Climate- In the plains, the range from a minimum of 13 °C to a maximum of 39.5 °C. In the hills the temperatures can range from as low as 4-5 °C to 25 °C, the district is known for its salubrious climate, hills and lakes. Rivers and dams- The Vaigai River, Kottagudi River, Suruliyar River, Varaganathi River, Manjalar River, the important reservoirs in the district are Vaigai Dam, Manjalaru Dam, Sothuparai Dam, Sanmughanathi Dam, Manalaru Dam and Melmanalaru Dam. Utilisation of land area for cultivation in Theni district is 40. 33%. The principal crop production in 2005-2006 was, sugarcane 1,201,221, cotton 95,360, rice 66,093, millets and other cereals 57,081, pulses 6,677, groundnut 4,021 and gingelly 325. Silk, Banana, Coconut, Tea, Coffee, Cardamom, even though this place is economically good. The unique feature here is that the grapes are harvested throughout the year, cotton Spinning Mills and Sugar Mills are the major industries in this district
Teni district
–
View of
Theni and
Periyakulam from the hills of
Kodaikanal
Teni district
–
Manjalaru Dam.
Teni district
–
Cumbum Valley.
Teni district
–
Paddy fields across the backdrop of the Western Ghats
34.
Tamil Nadu
–
Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai, Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The state shares a border with the nation of Sri Lanka. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh-largest state in India by area and the sixth-most populous, the state was ranked sixth among states in India according to the Human Development Index in 2011, with the second-largest state economy after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy in India with ₹13,842 billion in gross domestic product after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu was ranked as one of the top seven developed states in India based on a Multidimensional Development Index in a 2013 report published by the Reserve Bank of India and its official language is Tamil, which is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world. Tamil Nadu is home to natural resources. In addition, its people have developed and continue classical arts, classical music, historic buildings and religious sites include Hindu temples of Tamil architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites, and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in the Indian peninsula, the ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is very rudimentary Tamil Brahmi. Adichanallur has been announced as a site for further excavation. About 60 per cent of the epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu. A Neolithic stone celt with the Indus script on it was discovered at Sembian-Kandiyur near Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu, according to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, this was the first datable artefact bearing the Indus script to be found in Tamil Nadu. Mahadevan claimed that the find was evidence of the use of the Harappan language, the date of the celt was estimated at between 1500 BCE and 2000 BCE. The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil literary sources known as Sangam literature, numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BC to AD300. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu, the Chera ruled the whole of present-day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur. The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur, All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads, Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a description of the Tamil country, besides these three dynasties, the Sangam era Tamilakam was also divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning country
Tamil Nadu
–
Location of Tamil Nadu (marked in red) in
India
Tamil Nadu
–
Sage
Agastya father of Tamil literature,
Sangam period
Tamil Nadu
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Megalithic Sarcophagus burial from Tamil Nadu.
35.
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre
–
The Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre is a major space research centre of the Indian Space Research Organisation, focusing on rocket and space vehicles for Indias satellite programme. It is located in Thiruvananthapuram, in the Indian state of Kerala, the centre had its beginnings as the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station in 1962. It was renamed in honour of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, often regarded as the father of the Indian space program, the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre is one of the main research and development establishments within ISRO. VSSC is an entirely indigenous facility working on the development of sounding rockets, the Rohini and Menaka launchers, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre is the largest among the ISRO facilities. It is a centre for the design and development of launch vehicles. Thumba was picked as the site for sounding rockets for meteorological. November 21,1963 marked Indias first venture into space, with the launch of a two-stage Nike Apache sounding rocket from TERLS, the first rockets launched were built in United States. The first Indian designed and built rocket, RH-75, made its flight on November 20,1967. This was the 52nd launch of a rocket from TERLS. It was flown again in 1967 and another 12 times in 1968. There have been a total of nearly 2200 sounding rocket launches from TERLS, over the years VSSC has designed, developed and launched a family of sounding rockets under the generic name, Rohini Sounding Rockets to serve a range of scientific missions. The currently operational Rohini Sounding Rockets are RH-200, RH-300, RH-560 and these sounding rockets are launched for carrying out research in areas like meteorology and upper atmospheric processes up to an altitude of about 500 km. TERLS was formally dedicated to the United Nations on February 2,1968 by then Prime Minister of India, over 1161 USSR meteorological sounding rockets called M-100 were launched from TERLS every week from 1970 until 1993. After the sudden demise of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai on December 30,1971, TERLS, in the early 1980s, VSSC was instrumental in the development of Indias Satellite Launch Vehicle program, SLV-3. This was followed in the late 1980s with the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle, in the 1990s, VSSC contributed to the development of India’s workhorse launch vehicle, the. In addition to its campus located at Thumba and Veli, VSSC has integration. Facilities for development of reinforced plastics and composites are located at Vattiyoorkavu in Thiruvananthapuram, an experimental plant in Aluva produces ammonium perchlorate, a vital ingredient for solid propellant motors. TERLS and the Space Physics Laboratory are also within the VSSC campus, VSSC has a large workforce of about 4500 employees, most of them specialists in frontier disciplines
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre
–
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC)
36.
Neendakara
–
Neendakara is a village in Kollam district 9 km north of Kollam city in Kerala, India. It is Kollam districts intermediate fishing port, Neendakara is 30 km north of Paravur. In Malayalam, Neendakara means a long bank, the headquarters of the Indo-Norwegian Fisheries Community project, established in 1953, was based in Neendakara until 1961, when the site was handed over to the Government of Kerala
Neendakara
–
St. Sebastian's Church in Neendakara,
Kollam
Neendakara
–
City Corporations
37.
Cochin Port
–
Cochin Port is a major port on the Laccadive Sea – Indian Ocean sea-route and is one of the largest ports in India. The port lies on two islands in the Lake of Kochi, Willingdon Island and Vallarpadam, towards the Fort Kochi river mouth opening onto the Laccadive Sea, the International Container Transshipment Terminal, part of the Cochin Port, is the largest container transshipment facility in India. The port is governed by the Cochin Port Trust, a government of India establishment, the modern port was established in 1926 and has completed 86 years of active service. The Kochi Port is one of a line of maritime-related facilities based in the port-city of Kochi, the Cochin port was formed naturally due to the great floods of Periyar in 1341 AD, which choked the Muziris port, one of the greatest ports in ancient world. Ever since, Kochi became one of the ports with extensive trading relations Romans, Greeks and Arabs. The port further attracted European colonialists like Portuguese, Dutch and finally British who extended their supremacy over the Kingdom of Cochin, the traditional port was near Mattancherry. The need of a port was first felt by Lord Willingdon during his governorship of Madras Province of British India. The opening of the Suez Canal made several ships pass near the west coast and he selected the newly joined Sir Robert Bristow who was a leading British harbor engineer with extensive experience with maintenance of the Suez Canal. Bristow took the charge of engineer of Kochi Kingdoms Port Department in 1920. Ever since then, he and his team were involved in making a greenfield port. After studying the sea currents, observing tidal conditions and conducting experiments and he believed that Kochi could become the safest harbour if the ships entered the inner channel. The challenge before the engineers was a rock-like sandbar that stood across the opening of the Kochi backwaters into the sea and it was a formidable ridge of heavy and densely packed sand that prevented the entry of all ships requiring more than eight or nine feet of water. It was thought that the removal of the sandbar was a technical impossibility, the potential consequence on the environment was beyond estimation. The harm could be anything like the destruction of the Vypeen foreshore or the destruction of the Vembanad lake, Bristow, after a detailed study, concluded that such data was history. He addressed the problem of erosion of the Vypeen foreshore by building of rubble granite groynes nearly parallel with the shores. The groynes first produced an automatic reclamation which naturally protected the shore from the monsoon seas, confident at the initial success, Bristow planned out a detailed proposal of reclaiming part of the backwaters at a cost of ₹25 million. An ad-hoc committee appointed by the Madras government examined and approved the plans submitted by Bristow, the construction of the dredger Lord Willingdon was completed in 1925. It arrived at Kochi in May 1926 and it was estimated that the dredger had to be put to use for at least 20 hours a day for the next two years
Cochin Port
–
Cochin Port കൊച്ചി തുറമുഖം
Cochin Port
–
The office of the Cochin Port Trust in Willingdon Island
Cochin Port
–
The
International Container Trans-shipment Terminal (ICTT) of the Kochi Port
Cochin Port
–
Evening view of
International Container Trans-shipment Terminal (ICTT)
38.
Tuticorin Port
–
V. O. Chidambaranar Port, formerly Tuticorin Port, is one of the 12 major ports in India. It was declared to be a port on 11 July 1974. V. O. Chidambaram Port is an artificial port and this is the third international port in Tamil Nadu and its second all-weather port. The Station Commander is responsible for Coast Guard operations in area of jurisdiction in Gulf of Mannar. VOC Port Tuticorin is an ISO9001,2008, ISO14001,2004, Tuticorin has been a centre for maritime trade and pearl fishery for more than 2000 years. The natural harbour with a hinterland, activated the development of the Port, initially with wooden piers and iron screw pile pier. Tuticorin was declared as an anchorage port in 1868. Since then there have been various developments over the years, to cope with the increasing trade through Tuticorin, the Government of India sanctioned the construction of an all-weather port at Tuticorin, which brings the second largest revenue to India. On 11 July 1974, the newly constructed Tuticorin Port was declared as the 10th major port. On 1 April 1979, the erstwhile Tuticorin minor Port and the newly constructed Tuticorin major port were merged, V. O. C Port is an artificial deep sea harbour formed with rubble mound type parallel breakwaters projecting into sea up to 4 km. The Length of North Breakwater is 4098.66 m, length of South Breakwater is 3873.37 m, the port was designed and executed entirely through indigenous efforts. The harbour basin extends to about 400 hectares of protected area and is served by an approach channel of 2400 metres length and 183 metres width. The inner harbour consist of 14 berths including 2 Container and 3 Coal, the container terminal has 3 quay cranes with 44 m reach and four RTG cranes for stacking the containers. The port also has vast area for storage facilies. The port currently handles seven per cent of the container traffic in India and is an important reason for investment in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu. The two container berths in the port are of dimension 370 m length and 12.80 m draught and this limits the port in competing against Colombo port, which has 15 m depth. The Tuticorin Port Trust is investing $1 billion for expansion and this was planned in two phases, the first deepened the harbour from a depth of 10.9 m to the current depth of 12.8 m and the second will increase it to 14.5 m. In addition to expansion of the harbour, proposed upgrades include construction of breakwaters. The port has been upgraded to handle vessels longer than 245 m, the advantages of deploying bigger vessels are that the existing restriction on booking can be eliminated and the transshipment at Colombo port can be reduced
Tuticorin Port
–
V.O.Chidambaram Port Trust
Tuticorin Port
–
Tuticorin Port (c. 1890s)
39.
Maldives
–
The Maldives, officially the Republic of Maldives, is a South Asian island country, located in the Indian Ocean, situated in the Arabian Sea. It lies southwest of India and Sri Lanka, the chain of twenty-six atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to the Addu City in the south. Malé is the capital and most populated city, traditionally called the Kings Island for its central location. With an average elevation of 1.5 metres above sea level, it is the worlds lowest country, with even its highest natural point being the lowest in the world. Due to the subsequent risks posed by rising sea-levels, the government pledged in 2009 to make the Maldives a carbon-neutral country by 2019, the Maldives have been historically and culturally linked to the Indian subcontinent since the fourth century BCE. The Maldivian archipelago was Islamised in the 12th century and consolidated as a sultanate, developing commercial and cultural ties with Asia. From the mid 16th-century, the region came under the influence of European colonial powers. Independence from the United Kingdom was achieved in 1965 and a republic was established in 1968 with an elected Peoples Majlis. The ensuing decades have been characterised by political instability, efforts at democratic reform, the Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. It is also a member of the United Nations, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the World Bank classifies the Maldives as having an upper middle income economy. Fishing has historically been the dominant economic activity, and remains the largest sector by far, along with Sri Lanka, it is one of only two South Asian countries rated high on the Human Development Index, with its per capita income the highest among SAARC nations. The name Maldives may derive from the Malayalam words maala and dweepu or the Tamil maalai and theevu, the Maldivian people are called Dhivehin. The word theevu means island, and Dhives means islanders, the ancient Sri Lankan chronicle Mahawamsa refers to an island called Mahiladiva in Pali, which is probably a mistranslation of the same Sanskrit word meaning garland. Jan S Hogendorn, Grossman Professor of Economics, theorises that the name Maldives derives from the Sanskrit mālādvīpa, in Tamil, Garland of Islands can be translated as Malai Theevu. In Malayalam, Garland of Islands can be translated as Maladweepu, in Kannada, Garland of Islands can be translated as Maaledweepa. This is the name inscribed on the scroll in the Maldive state emblem. The classical Persian/Arabic name for Maldives is Dibajat, the Dutch referred to the islands as the Maldivische Eilanden, while the British anglicised the local name for the islands first to the Maldive Islands and later to Maldives. One such community are the Giraavaru people and they are mentioned in ancient legends and local folklore about the establishment of the capital and kingly rule in Malé
Maldives
–
The Buddhist Stupa (the best preserved, the largest and the last of the Buddhist temples that were destroyed) at Kuruhinna in
Gan Island (Haddhunmathi Atoll).
Maldives
–
Flag
Maldives
–
Isdhoo Lōmāfānu is the oldest
copper-plate book to have been discovered in the Maldives to date. The book was written in AD 1194 (590 AH) in the Evēla form of the
Divehi akuru, during the reign of
Siri Fennaadheettha Mahaa Radun (Dhinei Kalaminja).
Maldives
–
A Plaque in Juma Mosque, Malé, Maldives, on which
Yusuf Tabrizi 's name is written. Yusuf Tabrizi was an Iranian who is said to have converted Maldives in 12th century AD to
Islam.
40.
Cashew Export Promotion Council of India
–
It is headquartered in Mundakkal in the city of Kollam, Kerala. The Council serves as an intermediary between importers of cashew kernels and exporters who are members of the council, the council is also supposed to deal with any disputes on exports or imports arising on account of quality standards, breach of contractual obligations, etc. Cashew Export Promotion Council of India have offices in Kollam, Kochi, there are 238 registered cashew exporters in Cashew Export Promotion Council of India as members. In that, more than 200 exporters are based in Kollam, an examination of the records show that Kilikollur, a suburb of Kollam city, had the most cashew processing factories. India is on top nowadays in exporting cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid, foreign exchange earned by the country through export of cashew kernels during 2011–12 touched Rs.4,390 crore as per statistics of Cashew Export Promotion Council of India. 1.31 lakh tonnes of kernel were exported during 2011–12, united States of America is the biggest importer of cashew kernel from India. They are the biggest importer of CNSL from India, united Arab Emirates stood second in kernel import. CEPCI is expecting a rise in export, i. e.275,000 tonnes by 2020, the CEPC Laboratory and Technical Division was established by The Cashew Export Promotion Council of India in 1997. It is situated at Cashew Bhavan, Mundakkal, Kollam city, the lab is capable to do food products testing, water testing and other quality-based testing services. They also offer services to the food processing industry and field surveys. There is a plan to set up a facility and a cashew testing lab at the Kollam Port with the support of the Cashew Export Promotion Council. Analytical equipment Library Research facilities Microbiology Department Chemistry Department Biotechnology Department Kollam Cashew Kilikollur Mundakkal
Cashew Export Promotion Council of India
–
CEPCI Headquarters at
Mundakkal,
Kollam city
Cashew Export Promotion Council of India
–
Logo of CEPCI
41.
Cashew business in Kollam
–
The Cashew business in Kollam is based in the eponymous city, which is known as the Cashew Capital of the World. Kollam is the largest processed cashew exporter in the world, as of 2011 there were more than 600 cashew processing units in the city. About 800,000 tonnes of raw cashews are imported to the city for processing every year, 80% of Indias export quality cashew kernels are prepared in Kollam. Cashews were first brought to India by the Portuguese, who planted them along the coasts of Goa to prevent erosion. Originally exported in oil cans, it was found that this method could lead to weevil infestation and this method, known as Vita Packing, is still in use today. The health benefits and value of cashew nut were discovered much later, the trees adapted very well to their new home, especially in Kerala and by the late 16th century cashew nuts had reached Kollam, then known as Quilon, a city under the control of the Portuguese. During the time of the Portuguese, Dutch and British in the Indian subcontinent, Quilon and its old port were major business hubs for Arabian, many of the cashew businesses in Kollam are family owned and run. India is the largest exporter of cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid, foreign exchange earned by the country through the export of cashew kernels during 2011-12 reached Rs.4,390 crore based on statistics from the Cashew Export Promotion Council of India. 131,000 tonnes of kernels were exported during 2011-12, 90% of these export quality cashew kernels are prepared in Kollam. CEPCI and the Kerala State Cashew Development Corporation Limited work in Kollam city to promote exports of cashew kernels and they also protect the interest of workers and attempt to provide maximum employment to the industrys workers and give them statutory benefits such as minimum wages and bonuses. The industry provides a livelihood for about 600–700 thousand employees and farmers, in Kollam district alone there are more than 250,000 employees directly involved in the industry, which is about 10 per cent of the population of the district. 95 per cent of workers are women. There are more than 600 cashew processing units in Kollam with about 800,000 tonnes of raw cashews imported annually to the city for processing, an average of 130,000 tonnes of processed cashews are exported to various countries worldwide every year. As a result, Kollam is known as the Cashew Capital of the World, CEPCI is expecting a rise in exports to 275,000 tonnes by 2020, growth of 120 per cent over present exports
Cashew business in Kollam
–
Nila Cashew packets displayed in a Supermarket at
Paravur near
Kollam. Nila Cashews is one among the popular
Kollam based cashew exporters
42.
Government of Kerala
–
The Government of Kerala headquartered at Thiruvananthapuram is a democratically elected body that governs the State of Kerala, India. The state government is headed by the Governor of Kerala as the head of state. The state government maintains its capital at Thiruvananthapuram and is seated at the Kerala Government Secretariat or the Hajur Kutcheri. The Government of Kerala was formed on November 1,1956 after merging of State of Travancore-Cochin with the Malabar district of the Madras state as part of States Reorganisation Act,1956, the Governor is appointed by the President for a term of five years. The executive and legislative powers lie with the Chief Minister and his council of ministers, the Governors of the states and territories of India have similar powers and functions at the state level as that of the President of India at Union level. Only Indian citizens above 35 years of age are eligible for appointment, P Sathasivam is the present governor. The Governor enjoys many different types of powers, Executive powers related to administration, appointments, Legislative powers related to lawmaking and the state legislature. Discretionary powers to be carried out according to the discretion of the Governor, the legislature comprises the governor and the legislative assembly, which is the highest political organ in state. The governor has the power to summon the assembly or to close the same, all members of the legislative assembly are directly elected, normally once in every five years by the eligible voters who are above 18 years of age. The current assembly consists of 140 elected members and one nominated by the governor from the Anglo-Indian Community. The elected members one of its own members as its chairman who is called the speaker. The speaker is assisted by the deputy speaker who is elected by the members. The conduct of meeting in the house is the responsibility of the Speaker, the main function of the assembly is to pass laws and rules. Every bill passed by the house has to be approved by the governor before it becomes applicable. The normal term of the assembly is five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. But while a proclamation of state of emergency is in operation, the High Court of Kerala is the apex court for the state, it also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep. It is a court of record and has all the powers of such a court including the authority to punish an individual for contempt of court. Like all other High Courts of India, this court also consists of a Chief Justice, at present, the sanctioned Judge strength of the High Court of Kerala is 27 Permanent Judges including the Chief Justice H. L. Dattu and two additional judges
Government of Kerala
–
The state assembly building in
Trivandrum.
Government of Kerala
–
Government of Kerala
Government of Kerala
–
High Court of Kerala at
Ernakulam
Government of Kerala
–
The
Government Secretariat Complex in
Thiruvananthapuram, which houses offices of ministers and secretaries
43.
Infrastructure Development Finance Company
–
Infrastructure Development Finance Company is a finance company based in India. It provides finance and advisory services for projects as well as asset management and investment banking. IDFC was incorporated on 30 January 1997 with its office in Chennai. In 1998 the company registered with the Reserve Bank of India as a financial company. IDFC registered with the Securities and Exchange Board of India as a merchant banker and as an underwriter in 2000, the company also set up Infrastructure Development Corporation Ltd pursuant to a shareholders agreement between IDECK and the State of Karnataka, HDFC and IDFC. In 2002, the company incorporated IDFC Asset Management Company Ltd as a company and Uttaranchal Infrastructure Development Company Ltd. In 2003 it became an investor in and sponsor of the India Development Fund, in August 2005 the companys equity shares were listed at the National Stock Exchange of India and Bombay Stock Exchange after an initial public offering. In 2006 IDFC raised $450 million for their second infrastructure focused private equity fund, in June 2006, the company agreed a memorandum of understanding with SBI Capital Markets for syndication of debt financing for Infrastructure projects. In 2006-07, the company increased its stake in National Stock Exchange of India Ltd from 2. 2% to 8. 2%, in 2008-09, the company subscribed 100% of equity shares of IDFC Capital Pte Ltd, an emerging markets private equity fund-of-funds business. During the year, the company established IDFC Foundation to focus on capacity building, policy advisory, in 2009-10, the company consolidated its position as a specialist infrastructure finance company and one of the largest financiers of infrastructure in the country. The company increased their equity stake from 80% to 100% in IDFC Securities Ltd, also, the company along with their wholly owned subsidiary subscribed 100% equity shares of IDFC Pension Fund Management Company Ltd. IDFC Capital Ltd subscribed 100% of equity shares of IDFC Fund of Funds Ltd, during the year 2010-11, Jetpur Somnath Highway Ltd became a subsidiary of IDFC Projects Ltd. A company under the name of Jetpur Somnath Tollways Ltd was incorporated as a Subsidiary of IDFC Projects Ltd, IDFC Projects, along with the other companies, further floated Dheeru Powergen Ltd, which was converted from Private Limited Company to a Public Limited Company. A company under the name of IDFC Investment Managers Ltd has been incorporated as a Subsidiary of IDFC Asset Management Company Ltd, during the year, IDFC Foundation was incorporated as a wholly owned subsidiary company of IDFC. Similarly, the units of the Trust, namely India Infrastructure Initiative Trust & India PPP Capacity Building Trust which were held by IDFC was also transferred to the IDFC Foundation. In November 2011, SNC-Lavalin Group Inc. and the company announced a joint venture began with an introduction by Export Development Canada. The new company, called Piramal Roads Infrastructure Ltd, will work to develop a portfolio of assets in India. April 2,2014, RBI grants in-principle approval to IDFC to set up banks, the in-principle approval will be valid for 18 months
Infrastructure Development Finance Company
–
Infrastructure Development Finance Company
44.
Kozhikode district
–
Kozhikode District is a district of Kerala state, on the southwest coast of India. The city of Kozhikode, formerly known as Calicut, is the district headquarters, Kozhikode district is bordered by the districts of Kannur and Mahe in Pondichery state to the north, Wayanad to the east, and Malappuram to the south. The Arabian Sea lies to the west and it is between latitudes 11° 08N and 11° 50N and longitudes 75° 30E and 76° 8E. In 2001 the district was divided into four talukas, Kozhikode, Vatakara, Koyilandy, by the 2011 census there are 12 block panchayats, Balusseri, Chelannur, Koduvally, Kozhikode, Kunnamangalam, Kunnummal, Melady, Panthalayani, Perambraa, Thodannur, Thuneri, and Vatakara. Present-day Kozhikode District was among the territories ceded to the British East India Company by Tipu Sultan of Mysore in 1792, at the conclusion of the Third Anglo-Mysore War. The newly acquired British possessions on the Malabar Coast were organized into Malabar District, which included the districts of Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Palakkad. Kozhikode served as the headquarters of the district. Malabar District was part of the Madras Presidency, a province of British India, after Indias Independence in 1947, Madras Presidency was renamed Madras State. Malabar District was considered too large for effective administration and it was divided into the districts of Kozhikode, Kannur, and Palakkad on 1 January 1957. The district had five taluks, Vatakara, Koyilandy, Kozhikode, Ernad, on 16 June 1969, Ernad and Tirur Taluks became part of the newly created Malappuram District. South Wayanad, which forms the southern portion of present-day Wayanad District, was added to Kozhikode for a time, the history of the district is inevitably intertwined with the history of the city of Kozhikode. Calicut is the form of Kalikat, the name used by Mappilas to refer to Kozhikode. It was also called the Cock Fort, a usage that may have come from kozhi kodu, krishnan Iyer, the word Kozhikode is derived from koyil kotai, meaning Fortified Palace. Koyilkotai further evolved into Koliykode, which evolved into its present form Kozhikode, the ports of the Malabar Coast have participated in the Indian Ocean trade of spices, silk, and other goods for over two millennia. Kozhikode emerged as the centre of an independent kingdom in the 14th century, during the Yong Le era of the Ming Dynasty of China, Admiral Zheng He and his treasure fleet visited Kozhikode. Their visits were documented by on-board Arab language translators Ma Huan, Fei Xin, each one of them published a book documented their visits to countries, including Calicut. The king of Calicut was a Brahmin and a Buddhist, the throne passes to the kings sisters son. Admiral Zheng He erected a pavilion with stone tablet in Calicut to celebrate this event
Kozhikode district
–
Admiral Zheng He's navigation chart from Hormuz to Calicut, 1430
Kozhikode district
–
Mananchira, Kozhikode
Kozhikode district
–
View of Kappad beach
45.
Ernakulam district
–
Ernakulam is a district of Kerala, India situated in the central part of that state. Spanning an area of about 3,068 km2, Ernakulam district is home to over 12% of Kerala’s population and its headquarters is located at Kakkanad, a suburb of Kochi city. Ernakulam is known as the capital of Kerala. The district is famous for its ancient temples, churches, the district includes the largest metropolitan region of the state, Greater Cochin. Ernakulam district is the highest revenue yielding district in the state and it is the third most populous district in Kerala, after Malappuram and Thiruvananthapuram. Ernakulam district also hosts the highest number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala state, the language spoken in Ernakulam is Malayalam which is the mother-tongue of Kerala. English is widely used, especially in business circles, Ernakulam became Indias first district having 100 percent banking or full meaningful financial inclusion in 2012. The name Ernakulam is derived from Erayanarkulam which means the abode of Lord Shiva, Ernakulam was also known as Rishinagakulam in ancient days. From ancient times Ernakulam district has played a part in the history of south India. The Jews, Syrians, Arabs, Chinese, Dutch, British and Portuguese seafarers followed the sea route to Kingdom of Cochin, in 1896, the Maharaja of Cochin initiated local administration by forming a town council in Ernakulam. Initially Ernakulam districts headquarters was at Ernakulam, which gave the district its name, according to the 2011 census Ernakulam district has a population of 3,282,388, roughly equal to the nation of Mauritania or the US state of Iowa. This gives it a ranking of 104th in India, the district has a population density of 1,069 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 was 5. 6%, Ernakulam has a sex ratio of 1028 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 95. 68%. This district is listed as the most advanced district in Kerala and it had a resident population of 3,105,798 as of 2001, excluding the huge commuter traffic from neighbouring districts. Hindus accounts for the largest community followed by Christians and Muslims, a small population of Jains, Jews and Sikhs are also residing in Kochi. Also, Ernakulam district has the highest number of Christian population in India, in addition to the major communities the Buddhists, the Jains, the Sikhs, and the Jews also form part of the cosmopolitan population. The ancestors of the Jews migrated from Jerusalem in 70 A. D. to India, now there are very few Jewish families in Cochin as most of them were converted to Syrian Christians, and the rest migrated to Israel in the 20th century. The 15. 7% of the population are Malayalam speaking Sunni Shafii Muslims, Ernakulam district covers an area of 3,068 km2 located on the Western Coastal Plains of India
Ernakulam district
–
Cheena vala (Chinese fishing net)
Ernakulam district
–
Location in Kerala, India
Ernakulam district
–
Kochi Marine Drive Day View
Ernakulam district
–
The beauty in the night,
Marine Drive, Kochi
46.
Kannur district
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Kannur District is one of the 14 districts along the west coast in the state of Kerala, India. The town of Kannur is the headquarters and gives the district its name. The old name, Cannanore is the form of the Malayalam name Kannur. Kannur district is bounded by Kasaragod District to the north, Kozhikode district to the south, to the east the district is bounded by the Western Ghats, which forms the border with the state of Karnataka. The Arabian Sea lies to the west, the district was established in 1957. Kannur is the sixth-most urbanized district in Kerala, with more than 50% of its residents living in urban areas, Kannur has an urban population of 1,212,898, which is the second largest in Kerala after Ernakulam district. Kannur District is known as the land of looms and lores, because of the loom industries, the district is a major centre of Theyyam, a ritual dance of northern Kerala. Small shrines known as kavus, associated with the Theyyam, dot the district, the proposed Kannur International Airport will be the fourth international airport in Kerala and is situated in Mattannur, 26-km away from Kannur. There are many myths and legends associated with the name Kannur and it is said to be a portmanteau derived from two Malayalam words, ‘Kannan’, and ‘Ur’, making it the place of Lord Krishna. One theory supporting this theory is that the deity of the Kadalayi Srikrishna Temple was originally installed in a shrine at Kadalayi Kotta in the part of the present Kannur town. During the British Raj, the city was known as Cannanore, Kannur was an important trading center in the 12th century with active business connections with Persia and Arabia. It served as the British military headquarters on Indias west coast until 1887, in conjunction with her sister city, Tellicherry, it was the third largest city on the western coast of British India in the 18th century after Bombay and Karachi. St. Angelo Fort was built in 1505 by Dom Francisco de Almeida and they modernised the fort and built the bastions Hollandia, Zeelandia and Frieslandia that are the major features of the present structure. The original Portuguese fort was pulled down later, a painting of this fort and the fishing ferry behind it can be seen in the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. The Dutch sold the fort to king Ali Raja of Arakkal in 1772, the British conquered it in 1790 and used it as one of their major military stations on the Malabar Coast. During the 17th century, Kannur was the city of the only Muslim Sultanate in the malabar region. During the British Raj, Kannur was part of the Madras province in the North Malabar District, the guerrilla war by Pazhassi Raja, the ruler of Kottayam province, against the British had a huge impact in the history of Kannur. Changes in the socio-economic and political sectors in Kerala during the decades of 20th century created conditions congenial for the growth of the Communist Party
Kannur district
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Sunset at
Payyambalam Beach
Kannur district
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Veera Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma
Kannur district
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Payyambalam Beach
Kannur district
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A view of
Valapattanam river from the bridge built across it
47.
National Waterway 3 (India)
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The total length of navigable route in Kerala was 1,900 kilometers and the navigable rivers constitute about 54 per cent of the waterways. The 41 West-flowing rivers together with the backwaters are a part of the inland navigation system in Kerala. The States inland waterways pass through highly populated regions - the West Coast Canal, the majority of those inhabiting the region were engaged in traditional industries such as coir, cashew, brick-making and fishing. Any attempt to develop the inland waterways will favorably impact the well-being of these people, on the main West Coast Canal between Kollam and Kottapuram, the Kochi Edapallikota stretch was opened for cargo movement during November 1994 consequent to improvement works carried out by IWAI. Capital dredging for widening and deepening of canal between Kochi and Kollam was started in first phase during 1997-98, in Kochi – Kottapuram stretch, capital dredging was started in 2nd phase during September 2002. Work in Kochi-Allapuzha sector was completed and in Kochi-Kottapuram sector dredging was completed except 4.83 km, but in the remaining reaches, it got delayed due to various problems such as disposal of dredged material, fishing nets, local issues leading to contractual problems etc. Out of entire length of 205 km of the waterway, the total length has been estimated as 87.16 km out of which 59.75 km has so far been dredged and 24.49 km remains to be dredged. The total quantity which was to be dredged for deepening the entire length was worked out as 40.33 lakh m3 out of which 23.98 lakh m3 has been dredged and 16.35 lakh m3 remains to be dredged. The palm fringed, tranquil backwaters which house hundreds of River Cruise between Kochi to Alleppey, also known as venice of the East is popular among tourists. One can reach here from Thripunithura to Kochi in around 20 minutes through the waterways, a sizeable quantity of chemicals and fertilizer imports of public sector FACT were being transported through the Udyogamandal canal by barges. As an alternative mode of transport, waterways help in dealing with Air pollution and this will be a first of its kind endeavor in the country. A few water bodies on the route will have to be widened and dredged for the project to materialize, another proposal is to connect navigable canals in Kochi with the waterway. The PDO had made a visit and collected relevant data. Construction of 8th terminal at Kollam by CPWD was also in progress, for providing facilities for mechanical handling at these terminals,8 mobile cranes and 8 fork lifts were procured and provided at each terminal. Many of Keralas export-based industries that use Kochi port to route their shipments can grow considerably if they tap the potential of the States inland water transport system. Kochi port is connected to Keralas hinterland through inland waterways which run parallel to the Arabian Sea. Future potentiality of business improves with improvements in external and internal factors, international Container Trans-shipment Terminal at Vallarpadam at Cochin Coast is one of such external factor which will create lot of future potential for IWAI in Kerala. The expectations from ICTT are to attract international cargo movement through India
National Waterway 3 (India)
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National Waterway 3
48.
Lakshadweep
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Lakshadweep, formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi Islands, is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea,200 to 440 km off the south western coast of India. The archipelago is a Union Territory and is governed by the Union Government of India and they were also known as Laccadive Islands, although geographically this is only the name of the central subgroup of the group. Lakshadweep comes from Lakshadweepa, which one hundred thousand islands in Sanskrit. The islands form the smallest Union Territory of India, their surface area is just 32 km2. The lagoon area covers about 4,200 km2, the territorial waters area 20,000 km2, the region forms a single Indian district with 10 subdivisions. Kavaratti serves as the capital of the Union Territory and the region comes under the jurisdiction of Kerala High Court, the islands are the northernmost of the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands, which are the tops of a vast undersea mountain range, the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge. As the islands do not have any aboriginal groups, different views have been postulated by the scholars about the history of habitation on these islands, archaeological evidence supports the existence of human settlement in the region around 1500 BC. The islands have long known to sailors, as indicated by an anonymous reference from the first century AD to the region in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. The islands were referenced also in the Buddhist Jataka stories of the sixth century BC, the arrival of Muslim missionaries around the seventh century led to the advent of Islam in the region. During the medieval period, the region was ruled by the Chola dynasty, the Portuguese arrived around 1498 and were upstaged by 1545. The region was ruled by the Muslim house of Arakkal. On his death in 1799, most of the region passed on to the British and with their departure, Ten of the islands are inhabited. At the 2011 Indian census, the population of the Union Territory was 64,473, the majority of the indigenous population is Muslim and most of them belong to the Shafi school of the Sunni sect. The islanders are ethnically similar to the Malayali people of the nearest Indian state of Kerala, most of the population speaks Malayalam with Mahi being the most spoken language in Minicoy island. The islands are served by an airport on the Agatti island, the main occupation of the people is fishing and coconut cultivation, with tuna being the main item of export. A mention of the region in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, There are references to the control of the islands by the Cheras in the Sangam Patiṟṟuppattu. Local traditions and legends attribute the first settlement on these islands to the period of Cheraman Perumal, the oldest inhabited islands in the group are Amini, Kalpeni Andrott, Kavaratti, and Agatti. Archaeological evidence suggests that Buddhism prevailed in the region during the fifth and sixth centuries CE, according to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep by an Arab named Ubaidulla in 661 CE
Lakshadweep
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A beach at Kavaratti
Lakshadweep
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Seal
Lakshadweep
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One of the uninhabited islands in
Bangaram Atoll, Lakshadweep
Lakshadweep
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Satellite picture showing the atolls of the Lakshadweep except for
Minicoy
49.
Minicoy
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Minicoy, locally known as Maliku is the southernmost atoll of the archipelago of Lakshadweep, India. Administratively, it is a town in the Indian union territory of Lakshadweep. The ancient name of Maliku was Mahiladū, mahila + dū meaning womens island, however, now Minicoy is called Maliku in the local language. The name Maliku is thought to have derived from the Arab traders term for the island. Since it was the ancient capital of Lakshadweep, Minicoy islanders have long settled in the Nicobar Islands across the Bay of Bengal. These settlers regularly travelled back to Minicoy, a British official once asked a Minicoy islander what the name of his island was. The islander told the official that he was from Maliku but usually lived in Minikaa-raajje, the official thought Maliku and Minikaa were the same place and recorded the name of this islanders home as Minikaa. This later became anglicised as Minicoy, little did this islander know that as a result of this cross-cultural exchange, his home would forever be called by a name that sounded like cannibal in his own language. Minicoy is the second largest and the southernmost among the islands of the Lakshadweep archipelago. It is located 201 km to the SSW of Kalpeni, at the end of the Nine Degree Channel and 125 km to the north of Thuraakunu, Maldives. The atoll is 10 km in length, having a maximum breadth of about 6 km, the closest geographic feature is the Investigator Bank, a submerged shoal located 31 km to the northeast. The main island is located on the eastern and southeastern side of the lagoon, along the reef fringe. It measures about 10 km from its end to its southernmost point and it is about 1 km wide in its southern half, while the northern half is a narrow sandspit. Minicoy is almost completely covered with coconut trees, one of the few landmarks of the island is a tall lighthouse. On the southern side of the island lies the uninhabited islet of Viringili. Formerly the lepers of Minicoy were banished to this island where they lived in abject conditions, Maliku Atoll has a lagoon with two entrances in its northern side, Saalu Magu on the northeast and Kandimma Magu on the northwest. Its western side is fringed by a reef and coral rocks awash. The interior of the lagoon is sandy and of moderate depth and this atoll is administered under the Indian Union Territory of Lakshadweep
Minicoy
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The islet of Viringili located at the southwestern end of Minicoy's reef where formerly the
lepers of the island were banished.
Minicoy
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Satellite photo of Minicoy
Minicoy
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Worms eye view of the Lighthouse in Minicoy island
Minicoy
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A view of the shores of Minicoy Island.
50.
Chera dynasty
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The Cheras were the principal ruling dynasty of the present-day state of Kerala and to a lesser extent, parts of Tamil Nadu in South India. Along with the Ay kingdom and the Ezhimala kingdom, they formed the kingdoms of Kerala in the early years of the Common Era. The origins of the dynasty are unclear and it is understood that they were speakers of Proto-Tamil-Malayalam while some being practitioners of literary writing in Old Tamil. In fact, most of their history is reconstructed from the body of known as the Sangam literature written in Old Tamil around the 3rd century CE. While Pliny and Ptolemy refer to the Cheras as Calobotras, the Periplus refers to them as the Keprobotras, the earliest Sanskrit works which refer to the Cheras and Kerala is probably the Aitreya Aranyaka. It refers to the land as Chera-pada - and as one of the three peoples who did not follow some ancient injunctions, there are also brief references by Katyanana, Edicts of Ashoka, Patanjali and Kautilya though Panini does not mention of the land. However, it is the Tamil works collectively known as the Sangam literature that form the most important sources for a detailed history of the Cheras. These works roughly span the period 100 CE to 300 CE, among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the Pattittupattu, the Agananuru, the Purananuru and the Silappatikaram. The exact antiquity of the Chera dynasty is difficult to establish, however, based on the travellers accounts and the Sangam literature, it can be confirmed that they were already existing around the 4th century BCE. The Sangam literature describes a line of Chera rulers. It records the names of the kings, the princes, the internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled and a connected account of the history of the period is an area of research. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the exact location of the Chera capital has been subject to some speculation. The Chera capital has been called, Vanchi and Karur in several works and this has led to several theories identifying the Chera capital in places called Karur in both Kerala and Tamil Nadu. However, it is clear that the capital was near the famous port known as Muziris. Pliny refers to Muziris as the Chera capital, while the author of the Periplus identifies the capital to be a couple of away from the mouth of the river at Muziris. Ptolemy who identifies the capital as Karoura gives a location that is very close to Muziris as well. The Cheras also seem to have battles with other neighbouring dynasties such as the Pallavas, the Rashtrakutas
Chera dynasty
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Extent of Chera kingdom
Chera dynasty
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Family tree of the kings of the Chera dynasty based on Sangam literature. The monarchs ruled in the first two centuries of the Common Era.
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