1.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
2.
Western India
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Western India consists of the states of Goa, Gujarat, and Maharashtra along with the Union territory of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli of India. The region is highly industrialized, with an urban population. Roughly, Western India is bounded by the Thar Desert in the northwest, the Vindhya Range in the north, a major portion of Western India shares the Deccan Plateau with South India. Before the partition of India, the territories of Sindh. Parts of Gujarat were the site of Indus Valley Civilization, places have been uncovered in Gujarat at Lothal, Surkotada, and around Ghaggar river in Rajasthan. The Western Indian region was ruled by the Rashtrakuta Empire, the Maurya Kingdom, Gurjars, Rajputs, Satavahanas, Western Satraps, Indo Greeks, during the medieval age, the region came under Persian influence and also under Mughal rule. Later, the Maratha Empire which arose in western Maharashtra came to dominate a major portion of the Indian sub-continent, however its defeat by the British in the Anglo-Maratha wars left most of India under colonial rule. The region then experienced great upheavals during the struggle for Indian Independence, gandhis Dandi March took place in Gujarat. The region became part of independent India in 1947, and the present state boundaries were based on linguistic considerations in 1956. The region consists of the arid to semi-arid region of Saurashtra. The region South of that of Cambay and Southern Gujarat makes the northern arid region. The Western Ghats and Konkan lie along the coast of Maharashtra, the Deccan plains of the Vidarbha, Marathwada in central and eastern Maharashtra define the rest of the region. The vegetation varies from tropical rainforests along the Konkan coast to thorny bushes, the rivers in this region are the Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Zuari, Mandovi, Krishna, Ghaggar, Chambal and many other smaller tributaries of other rivers. The climate varies between tropical wet, tropical wet and dry, and semi arid, the coastal regions experience little seasonal variations although the temperatures range between 20 °C to 38 °C. Mumbai and northern Konkan regions experience cooler winters with temperatures hovering around 12 °C. Interior Maharashtra experiences hot summers with temperatures averaging 40 °C. Pune, a city in the region experiences temperatures around 40-42 °C in summers. Gujarat also has a climate with hot summers and cool winters
3.
States and union territories of India
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India is a federal union comprising twenty-nine states and seven union territories. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and further into smaller administrative divisions, the Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any State between the Union and that State. The Indian subcontinent has been ruled by different ethnic groups throughout its history. Between 1947 and 1950, the territories of the states were politically integrated into the Indian Union. The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, the new republic was also declared to be a Union of States. The nine Part A states were Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of states, governed by a rajpramukh, who was usually the ruler of a constituent state. The rajpramukh was appointed by the President of India, the Part B states were Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, and Travancore-Cochin. The ten Part C states included both the former chief commissioners provinces and some states, and each was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. The Part C states were Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Cutch, Manipur, Tripura, the only Part D state was the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which were administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government. The Union Territory of Puducherry was created in 1954 comprising the previous French enclaves of Pondichéry, Karaikal, Yanam, Andhra State was created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking northern districts of Madras State. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganised the states based on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states, as a result of this act, Madras State retained its name with Kanyakumari district added to from Travancore-Cochin. Andhra Pradesh was created with the merger of Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State in 1956, kerala was created with the merger of Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara districts of Madras State with Travancore-Cochin. The Laccadive Islands which were divided between South Canara and Malabar districts of Madras State were united and organised into the territory of Lakshadweep. Bombay State was enlarged by the addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, Rajasthan and Punjab gained territories from Ajmer and Patiala and East Punjab States Union respectively and certain territories of Bihar was transferred to West Bengal. Bombay State was split into the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 by the Bombay Reorganisation Act. Nagaland was formed on 1 December 1963, the Punjab Reorganisation Act of 1966 resulted in the creation of Haryana on 1 November and the transfer of the northern districts of Punjab to Himachal Pradesh. The act also designated Chandigarh as a territory and the shared capital of Punjab
4.
Maharashtra
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Four Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India and is Indias second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. It is the wealthiest Indian state and it is also the worlds second-most populous sub-national entity. It has over 112 million inhabitants and its capital, Mumbai, has a population of approximately 18 million, Nagpur is Maharashtras second capital as well as its winter capital. Maharashtras business opportunities along with its potential to offer a standard of living attract migrants from all over India. Ancient and medieval Maharashtra included the empires of the Satavahana dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukyas, Mughals, the major rivers of the state are Godavari, and Krishna. The Narmada and Tapti Rivers flow near the border between Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, Maharashtra is the second most urbanised state in India. The state has several popular Hindu places of pilgrimage including Pandharpur, Dehu and Alandi, other places that attract pilgrims from other parts of India and beyond include Hazur Sahib Gurudwara at Nanded, Sai Baba shrine at Shirdi and Dikshabhumi at Nagpur. Maharashtra is the wealthiest and one of the most developed states in India, as of 2011, the state had a per capita income of ₹1.0035 lakh, more than the national average of ₹0.73 lakh. Its GDP per capita crossed the ₹1.20 lakh threshold for the first time in 2013, however, as of 2014, the GDP per capita reduced to ₹1.03 lakh Agriculture and industries are the largest parts of the states economy. Major industries include chemical products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum, Jai Maharashtra The modern Marathi language developed from the Maharashtri Prakrit, and the word Mahratta is found in the Jain Maharashtri literature. The terms Maharashtra, Maharashtri, Marathi and Maratha may have derived from the same root, however, their exact etymology is uncertain. But the Marathas as a people do not seem to be mentioned before the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the most widely accepted theory among the linguistic scholars is that the words Maratha and Maharashtra ultimately derived from a combination of Maha and rashtrika. The word rashtrika is a Sanskritized form of Ratta, the name of a tribe or dynasty of petty chiefs ruling in the Deccan region. Another theory is that the term is derived from Maha and ratha / rathi, an alternative theory states that the term derives from the word Maha and Rashtra. However, this theory has not found acceptance among scholars who believe it to be the Sanskritised interpretation of later writers. Maharashtra was ruled by the Maurya Empire in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, around 230 BCE Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahana dynasty for 400 years. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni, in 90 CE Vedishri, son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty, made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. The state was ruled by Western Satraps, Gupta Empire, Gurjara-Pratihara, Vakataka, Kadambas, Chalukya Empire, Rashtrakuta Dynasty, and Western Chalukya before finally
5.
Goa
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Goa /ˈɡoʊ. ə/ is a state in India within the coastal region known as the Konkan in western India. It is bounded by Maharashtra to the north and Karnataka to the east and it is Indias smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Goa is Indias richest state, with a GDP per capita two and a half times that of the country, Panaji is the states capital, while Vasco da Gama is its largest city. The historic city of Margao still exhibits the influence of the Portuguese. Goa is a former Portuguese province, the Portuguese overseas territory of Portuguese India existed for about 450 years until it was annexed by India in 1961. Goa is visited by large numbers of international and domestic tourists each year for its beaches, places of worship and it has rich flora and fauna, owing to its location on the Western Ghats range, a biodiversity hotspot. In ancient literature, Goa was known by names, such as Gomanchala, Gopakapattana, Gopakapattam, Gopakapuri, Govapuri, Govem. In the 3rd century BC, Goa was known as Aparantha and is mentioned by the Greek geographer Ptolemy, in the 13th century, the Greeks referred to Goa as Nelkinda. Other historical names for Goa are Sindapur, Sandabur, and Mahassapatam, Goas history goes back 20, 000–30,000 years. The rock art engravings exhibit the earliest traces of life in India. Upper Paleolithic or Mesolithic rock art engravings have been found on the bank of the river Kushavati at Usgalimal. Petroglyphs, cones, stone-axe, and choppers dating to 10,000 years ago have been found in places in Goa, such as Kazur, Mauxim. Evidence of Palaeolithic life is seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigao, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds poses a problem for determining the exact time period. Early Goan society underwent radical change when Indo-Aryan and Dravidian migrants amalgamated with the aboriginal locals, in the 3rd century BC, Goa was part of the Maurya Empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha. Buddhist monks laid the foundation of Buddhism in Goa, between the 2nd century BC and the 6th century AD, Goa was ruled by the Bhojas of Goa. The rule later passed to the Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 578 and 753, and later the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed from 753 to 963, from 765 to 1015, the Southern Silharas of Konkan ruled Goa as the feudatories of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. Over the next few centuries, Goa was successively ruled by the Kadambas as the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani, in 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. The kingdoms grip on the region was weak, and by 1370 it was forced to surrender it to Harihara I of the Vijayanagara empire, the Vijayanagara monarchs held on to the territory until 1469, when it was appropriated by the Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga
6.
Karnataka
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Karnataka is a state in south western region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The capital and largest city is Bangalore, the state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres, or 5.83 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is the seventh largest Indian state by area, with 61,130,704 inhabitants at the 2011 census, Karnataka is the eighth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada, one of the languages of India, is the most widely spoken. Most of these rivers flow out of Karnataka eastward into the Bay of Bengal, though several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka, the generally accepted one is that Karnataka is derived from the Kannada words karu and nādu, meaning elevated land. Karu nadu may also be read as karu, meaning black, the British used the word Carnatic, sometimes Karnatak, to describe both sides of peninsular India, south of the Krishna. With an antiquity that dates to the paleolithic, Karnataka has been home to some of the most powerful empires of ancient, the philosophers and musical bards patronised by these empires launched socio-religious and literary movements which have endured to the present day. Karnataka has contributed significantly to both forms of Indian classical music, the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions, Karnatakas pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to large areas of Karnataka. The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the Kadambas, the Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi, the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital. These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription, the Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century. Parts of modern-day Southern Karnataka were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century, the Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the early 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule. At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region, literature flourished during this time, which led to the emergence of distinctive Kannada literary metres, and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh, in the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, in 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota
7.
Kanara
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The Kanara region of Karnataka, comprises three coastal districts, namely Dakshina Kannada, Udupi district and Uttara Kannada. Kanara forms the part of the Konkan coast. The length of this region north to south is around 300 kilometres while the width varies from 30 to 110 kilometres. The region is characterized by swaying palms and swift brooks running towards the Arabian Sea, according to legend, Parashurama, an avatar of Vishnu, retrieved Kanara from the sea by throwing his axe into the sea. The sea fell back to the place where his axe fell, hence, the region is sometimes called Parshurama Kshetra. According to historian Severino da Silva, the ancient name for this region is Parashuram Srashti and he and Stephen Fuchs say that the name Canara is the invention of Portuguese, Dutch and English people who visited the area for trade from the early 16th century on wards. The Bednore Dynasty, under whose rule this tract was at time, was known to them as the Kannada Dynasty. The letter d being always pronounced like r by the Europeans and this name was retained by the British after their occupation of the district in 1799, and has remained ever since. However, they say that this issue is controversial. Yakshagana is a dance drama popular in the districts of Uttara Kannada, Shimoga, Udupi. This theater art involves acting, dance, dialogue, music, songs, story, while dance and songs adhere to well established talas, very similar to classical Indian dance forms, acting and dialogues are created spontaneously on stage depending on the ability of the artists. This combination of classical and folk elements makes Yakshagana unique from any other Indian art and it would be considered a form of opera to the western eye. Traditionally, Yakshaganas start late in the night and run the entire night, bagavatha, the background singer, who is also the director of the story controls the entire proceedings on stage. He/she along with the musicians, who play chande and maddale form the himmela. The actors who wear costumes and enact various roles in the story form the mummela. There are many professional troops in Karnataka, in spite of the competition from modern movie industry and television, these troops arrange ticketed shows and make a profit. Yakshagana is sometimes simply called aataā in both Kannada and Konkani, yaksha-gana literally means the song of a yaksha. Yakshas were a tribe mentioned in the Sanskrit literature of ancient India
8.
Skanda Purana
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The Skanda Purana is the largest Mahāpurāṇa, a genre of eighteen Hindu religious texts. The text contains over 81,000 verses, and is part of Shaivite literature, titled after Skanda, a son of Shiva and Parvati, who is also known as Kartikeya and Murugan. While the text is named after Skanda, he does not feature either more or less prominently in this text than in other Shiva-related Puranas, the text has been an important historical record and influence on the Hindu traditions related to war-god Skanda. The earliest text titled Skanda Purana likely existed by the 6th-century CE and it is considered by scholars, in a historic sense, as among the shiftiest, living texts which was widely edited, over many centuries, creating numerous variants. This Mahāpurāṇa, like others, is attributed to the sage Vyasa, haraprasad Shastri and Cecil Bendall, in about 1898, discovered an old palm-leaf manuscript of Skanda Purana in a Kathmandu library in Nepal, written in Gupta script. They dated the manuscript to 7th century CE, on paleographic grounds and this suggests that the original text existed before this time. Hans Bakker states that the text specifies holy places and details about the 4th and 5th-century Citraratha of Andhra Pradesh, the oldest versions of the Skandapurana texts have been discovered in the Himalayan region of South Asia such as Nepal, and the northeastern states of India such as Assam. The critical editions of the text, for scholarly studied, rely on the Nepalese manuscripts, additional texts style themselves as khandas of Skandapurana, but these came into existed after the 12th-century. It is unclear if their root texts did belong to the Skandapurana, there are a number of texts and manuscripts that bear the title Skanda Purana. Some of these texts, except for the title, have little in common with the well known Skandapurana traced to the 1st-millennium CE, the original text has accrued several additions, resulting in several different versions. It is, therefore, very difficult to establish a date of composition for the Skanda Purana. Stylistically, the Skanda Purana is related to the Mahabharata, the two texts employ similar stock phrases and compounds that are not found in the Ramayana. Some of the mentioned in the present version of the Skanda Purana is undoubtedly post-Gupta period. This indicates that several additions were made to the text over the centuries. The Kashi Khanda, for example, acquired its present form around the mid-13th century CE, the latest part of the text might have been composed in as late as 15th century CE. The whole corpus of texts which are considered as part of the Skanda Purana is grouped in two ways, according to one tradition, these are grouped in six saṁhitās, each of which consists of several khaṇḍas. According to another tradition, these are grouped in seven khaṇḍas, the chapters are Mahatmyas, or travel guides for pilgrimage tourists. A manuscript of a commentary on the Sūta Saṁhitā by Madhavācārya is also available and these texts discuss cosmogony, theology, philosophical questions on virtues and vice, questions such as what is evil, the origin of evil, how to deal with and cure evil
9.
Parashurama
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Parashurama is the sixth avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism. He is the son of Renuka and one of the saptarishis and he lived during the last Treta and Dvapara Yugas and is one of the Chiranjivi of Hinduism. Parashurama, a Brahmin, received his famous axe after undertaking terrible penance to please Shiva, Parashurama is most known for ridding the world of kshatriyas twenty-one times over after the mighty king Kartavirya Arjuna, not the famous one of Mahabharata, killed his father. As per the Mahabharata, Parashurama single-handedly successfully conquered the entire world, Parashurama conducted hundreds of Ashvamedhas and gave away the entire earth he conquered as alms to sage Kashyapa. He plays important roles in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, serving as mentor to Bhishma, Parashurama and Indrajit are believed to be the only humans who ever possessed the three ultimate weapons, the Brahmanda astra, Vaishnava astra and Pashupatastra. Parashurama was a disciple of Shiva and learned the scriptures and the arts of warfare from Shiva and he then acquired celestial weapons from Shiva and the other gods on Shivas instructions. Shiva personally trained Parashurama for decades in the art of warfare. The Bhargavastra was his personal celestial weapon, Parashurama also fought back the advancing seas to save the lands of Konkan and Kerala. Parashurama is worshipped as mūlapuruṣa, or male ancestral founder by some Anavil, Dravidulu, Bhumihar, Tyagi, Chitpavan, along with the sages Vyasa, Kripa and Dronas son Ashwatthama, Parashurama is considered to be foremost among the rishis in the Kaliyuga. Parashurama will also become one of the saptarishi in the 8th Manvantara, Parashurama is a mighty Maharathi and he will reappear as the martial instructor of Vishnus 10th avatar Kalki. The word Parashurama is derived from two words parashu meaning axe and rama, so literally, the word Parashurama means Rama with an axe. Though a Brahmin by birth, Parashurama expressed unusual interest in weapons, afterwards, Parashurama devoted himself in serving his parents and brothers, helping Jamadagni to run his hermitage. According to the Brahmanda Purana, when Parashurama was a teenager, Jamadagni permitted his son and Parashurama visited Richika in his hermitage. Richika and his wife welcomed him and Parashurama stayed with them for a few months, serving them, curious about his ancestors, Parashurama went to the hermitage of Richikas father Aurva and a few months later, he went to Aurvas father, Chyavana. Parashurama was devoted to them and they too gave him knowledge, many months later, Chyavana told Parashurama to meet his own father, Sage Bhrigu, the very progenitor of the Bhargava race himself. With Chyavanas instructions, Parashurama was able to enter Bhrigus hermitage, Parashurama lived with Bhrigu for many months and Bhrigu trained his descendant in performing harsh penances. Lord Shiva was pleased with this, and appeared before him, Parashurama expressed his desire to obtain celestial weapons and skills in warfare from the God. Shiva told him that he would grant the boon only when Parashurama proved himself to be a worthy soul, Shiva told Parashurama to undertake a Tirtha Yatra or holy pilgrimage. After years of penances, Shiva was pleased with Parashuramas devotion, Shiva ordered Parashurama to slay the Daityas and Danavas who were the enemies of the Devas, to which the latter agreed
10.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
11.
Xuanzang
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602–664, was a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator who described the interaction between China and India in the early Tang dynasty. Born in what is now Henan province around 602, from boyhood he took to reading books, including the Chinese classics. While residing in the city of Luoyang, Xuanzang was ordained as a śrāmaṇera at the age of thirteen. Due to the political and social unrest caused by the fall of the Sui dynasty, he went to Chengdu in Sichuan and he later travelled throughout China in search of sacred books of Buddhism. At length, he came to Changan, then under the rule of Emperor Taizong of Tang. He knew about Faxians visit to India and, like him, was concerned about the incomplete, hsüan, Hüan, Huan and Chuang are also found. Another form of his style was Yuanzang, written 元奘. Tang Monk is also transliterated /Thang Seng/, another of Xuanzangs standard aliases is Sanzang Fashi, 法 being a Chinese translation for Sanskrit Dharma or Pali/Pakrit Dhamma, the implied meaning being Buddhism. Sanzang is the Chinese term for the Buddhist canon, or Tripiṭaka, in some sources Xuanzangs is said to have been born Chen Hui or Chen Yig. Xuanzang was born Chen Hui around 602 in Chenhe Village, Goushi Town, Luozhou and his family was noted for its erudition for generations, and Xuanzang was the youngest of four children. His ancestor was Chen Shi, a minister of the Eastern Han dynasty and his great-grandfather Chen Qin served as the prefect of Shangdang during the Eastern Wei, his grandfather Chen Kang was a professor in the Taixue during the Northern Qi. According to traditional biographies, Xuanzang displayed a superb intelligence and earnestness, although his household was essentially Confucian, at a young age, Xuanzang expressed interest in becoming a Buddhist monk like one of his elder brothers. After the death of his father in 611, he lived with his older brother Chén Sù for five years at Jingtu Monastery in Luoyang, during this time he studied Mahayana as well as various early Buddhist schools, preferring the former. In 618, the Sui Dynasty collapsed and Xuanzang and his brother fled to Changan, which had proclaimed as the capital of the Tang dynasty. Here the two spent two or three years in further study in the monastery of Kong Hui, including the Abhidharma-kośa Śāstra. When Xuanzang requested to take Buddhist orders at the age of thirteen, Xuanzang was fully ordained as a monk in 622, at the age of twenty. The myriad contradictions and discrepancies in the texts at that time prompted Xuanzang to decide to go to India and he subsequently left his brother and returned to Changan to study foreign languages and to continue his study of Buddhism. He began his mastery of Sanskrit in 626, and probably also studied Tocharian, during this time, Xuanzang also became interested in the metaphysical Yogacara school of Buddhism
12.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
13.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
14.
Western Ghats
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Western Ghats மேற்கு தொடர்ச்சி மலை is a mountain range that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located entirely in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight hottest hot-spots of biological diversity in the world and it is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south along the edge of the Deccan Plateau. These hills cover 160,000 km2 and form the catchment area for complex riverine drainage systems that drain almost 40% of India, the Western Ghats block southwest monsoon winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200 m, at least 325 globally threatened species occur in the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted and eroded edge of the Deccan Plateau, geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break-up of the supercontinent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago. Geophysical evidence indicates that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar, after the break-up, the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt cliff some 1,000 m in elevation. Basalt is the predominant rock found in the reaching a thickness of 3 km. Other rock types found are charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of limestone, iron ore. Residual laterite and bauxite ores are found in the southern hills. The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north and it traverses south past the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Nilgiri Hills and the Anaimalai Hills. The mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds, and are consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their western side. The northern portion of the coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, the range is known as Sahyadri in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Western Ghats meets the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiris in northwestern Tamil Nadu, Nilgiris connects Biligiriranga Hills in southeastern Karnataka with the Shevaroys and Tirumala hills. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi, the highest peak in Western Ghats, following is a list of some of the highest peaks of the Western Ghats, The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India, feeding the perennial rivers of India. The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats include Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Thamiraparani, majority of streams draining the Western Ghats join these rivers and carry large volume of water during the monsoon months
15.
Arabian Sea
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The Arabian Sea is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by northeastern Somalia and the Arabian Peninsula, and on the east by India. Historically the sea has been known by names including the Erythraean Sea. Its total area is 3,862,000 km2 and its depth is 4,652 metres. The Gulf of Aden is in the southwest, connecting the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the Arabian Sea has been crossed by important marine trade routes since the third or second millennium BCE. Major seaports include Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai, the Port of Karachi and the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, other important ports include in India, Kandla Port, and Mormugao in Goa. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea include Socotra, Masirah Island, Astola Island, the Arabian Seas surface area is about 3,862,000 km2. The maximum width of the Sea is approximately 2,400 km, the biggest river flowing into the Sea is the Indus River. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat and Kutch on the Indian coast, the countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Somalia, Djibouti, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Pakistan, India and the Maldives. There are several cities on the seas coast including Mumbai, Surat, Karachi, Gwadar, Pasni, Ormara, Aden, Muscat, Keti Bandar, Salalah, Duqm. International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows, the Eastern limit of the Gulf of Aden. A line joining Ràs al Hadd, East point of Arabia, a line running from the South extremity of Addu Atoll, to the Eastern extreme of Ràs Hafun. The Western limit of the Laccadive Sea, by the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the Sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through country and risk of bandits. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria, Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India. The Port of Karachi is Pakistans largest and busiest seaport, handling about 60% of the nations cargo and it is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar, close to the main business district and several industrial areas. The geographic position of the places it in close proximity to major shipping routes such as the Strait of Hormuz. The history of the port is intertwined with that of the city of Karachi, several ancient ports have been attributed in the area including Krokola, Morontobara, Barbarikon (the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and Debal. It warns sailors about whirlpools and advises them to safety in Kaurashi harbour if they found themselves drifting dangerously
16.
Gangavalli River
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Gangavalli River is one of the many small rivers that originates and flows entirely within the western part of state of Karnataka in India. Gangavalli River originates from the Western Ghats the south of Dharwad as Shalmala, here the River embraces the name Gangavalli from the Goddess Ganga, the village in this area carries the same name Gangavalli. This stream joins at Kalghatgi about 30 km lower down to the Bedthi River that takes its birth near Hubli, River then flows west and then south-west for a total distance of 69 km. This river has a catchment area of 3,574 km2 and has a length of 152 km. On its course towards the Arabian Sea, the falls from a height of 180 metre at a point called Manjguni a new resort place on the western face of the Sahyadri. It is significant and picturesque at the confluence of the river, the bed fall of the river is gentle for the first 72 km. After that point the river bed falls rapidly with a clear over fall of 183 km at Magod and is known as The Magod Falls. Afterwards river runs in deep gorges with a steep bed falls, the Souda joins the river after the falls. The Ganagavalli village is 11 km away from the Ankola town and 4 km from Belambar one of the new resort areas of the Uttar Kannada district. Gokarna town is 4 km away in the direction on Gangavalli road. The river flows through Dharwad and Uttar Kannada districts, the river has dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forests along its path. Bedthi, Shalmali and Souda Soils in the Gangavalli basin are mainly lateritic in origin, the various type of soil found here is clay loamy, clayey, clayey-skeletal, and loamy. With a major part of the lying in the Western Ghats. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 1,700 mm to 6,000 mm, about 95% of the rainfall is received during the month of June to September when the southwest monsoon is at its climax. There is some rainfall in the post monsoon season in the form of thundershowers mostly during October and some rainfall occurs during the summer months of April. During heavy monsoons, the floods to nearby villages and dumps dirt. April is usually the hottest month with the daily maximum temperature at 36˚C. During the morning, the relative humidity exceeds 75% for most times of the year, during the months of monsoon, the relative humidity during the afternoons is approximately 60%
17.
Uttara Kannada
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Uttara Kannada is a district in the Indian state of Karnataka. The city of Karwar is the headquarters of the district. Sirsi, Dandeli and Bhatkal are the major developing towns of the district. Uttara Kannada was the home of the Kadamba kingdom from the 350 to 525, after the subjugation of the Kadambas by the Chalukyas, the district came under successive rule of empires like Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas and Vijayanagar empire. Famous Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta is said to have stayed for a time in the district under the protection of Nawayath Sultan Jamal Al-Din at Hunnur and this place is presently known as Hosapattana and is located in the town of Honnavar. Ruins of an old mosque and its minaret can still be seen in the village, the district came under the rule of Maratha Empire in the 1750s and later part of Mysore Kingdom, who ceded it to the British at the conclusion of the Fourth Mysore War in 1799. It was initilally part of Kanara district in Madras Presidency, the district was divided to North and South Kanara districts in 1859. The British finally transferred Uttara Kannada district to Bombay Presidency in 1862, after Indias independence in 1947, Bombay Presidency was reconstituted as Bombay State. In 1956 the southern portion of Bombay State was added to Mysore State, Uttara Kannada was an ancient site of sea trade visited by the Arabs, Dutch, Portuguese, French and later the British. Ibn Battuta passed through this route during one or more of his journeys, the renowned Bengali poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, who visited Uttara Kannada in 1882, dedicated an entire chapter of his memoirs to this town. The 22-year-old Rabindranath Tagore stayed with his brother, Satyendranath Tagore, there is a substantial amount of Chardo families in this area as they had migrated due to the persecution of the Portuguese in Goa. Cintacora, also known as Chitrakul and Sindpur, was known to the Portuguese as an old port. PCr7 is from karwar. When Sadashivgad was built in area, the village also came to be known by that name. Pir fort, named for the Dargah of Shahkaramuddin, was captured, the creek at the mouth of the Kali River was a trading center which came into greater prominence after Sadashivgad was built and the Portuguese realised the advantages of its sheltered harbor. In 1638 a rival English trading body, the Courteen Association and it was a trade port frequented by traders from Arabia and Africa. Baitkhol port was famous for its natural harbour, the name Baithkhol is Arabic term, Bait-e-kol, meaning bay of safety. Muslin was the chief commodity purchased but Uttara Kannada was also a source for pepper, cardamom, cassia, situated on Indias west coast,50 miles south-east of Goa, Uttara Kannada was noted for its safe harbour. In 1649 the Courteen Association united with the British East India Company, in the Treaty of Mangalore signed in 1784, between Tipu Sultan and the East India Company, one finds reference to Uttara Kannada and Sadashivgad written as Karwar and Sadasewgude respectively
18.
Karwar, Karnataka
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Karwar is a city in Uttara Kannada district in the South Indian state of Karnataka and the administrative centre of Uttara Kannada district. Karwar lies on the west coast of Southern India at the mouth of the Kali river and its geography creates a natural harbour with protection against monsoon weather. Being a port town, Karwar is a centre for agriculture, manufacturing, Karwar derived its name from the nearby village of Kadwad. Kade means last and wado means precinct or area in Konkani, before Indian independence, the name Karwar was spelt Carwar. The name Baithkhol, is an Arabic term, kot Siveshvar, another fortress, was built near Karwar by the Sultan of Bijapur to counterattacks from the north. At the ruins of Fort Siveshvar are a Muslim graveyard and a tunnel at the eastern gate, Portuguese traders knew Karwar as Cintacora, Chitrakul, Chittakula or Sindpur. In 1510, the Portuguese captured and burnt a fort at Karwar and they called it Fort Pir, Forte de Piro or Pito due to the presence of a Muslim Dargah. In the 17th century, refugees from Portuguese rule in Goa moved to Karwar, Marathas, Having marched from Bednore in the south, visiting on his way the sacred temple at Gokarna, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj seized Ankola and the next day came to Karwar. Both the East India Company and Sher Shah, the sardar of Bijapur, were very much alarmed at this sudden development and they collected huge amount and offering it to Shivaji, prayed that they may be spared. The common commodities were muslin, black pepper, cardamom, cassier, in 1649 the Courteen Association merged with the British East India Company, and Karwar became a company town. The East India Company built fighting ships in the Karwar harbour, for example, the Britannia which had 18 guns was built to defend Bombay from attacks by Maratha admiral Kanhoji Angre. In the 1700s Karwar was part of the Maratha Empire, in 1784, at the time of the Treaty of Mangalore between Tipu Sultan and the East India Company, Karwar and Sadashivgad were spelt Carwar and Sadasewgude, respectively. After the defeat of the Marathas in the Third Anglo-Maratha War, Karwar fell to the British, the Bengali poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, who visited Karwar in 1882, dedicated a chapter of his memoirs to this town. At 22 years, Tagore stayed with his brother, Satyendranath Tagore. From 1862 to the re-organisation of the states, Uttara Kannada district was part of the Bombay Presidency, during World War II Karwar was an Indian Naval training site. Karwar is a city on the west coast of the Indian peninsula. To the east are the Western Ghats, Karwar is situated on the banks of the Kali river which flows west to the Arabian sea from its headwaters at Bidi village in the Western Ghats. The Kali river has a length of about 153 km and is the source of irrigation for Karnataka
19.
Ankola
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Ankola. The name of the place is derived from a forest shrub Ankola grown on the coastal hill side and worshiped by the Halakki Vokkaligas as a totem. Ankola is a picturesque town surrounded by temples, schools, paddy fields. It is located on the coast of the Arabian sea and has natural beaches, Ankola is famous for its native breed of Mango called Ishaad as wells as its bountiful cashews. Ankola is located at 14°39′38″N 74°18′17″E and it has an average elevation of 17 metres. The Gangavali River is a prominent river that flows near the town, summer temperatures range between 30 °C and 35 °C while winter temperatures drop down marginally to between 20 °C and 33 °C. Belekeri is a port located nearby which is mainly used to ship iron ore to China. As of 2011 India census, Total population of Ankola Taluk is 101,549 living in 21,079 Houses, males are 51,398 and Females are 50,151. Ankola Town Panchayat has a population of 22,249 of which 11,034 are males while 11,215 are females as per report released by Census of India 2011. Population of Children with age of 0-6 is 2025 which is 9. 10% of total population of Ankola, in Ankola Town Panchayat, Female Sex Ratio is of 1016 against state average of 973. Moreover, Child Sex Ratio in Ankola is around 1013 compared to Karnataka state average of 948, literacy rate of Ankola city is 90. 63%, higher than the state average of 75. 36%. In Ankola, Male literacy is around 94. 63% while female literacy rate is 86. 69%, Ankola Town Panchayat has a total administration over 5,271 houses, to which it supplies basic amenities like water and sewerage. It is also authorized to build roads within Town Panchayat limits, the main languages spoken are Kannada, Konkani and Marathi. Among the Muslims, Urdu is common. Kannada is the predominant language in Ankola while Konkani and Urdu are also spoken, villages of Ankola include, In 1930, after the success of Mahatma Gandhis Salt Satyagraha, Karnataka decided to conduct its own. On 13 April, in the presence of about 40,000 people M. P. Nadakarni broke the law in Ankola. Revu Honnappa Naik, Honnappa Mangeshkar bought the first packet of salt auctioned for 30 rupees, after the auction Swami Vidyananda addressed the gathering in which leaders like Karnad Sadashiva Rao, Smt Umabai Kundapur, Dr Hardikar, T. S. Naikand others participated. The police promptly arrested the leaders but the Sathyagraha continued for 45 days with full tempo, Salt Sathyagraha was offered in nearly 30 centres like Mangalore, Kundapur, Udupi, Puttur, Padubidre, etc. in Karnataka. Students came out in numbers to prepare salt and sell it from house to house. When Gandhiji decided to raid the salt depot at Dharsana, a raid was undertaken in Karnataka at Sanikatte
20.
Kumta
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Kumta is a town and a taluk in the Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, India. Kumta is about 142 km south of Margao and 58 km north of Bhatkal and it is situated 72.7 km from Karwar, the district headquarters. It is one of the important stations along the Konkan Railway line running between Mumbai and Mangalore, Kumta was a part of the North Kanara district of the Bombay Presidency. The city came under the rule of Maratha Empire in the 1800s, the British established Kumta city as a part of the Bombay Presidency. The renowned Bengali poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, who visited Kumta in 1882, the 22-year-old Rabindranath Tagore stayed with his brother, Satyendranath Tagore, who was the district judge in North Kanara. The city of Kumta is located on the Arabian sea coast in the district of North Kanara in the state of Karnataka, Kumta is adjacent to the vast western ghats 14. 42°N74. 4°E /14.42,74.4. It has an elevation of 3 metres. To the north of city, the major Aghanashini river joins the Arabian Sea on her way rendering stunning scenery, the town of Gokarna near Kumta is famous for beaches. A nearby Rock Climbing spot called Yana is also beautiful with its massive black rock formations, Yana is just 20 km from Kumta. Kadamba Transport Corporation buses serve the town, National Highway 17 passes through Kumta. It connects Kumta with Mumbai, Panvel, Ratnagiri, Margao, Karwar, Bhatkal, Kundapur, Udupi, Mangalore, the journey between Margao & Kumta takes not more than 2 hours. The Railway Station is very near to city situated about a kilometer away from National Highway, the City of Kumta Kadle Beach Kumta Beach The Town of Kumta Hegde
21.
Honavar
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Honavar or Honnavar is a port town in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, India. The town is the headquarters of Honnavar Taluk, the Konkan Railway line passes through Honnavar, and its longest bridge is 2.065 km in length and is in Honnavar, over the Sharavati River. In October 2013 the Karnataka government announced plans to develop a new port at Honnavar, there are proposals for improvements to the Inland Water Transportation system between Honnavar and Gerusoppa along the Sharavati river coast. Also, the Office of Ferries Inspector that oversees Inland Water Transportation System of the coastal belt of Karnataka State is headquartered at Honnavar
22.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
23.
Konkan division
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Konkan division is one of the six administrative divisions of Maharashtra state in India. It comprises the Konkan region, which occupies the entire west coast of Maharashtra, the two districts in the state capital Mumbai also fall in Konkan division. Recently, the Mumbai district was bifurcated into the Mumbai & Mumbai Suburban districts, in 1961 the Konkan region became a part of the newly formed state of Maharashtra. Prior to this it was a part of Bombay province which was split to form Gujarat, creation of the Sindhudurg from the southern areas of the Ratnagiri district. The erstwhile Kolaba district was renamed as Raigad, the Panvel, New Panvel, and the Navi Mumbai International Airport regions also can be included in this proposed entirely urban district. Current proposal is to have Thane city, Navi Mumbai and Mira Bhayander into Thane urban district, for historical facts both Panvel and Karjat talukas were part of Thane district and in 1891 they were merged with Kolaba or the currently called Raigad district. This district can be a hundred percent tribal district, hence this proposal is centered on a third district comprising the non-tribal rural areas and talukas of Thane district and three talukas of Raigadh district. All these proposals are currently actively under consideration
24.
Palghar district
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Palghar District is a district in the state of Maharashtra in Konkan Division. At the 2011 Census, the talukas now comprising the district had a population of 2,990,116, Palghar has an urban population of 1,435,210, that is 48% of total population is living in Urbanized Area. The district is bounded by Thane and Nashik Districts on the east and northeast, the Arabian Sea forms the western boundary, while Vasai-Virar is part of Mumbai Metropolitan Region. Until 1 August 2014, the talukas now comprising Palghar District formed a part of Thane District, abhijit S. Bangar was the first Collector of the district. The district is the northernmost part of the Konkan lowlands of Maharashtra and it comprises the wide amphitheatre like Ulhas basin on the south and hilly Vaitarna valley on the north together with plateaus and the slopes of Sahyadri. From the steep slopes of the Sahyadri in the east, the falls through a succession of plateaus in the north. The distance from the parts of different palaces to headquarters Palghar by road is as follows, Khodala 138 km, Mokhada 112 km, Jawhar 75 km, the main river flowing through the district is the Vaitarna. The river has tributaries, the most important of them are Barvi and Bhatsa, Pinjal, Surya, Daherja. Vaitarna, the largest of Konkan Rivers rises in the Tryambak hills in Nashik district, the river flows across Shahapur, Vada and Palghar talukas and enter the Arabian Sea through a wide estuary off Arnala. Vaitarna River is 154 km long and has an area that practically covers the entire northern part of the district. Ulhas river which flows to Arabian see is Vasai creek, districts southern border, Arnala Island is located in Vasai taluka, at the entrance to the Vaitarna estuary. Palghar has an population of 1,435,210. The talukas, with their populations at the 2001 and 2011 Censuses are as follows, Palghar has one municipal corporation, the Western Railway network passes through Vasai, Palghar and Dahanu talukas of the district. Palghar has Indias first atomic power plant located at Tarapur, the industrial town of Boisar is also home to one of Maharashtras largest industrial areas at Tarapur MIDC. Maharashtras largest fishing port is Satpati, Dahanu, Arnala, Vasai, Dahanu and Palghar are the best known for their chickoo production in the whole of India. A special Chickoo festival is hosted in Palghar and Dahanu
25.
Thane district
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Thane District is a district in the Indian state of Maharashtra in Konkan Division. The headquarters of the district is the city of Thane, other major cities in the district are Navi Mumbai, Kalyan-Dombivli, Mira-Bhayander, Bhiwandi, Ulhasnagar, Ambarnath, Badlapur, Murbad and Shahapur. This is the third-most industrialised district in Maharashtra, the district is situated between 18°42 and 20°20 north latitudes and 72°45 and 73°48 east longitudes. The revised area of the district is 4,214 km², the district is bounded by Nashik district to the north east, Pune and Ahmadnagar districts to the east, and by Palghar district to the north. The Arabian Sea forms the boundary, while it is bounded by Mumbai City District and Mumbai Suburban District to the southwest. In 1817, the territory now comprising Thane district was taken over by the British from the Peshwa and it became a part of North Konkan district, since then, it has undergone considerable changes in its boundaries. In 1830, the North Konkan district was expanded by adding parts of South Konkan district, back in 1866, the administrative sub-divisions of Thana were reorganised and renamed, Sanjan as Dahanu, Kolvan as Shahapur and Nasrapur as Karjat. Vada petha was upgraded to the level of a taluka, Uran Mahal was separated from Salsette in 1861 and was placed under Panvel. Panvel, together with its mahals of Uran and Karanja, was transferred to Kolaba district in 1883, a new mahal with Bandra as headquarters was created in 1917 and in 1920 Salsette was divided into two talukas — North Salsette and South Salsette. South Salsette consisting of 84 villages was separated from Thana District, North Salsette was made a mahal under Kalyan taluka in 1923 and renamed as Thana in 1926. After Independence, in 1949, the state of Jawhar was merged with Thana district. In 1969, the taluka of Kalyan was divided into two talukas, Kalyan and Ulhasnagar, the district is the northernmost part of the Konkan lowlands of Maharashtra. It comprises the wide amphitheatre like Ulhas basin on the south and hilly Vaitama valley on the north together with plateaus and the slopes of Sahyadri. From the steep slopes of the Sahyadri in the east, the falls through a succession of plateaus in the north. Isolated hills and spurs dot the district area, the two main rivers flowing through the district are the Ulhas and the Vaitarna. The Ulhas originates from the north of Tungarli near Lonavala, flows for a distance before descending near Bhor ghat. It meets the sea at Vasai creek, Ulhas River is 135 km long. The river has tributaries, two important of them are Barvi and Bhatsa
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Mumbai Suburban district
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Mumbai Suburban District is a district of Maharashtra in Konkan Division. It consists of three subdivisions, Kurla, Andheri, and Borivali. The district along with Mumbai City district and other suburban communities make up the metropolis of Mumbai on Salsette Island, the district occupies an area of 446 km². This is the second smallest district of Maharashtra, and it comes under Konkan Division. The jurisdiction of Mumbai Suburban District is from Bandra to Dahisar, from Kurla to Mulund, Mumbai Suburban District is one of the largest districts in the country by population. The current population is 9,332,481, according to the 2011 census, the Mithi River is the main river in the district. Mumbai Suburban district was created on 1 October 1990 when Greater Mumbai bifurcated into Mumbai City, according to the 2011 census, Mumbai Suburban district has a population of 9,332,481, roughly equal to the nation of Benin or the US state of North Carolina. This gives it a ranking of 5th in India, the district has a population density of 25,291.28 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 8. 01%, Mumbai Suburban has a sex ratio of 857 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 90. 9%. Western Suburbs Eastern Suburbs South Mumbai Mumbai Official website of Mumbai suburban district Maharashtra government
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Mumbai City district
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Mumbai City District is a district of Maharashtra in Konkan Division. As a city district, it has no headquarters or subdivisions and it, along with the Mumbai Suburban District, makes up the metropolis of Mumbai. The city area is called the city or South Mumbai or Old Mumbai. It extends from Colaba in the south to Mahim and Sion in the north, the city has an area of 157 km² and a population of 3,085,411. The city of Bombay came in light in the year 150 A. D. through the work of renowned geographer. The city, consisting of several islands, was ruled by native Agris and kolis. These natives ruled the islands up to 1345, thereafter, Mumbais rulers changed through history until Islamic rulers conquered what is now Maharashtra and conquered some of the islands in 1534. Subsequently, a Muslim sultan of Gujarat took over all the islands, initially, Charles II entrusted the administration of Bombay to the East India Company. By a Royal Charter under the Regulation XIX of 1827, passed by the British Government, the Collector of Bombay enjoyed vast authority under the Bombay Land Revenue Act 1876 which was repealed by the Maharashtra Land Revenue Code 1966. According to the 2011 census Mumbai City district has a population of 3,085,411 and this gives it a ranking of 115th in India. The district has a density of 19,652 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was -7. 57%, Mumbai City has a sex ratio of 832 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 89. 21%. Govt of Maharashtra Official site of Mumbai city collectorate
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Raigad district
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Raigad District is a district in the state of Maharashtra, India. In 2011 the district had a population of 2,635,394, in 2011 urban dwellers had increased to 36. 91% from 24. 22% in 2001. The district is bounded by Mumbai Harbour to the northwest, Thane District to the north, Pune District to the east, Ratnagiri district to the south, and the Arabian Sea to the west. It includes the natural harbour of Pen-Mandwa, which is immediately south of Mumbai harbour. The northern part of the district is included in the metropolis of Navi Mumbai, and its port. The district includes towns/cities of Panvel, Alibag, Mangaon, Roha, Pen, Khopoli, Kharghar, Taloja, Khalapur, Uran, Patalganga, Rasayani, Nagothana, Poladpur, Karjat, the largest city both in area and population is Panvel. The district also includes the isle of Gharapuri or Elephanta, located in Uran which has ancient Hindu, Kulaba district was split from Thane district in 1869. According to the 1872 census, Kulaba district had a population of just over 350,000 people, with 94% of the population being Hindus, in 1881 the population was about 382,000, with 95% of the population being Hindus. Bhagat, Patil, Mhatre, Naik, Thakur, are famous, at this point the northernmost parts of modern Raigad district were retained in Thane district. Kolaba district was subsequently renamed Raigad district, after the British took over the old Colaba and this region, they established four Anglo – Vernacular medium school and 30 government schools in the year 1865–66. In the year 1861 the first school for girls was started in Alibag, the Mission Church started the first English school in Alibag in 1879. College, One Polytechnic Institute and One MMS College, Raigad district is divided into four subdivisions, with fifteen talukas, and 1,967 villages. According to the 2011 census Raigad district has a population of 2,634,200 and this gives it a ranking of 153rd in India. The district has a density of 368 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 19. 36%, Raigad has a sex ratio of 955 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 83. 89%. Several scheduled tribes live in Raigad district, among these are the Mahadev, Koli, Katkari and Thakur. Raigad District is connected to Mumbai by Sion Panvel Expressway, the Mumbai-Pune expressway and NH4 passes through Panvel. NH17, which starts at Panvel, traverses the whole district, the Konkan Railway line starts at Roha and passes through Mangaon and Veer
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Ratnagiri district
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Ratnagiri district is one of the 36 districts of Maharashtra state in Western India. Ratnagiri is the headquarters of the district. The district is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west, Sindhudurg district to the south, Raigad district to the north and Satara, Sangli and this district is part of Konkan division. There are five Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha constituencies in this district, Raigad Lok Sabha constituency, This includes the northern part of the district, namely, Khed, Guhagar and Dapoli constituencies, along with part of the neighbouring Raigad district. According to the 2011 census Ratnagiri district has a population of 1,612,672 and this gives it a ranking of 311th in India. The district has a density of 196 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was -4. 96%, Ratnagiri has a sex ratio of 1123 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 82. 43%. The ancestors of Govind Ballabh Pant - first Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, there are many Forts along the sea cost as well as along the Hilly areas near western Ghats
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Sindhudurg district
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Sindhudurg is an administrative district in the state of Maharashtra in India, which was carved out of the erstwhile Ratnagiri District. The district headquarters are located at Oros, the district occupies an area of 5207 km² and has a population of 849,651 of which 12. 59% were urban. As of 2011 it is the least populous district of Maharashtra, the district is named after the fort of Sindhudurg, which lies on a rocky island just off the coast of Malvan. Sindhudurg fort, built in the 16th century by King Shivaji is the fort which has Shivajis temple inside the fort. Sindhudurg district has 37 forts, the highest number of forts in Maharashtra as well as all types of forts, established on 1 May 1981, Tahsils and Panchayat Samiti, Nagar Palika, Gram Panchayat,433 Tot. Villages,743 No. of Towns,5 Police Stations,9 Police outpost,23 Major Crops are Rice, Coconut, Kokam, Mango, annual Crop Kokam, Mango, Cashew Irrigated 33,910 Hector Non-Irrigated. 104,390 Hector Forest 38,643 Hector 74% of total land holding in the district, are held by small, the irrigated area is only 23. 48% through well and small channels. Major Projects 2 Medium Projects 4 Small Projects State owned,33, Z. P. owned,460 Primary Schools - Zilla Parishad –1469, Private –49 Secondary Schools Grantable,184, Central Govt. Main Fisheries Centers – Vijaydurg, Devgad, Achara, Malvan, Sarjekot, Kochara, Vengurla, Sindhudurg is part of Konkan region, a narrow coastal plain in western Maharashtra which lies between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. Sindhudurg has a climate and remains warm and humid in most of the year. It has three seasons, Rainy, winter and Summer. 32 °C and monsoon winds bring heavy rains, language - The people of Sindhudurg District mostly speak a distinct Konkani dialect Malvani, almost all are fluent in Marathi as well. Hindi, Kannada, English and Konkani are also spoken and understood by a majority of the population, the cuisine of the district is popularly known as Malvani cuisine. Coconut, Rice and Fish assume prime significance in the Malavani cuisine, seafood containing fish, especially Bangada Paplet, Prawns, and Tisrya is very popular. Kombdi Vadealso called Vade Sagoti, a savoury, is the most popular dish here. Others include Ukadya Tandulachi Pej and Sol Kadhi, dry fish is also a local delicacy like Golma. Malvani cuisine is one of the unique cuisine than rest of the Maharashtra with very low oil and spices, even TAJ group has also included Malvani cuisine in their menu. Varieties of Alphonso Mango from Devgad are particularly popular, other varieties of mango, Mankur, Pāyari and Karel are also popular for their distinct taste
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Konkani people
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The Konkani people are an ethno-linguistic community found mainly in the Konkan Coast of south western India whose mother-tongue is the Konkani language. They originate from coastal Karnataka and Goa, the word Konkan and, in turn Konkani, is derived from Kuṅkaṇ or Kuṅkaṇu. Different authorities explain etymology of this word differently, some include, Koṇ meaning top of the mountain. Name of aboriginal mother goddess, which is sometimes sanskritised to mean goddess Renuka, thus the name Konkane, comes from the word Konkaṇ, which means the people of Konkan. The Konkani people speak different dialects of Konkani, their native tongue, in general, in Konkani the masculine form used to address a Konkani speaker is Koṅkaṇo and the feminine form is Koṅkaṇe. The plural form is Konkane or Konkani, in Goa Konkano now refers only to Hindus, and Catholic Goans do not address themselves as Konkanos as they were banned by the Portuguese from referring to themselves this way. Saraswat Brahmins of Canara refer to the Konkanis as Āmcigelo /Āmcigelī and this literally means our tongue or people speaking our tongue. Though this is not common amongst the Goans, they refer to Konkani as Āmgelī bhās or our language. Sometimes Āmgele can be used in the Goan context to mean people from my community, a Konkani person is normally referred to as a Konkaniga in Kannada. Many of the documents mention them as the Concanees, Canarians. The then prehistoric region consisting of Modern Goa and some parts of Konkan adjoining Goa were inhabited by the Homo sapiens in Upper paleolithic and Mesolithic phase i. e. 8000–6000 BC, the rock engraving in many places along the coast has proven the existence of hunter-gathers. Nothing much is known about these earliest settlers, figures of Mother goddess and many other motifs have been recovered which do not really shed light on the ancient culture and language. Traces of Shamanic culture have found in Goa. According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and Kunbi, in his work he mentions several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language. He also elaborates on the deities worshiped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming, the Negroids were in an Neolithic stage of primitive culture, and they were food-gatherers rather. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics are found in parts of Goa, agriculture was not fully developed at this stage, and was just shaping up. The Kols and Mundaris might have been using stone and wood implements as iron implements were used by the tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat, during this period worship of mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer, was started
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Maratha
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The Maratha is a group of castes in India found predominantly in the state of Maharashtra. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Marathas are people of India, famed in history as yeoman warriors and they reside primarily in the Indian state of Maharashtra. The general body of lists are often at variance with each other. The term Maratha originally referred to the speakers of the Marathi language, in the 17th century, it emerged as a designation for soldiers serving in the armies of Deccan sultanates. A number of Maratha warriors, including Shivajis father, Shahaji, by the mid-1660s, Shivaji had established an independent Maratha kingdom. After his death, Marathas fought under his sons and defeated Aurangzeb in the war of 27 years, the Confederacy remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat by the British East India Company in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. By 19th century, the term Maratha had several interpretations in the British administrative records, in the Thane District Gazetteer of 1882, the term was used to denote elite layers within various castes, for example, Maratha-Agri within Agri caste, Maratha-Koli within Koli caste and so on. In the Pune District, the words Kunbi and Maratha had become synonymous, the Pune District Gazetteer of 1882 divided the Kunbis into two classes, Marathas and other Kunbis. The 1901 census listed three groups within the Maratha-Kunbi caste complex, Marathas proper, Maratha Kunbis and Konkani Marathas, the Kunbi class comprised agricultural workers and soldiers. The upper-class Marathas proper claimed Rajput descent with Kshatriya status, and included princes, some of the Maratha clans claiming Rajput descent include Bhonsales, Chavans, and Pawar. Gradually, the term Maratha came to denote an endogamous caste, from 1900 onwards, the Satyashodhak Samaj movement defined the Marathas as a broader social category of non-Brahmin groups. These non-Brahmins gained prominence in Indian National Congress during the Indian independence movement, in independent India, these Marathas became the dominant political force in the newly-formed state of Maharashtra. The empire also resulted in the relocation of substantial numbers of Maratha and other Marathi-speaking people outside Maharashtra. Today several small but significant communities descended from these live in the north, south. These descendant communities tend often to speak the languages, although many also speak Marathi in addition. Notable Maratha families outside Maharashtra include Scindia of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda, Holkar of Indore, Puar of Dewas & Dhar, Ghorpade of Mudhol, and Bhonsle of Nagpur. These Brahmins supported the Maratha claim to Kshatriya status, but their success in political alliance was sporadic. Marathas have dominated the politics of Maharashtra since its inception in 1960
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Bhandari caste
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The Bhandari community is a caste that inhabits the western coast of India. They form the largest caste group in the state of Goa, reportedly being over 30% of that states Hindu population, bhandaris are included in the list of Other Backward Classes in Goa. This provides them with certain rights under Indias scheme of affirmative action, such as reservation of positions in government employment and they are also classified as OBCs in Maharashtra. People of the Konkan Division Bhandari Militia Rege, Sharmila, Writing Caste, Writing Gender, Reading Dalit Womens Testimonies
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Goud Saraswat Brahmin
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Goud Saraswat Brahmins are a Hindu Brahmin community in India and a part of the larger Saraswat Brahmin community. They belong to the Pancha Gauda Brahmana groups and they are popularly referred to by the acronym GSB. They primarily speak Konkani as their mother tongue, but they tend to be fluent in language of the region they are resident in, for example, those living in Karnataka also speak Tulu and Kannada whereas those living in Maharashtra speak Marathi. Similarly, those living in Kerala speak Malayalam, the Sahyadrikhaṇḍa is a later inclusion in the original Sanskrit Skanda Puraṇa, not a part of the original Sanskrit text. The Parashurama legend serves as a symbol of the Sanskritisation that Goan culture experienced with the advent of Brahminical religion to the region and this was achieved to a certain extent through the agency of the Saraswat Brahmins who had migrated to Goa who sought to establish their hegemony. Sahyadrikhanda mentions the home of Saraswats as Tirhut. The section in which the Tirhut is mentioned has been dated to 1400 CE. A writer on the basis of the genealogy and chronology of Puranic sages has mentioned that Aryans reached Goa around 2500 BCE and this is based on a preconceived notion that Aryans and Saraswats were identical. Elsewhere in the work the author has argued that Parashurama had brought only Brahmins. Therefore, equating Aryans and Saraswats seems to be far-fetched, there is no agreement among scholars about the original home of Saraswats. The name by which these Brahmins have been designated clearly indicates that the river Saraswati had played an important role in their life, even after the disappearance of the river, the Brahmins who had once inhabited the banks of river Saraswati retained the name of the region. There are evidences in history about the migration of the population from one region to another account of foreign invasions. Recent researches in archaeology have shown that the Saraswati river dried up before 1000 BCE, for the study of the migration of the Saraswats to Konkan and Deccan, the linguistics provides corroborative evidence. The main line of Indo-Aryan linguistic expansion began much before 500 BCE, reference to Saraswat names are found in Shilaharas well as Kadamba copper plate inscriptions. The inscriptions found in Goa bear testimony to arrival of Brahmin families in the Konkan region, sahyadrikhanda and Mangesh Mahatmya allude to migrations of Saraswat brahmins, constituting sixty-six families, who settled in eight villages of Goa. There were regional variations among the Saraswats, such as those among Bardeskars, Pednekars and Sastikars, the Konkana mahatmya, from the 17th century CE, deals with the internal rivalry of the Saraswats and strained relations between these groups. The GSB ancestors identified themselves as of the Saraswat section of the northern Gaud division, in contrast to their Maharashtra and those neighbors questioned the GSB’s competence to perform all six duties reserved to brahmans. It was said that the GSB could study the vedas, but not teach them, give alms to brahmans, but not accept them, and have sacrifices performed, there is no substantial evidence to bear out these assertions
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Kumhar
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Kumhar is a caste or community in India and Pakistan. Kumhar literally means potter in Indian languages and it is also known by the names Kumbhara, Kubhara, Kumar, Kumor, Kubar and Khubar. The Kumhar community is found throughout India, in both Hindu and Muslim religions, depending upon the subgroup or region they are classified as both Other Backward Class and the Scheduled Caste. The Kumhars derive their name from the Sanskrit word Kumbhakar meaning earthen-pot maker, dravidian languages conform to the same meaning of the term Kumbhakar. The term Bhande, used to designate the Kumhar caste, also means pot, the potters of Amritsar are called Kulal or Kalal, the term used in Yajurveda to denote the potter class. A section of Hindu Kumhars honorifically call themselves Prajapati after Vedic Prajapati, the Lord, who created the universe. According to a legend prevalent among Kumhars Once Brahma divided sugarcane among his sons and each of them ate his share, the piece which he had kept near his clay lump struck root and soon grew into a sugarcane plant. A few days later, when Brahma asked his sons for sugarcane, none of them could give it to him, Brahma was pleased by the devotion of the potter to his work and awarded him the title Prajapati. There is an opinion that this is because of their creative skills of pottery. The Potters are classified into Hindu and Muslim cultural groups, among Hindus, inclusion of Artisan castes in Shudra Varna is indisputable. The potters belong to the Shudra group of artisans of Hindu society and they are further divided into two groups-clean caste and unclean caste. Among the Kumhars are groups such as the Gujrati Kumhar, Rana Kumhar, Lad and they all, bear these names after different cultural linguistic zones or caste groups but are termed as one caste cluster. The Kumhars of Chamba are expert in making pitchers, Surahis, vessels, grain jars, toys for entertainment, some of these pots bear paintings and designs also. Kumhars are found in Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Sholapur and they speak in Marathi among themselves but in Marathi as well as Hindi with outsiders. They use Devnagari script for communication, there are Kumbhars who do not belong to Maratha clan lives in Maharashtra and have occupation of making idols and pots. They are aware of the Hindu Varna hierarchy and consider themselves to be the Shudra, hathretie and Chakretie Kumhars are found in Madhya Pradesh. Hathretie Kumhars are called so because they moved the chak by hands. In Rajasthan, Kumhars have six sub-groups namely Mathera, Kumavat, Kheteri, Marwara, in the social hierarchy of Rajasthan, they are placed in the middle of the higher castes and the Harijans
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Chitpavan
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Until the 18th century, the Chitpavans were held in low esteem by the Deshastha, the older established Brahmin community of Maharashtra region. The community remains concentrated in Maharashtra but also has populations all over India, there are two common mythological theories of origin among the Chitpavans. The Parashurama myth of origin is identical to the myth that claimed by the Bene Israel of the Kolaba district, according to Bene Israeli myth, the Chitpavan and Bene Israel are descendants from a group of 14 people shipwrecked off the Konkan coast. One group converted to Hinduism as Chitpavan Brahmins, the other remained Jewish or Bene Israel, originally the myth pertained to Chitpavans only, but a certain section of society was obsessed with their lineage, hence furthered the name of Bene israel. The Konkan region has witnessed the immigration of groups, such as the Bene Israeli, Parsis. Each of these settled in parts of the region and there was little mingling between them. While the other groups generally took up trade as their primary occupation, very little is known of the Chitpavans before 1707 A. D. Sometime around this time, an individual of the Chitpavan community and he was brought there on the basis of his reputation of being an efficient administrator. He quickly gained the attention of Chhatrapati Shahu, balajis work so pleased the Chhatrapati that he was appointed the Peshwa or Prime Minister in 1713. Balaji was blessed by his spiritual preceptor Narayan Dikshit Patankar and he ran a well-organized administration, and, by the time of his death in 1720, he had laid the groundwork for the expansion of the Maratha Empire. Since this time until the fall of the Maratha Empire, the seat of the Peshwa would be held by the members of the Bhat family, the Chitpavan kin were rewarded with tax relief and grants of land. Historians cite nepotism and corruption as causes of the fall of the Maratha Empire in 1818, richard Maxwell Eaton states that this rise of the Chitpavans is a classic example of social rank rising with political fortune. After the fall of the Maratha Empire in 1818, the Chitpavans lost their dominance to the British. The British would not subsidize the Chitpavans on the scale that their caste-fellow. Pay and power was now significantly reduced, poorer Chitpavan students adapted and started learning English because of better opportunities in the British administration. Some of the prominent figures in the Hindu reform movements of the 19th and 20th centuries came from the Chitpavan Brahmin community and these included Dhondo Keshav Karve, Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Vinoba Bhave, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale. These reforms preached against the Hindu caste system establishment, yet, some of the strongest resistance to change also came from the very same community. The vanguard and the old guard clashed many times, Ranade and other reformers were forced to offer penance for breaking purity rules
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Daivadnya Brahmin
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The Daivadnya or Daivajña is an ethno-religious community and a Hindu Brahmin caste of the west coast of India, predominantly residing in the states of Goa, coastal Karnataka, and coastal Maharashtra. The state of Goa is considered to be the homeland of Daivadnyas. They are believed to have flourished and prospered in Goa and hence sometimes they are called Gomantaka Daivadnya, due to many socio-economic reasons, they emigrated to different parts of India within the last few centuries. Today, members of the community can be found in economic conditions ranging from extremely well-off to poor. They are classified by the Government of India under Other Backward Class, one of the few Brahmin castes to enjoy this benefit. They are commonly known as Śeṭ in the coastal region, the word Śeṭ is a corrupt form of the word Śreṣṭha or Śreṣṭhin Over time the word was transformed from Śreṣṭha to Śeṭ. Most of the generation from the Daivadnya community in Goa call themselves Śeṭī Bāmaṇ. The Portuguese referred these people as Xete or sometimes Chatim, which is now Cyātī in the Konkani language, Śeṭs are often called Daivadnya Suvarṇakara in Sanskrit and Sonar in Konkani. Their name has many spellings, including Daivajna, Daivajnya, Daivagna, Daiwadnya. It is pronounced in Karnataka and in Goa and Maharashtra and it is possible that Vadirajatirtha bestowed the appellation Daivadnya when many of the community adopted the Madhwa religion under leadership of Vadiraja. An alternate proposition relates to the Vedas Taittariya Samhita and Shatapatha Brahmana in which the sage Kashyapa is recorded as an eminent artisan and his book Kashyapa Samhita, along with Bhrigu Samhita and Maya Samhita recognises Daivadnya as an assistant engineer. Their work was like that of a draughtsman or evaluator and it is said that astrology began from this class of Vedic Daivadnyas, so the term Daivadnya became equivalent to astrologer. They commonly call themselves Śeṭ to distinguish themselves from groups who were of mixed origin. Old Portuguese documents mention them as Arie Brahmavranda Daivadnea or Aria Daivadnea Orgon Somudai, transliterated as Ārya Daivajña Varga Samudāya and they are sometimes mentioned as Daivdneagotris. Being inhabitants of Konkan they were called as Konkanastha Daivadnya. The Seṭs are descendants of the Bhojakas and have inherited the art of crafting an idol from the Bhojakas, Bhojakas are also called Gaṇakas, which is synonymous with Daivadnya. The Daivadnyas came in 2500 BC to the south to assist Brahmins who came with parashurama to perform yajna and are believed to have settled in various Agrahāras with Brahmins, elsewhere in the same work the author has argued that Parashurama had brought only Saraswat Brahmins. Some scholars argue that this tribe migrated to Goa in the fourth to sixth century AD, some say 700 BC, and some estimate 2500 BC, this is merely a speculation and not the reality
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Kunbi
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Kunbi is a generic term applied to castes of traditionally non-elite tillers in Western India. These include the Dhonoje, Ghatole, Hindre, Jadav, Jhare, Khaire, Lewa, Lonare, the communities are largely found in the state of Maharashtra but also exist in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala and Goa. Kunbis are included among the Other Backward Classes in Maharashtra, Sant Tukaram, one of the most revered Varkari saints of the Bhakti tradition of Maharashtra belonged to this community. On the other hand Kumar, Munshi, Kincaid and Parasanisa, most of the Mawalas serving in the armies of the Maratha Empire under Shivaji came from the community. The Shinde and Gaekwad dynasties of the Maratha Empire are originally of Kunbi origin, the boundary between the Marathas and the Kunbi became obscure in the early 20th century due to the effects of colonisation, and the two groups came to form one block, the Maratha-Kunbi. Tensions along caste lines between the Kunbi and the Dalit communities were seen in the Khairlanji killings, and the media have reported instances of violence against Dalits. In April 2005 the Supreme Court of India ruled that the Marathas are not a sub-caste of Kunbis, according to the Anthropological Survey of India, the term Kunbi is derived from kun and bi meaning people and seeds, respectively. Fused together, the two terms mean those who germinate more seeds from one seed, another etymology states that Kunbi is believed to have come from the Marathi word kunbawa, or Sanskrit kur, meaning agricultural tillage. Yet another etymology states that Kunbi derives from kutumba, or from the Dravidian kul, thus anyone who took up the occupation of a cultivator could be brought under the generic term Kunbi. G. S. Ghurye has posited that while the term may signify the occupation of the group and it is not improbable that the name may be of tribal origin. There are a total of 305 communities in Maharashtra of which 161 are rural,37 are urban,97 are suburban, the Kunbi, along with the Marathas and Mali, compose the main peasant communities in the state. In 1981 the population of Kunbis in the Dangs district was recorded at 35,214, older gazetteers of various relevant districts record two to three other agricultural castes in addition to the Kunbis. These include the Mali at 53,000 while the Kunbi are put at 397,000 in the Pune district, the Sholapur gazetteer groups the Kunbi and the Marathas together for a total of 180,000 in 1881. Marathas and Kunbis are recorded under the heading of Kunbi in the census of 1881. The group is associated with the Kurmi caste, though scholars differ as to whether the terms are synonymous. In 2006, the Indian government announced that Kurmi was considered synonymous with the Kunbi, very little information was recorded prior to the 19th century regarding the significantly large group of Maharashtrian agricultural castes, known as Maratha-Kunbis. Both individual terms, Kunbi and Maratha are equally complex, in the fourteenth century, the term Maratha referred to all speakers of the Marathi language. An example of this is the record of the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta whose use of the term included multiple castes who spoke Marathi, several years later, as the Bahamani kings started employing the local population in their military, the term Maratha acquired a martial connotation
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Warli
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The Warlis or Varlis are an indigenous tribe or Adivasis, living in mountainous as well as coastal areas of Maharashtra-Gujarat border and surrounding areas. They have their own beliefs, life, customs and traditions. The Warlis speak an unwritten Varli language which belong to the zone of the Indo-Aryan languages. The Warli speak in Varli language, classified as Konkani, with degree of influence from Gujarati. Warli language is classified under Marathi by Grierson as well as A. M, ghatage In the book The Painted World of the Warlis Yashodhara Dalmia claimed that the Warlis carry on a tradition stretching back to 2500 or 3000 BCE. Their mural paintings are similar to those done between 500 and 10,000 BCE in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, in Madhya Pradesh, everything about Warli is earthy and soothing. Warli paintings succeed in adding elegance to a hut or a five star hotel lobby with the same charm. No wonder, designers were so enthralled by art form. Designers have used traditional patterns, rich and folksy colours to recreate the magic of Warli paintings in her dresses. Their extremely rudimentary wall paintings use a basic graphic vocabulary, a circle, a triangle. The circle and triangle come from their observation of nature, the representing the sun and the moon. Only the square seems to obey a different logic and seems to be a human invention, so the central motive in each ritual painting is the square, known as the chauk or chaukat, mostly of two types, Devchauk and Lagnachauk. Inside a Devchauk, we find Palaghata, the mother goddess, significantly, male gods are unusual among the Warli and are frequently related to spirits which have taken human shape. The central motive in these paintings is surrounded by scenes portraying hunting, fishing and farming, festivals and dances, trees. Human and animal bodies are represented by two triangles joined at the tip, the upper triangle depicts the trunk and the triangle the pelvis. Their precarious equilibrium symbolizes the balance of the universe, and of the couple, the pared down pictorial language is matched by a rudimentary technique. The ritual paintings are usually done inside the huts, the walls are made of a mixture of branches, earth and cow dung, making a Red Ochre background for the wall paintings. The Warli use only white for their paintings and their white pigment is a mixture of rice paste and water with gum as a binding
Konkan travel guide from Wikivoyage
