1.
Jeju-do
–
Jeju Island, and before the year 2000 as Cheju-do, is the largest island off the coast of the Korean Peninsula, and the main island of Jeju Province of South Korea. The island lies in the Korea Strait, southwest of South Jeolla Province, the island contains the natural World Heritage Site Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes. Jejudo has a climate, even in winter, the temperature rarely falls below 0 °C. Before the Japanese annexation in 1910, the island was known as Quelpart to Europeans. According to Korean records, a fleet of seventy pirate craft attacked Quelpart Island, when Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910, Jeju then became known as Saishū, which is the Japanese reading of the hanja for Jeju. Before 2000, when the Seoul government established the official Revised Romanization of Korean, almost all written references to the island before that use that spelling. From April 3,1948 to May 1949, the South Korean government conducted a brutal anticommunist campaign to suppress an uprising on the island. The main cause for the rebellion was the election scheduled for May 10,1948, the elections were only planned for the south of the country, the half of the peninsula under UNTCOK control. Though atrocities were committed by both sides, the used by the South Korean government to suppress the rebels were especially cruel. On one occasion, American soldiers discovered the bodies of men, women. On another, American soldiers caught police in the act of carrying out an execution of seventy-six villagers. In the end, between 14,000 and 30,000 people died as a result of the rebellion, some 40,000 others fled to Japan to escape the fighting. In the decades after the uprising, memory of the event was suppressed by the government through strict punishment. Only in 2006, more than 60 years after the rebellion, although the government simultaneously promised reparations, as of 2010, nothing had been done to this end. In 2008, bodies of victims of a massacre were discovered in a grave near Jeju International Airport. Jejudo is an island, dominated by Hallasan, a volcano 1,950 metres high. The island measures approximately 73 kilometres across, east to west, the eruptions took place in the Cenozoic era. Step 1, About 1.2 million years ago, a chamber formed under the sea floor
Jeju-do
–
Image of Jejudo
Jeju-do
–
Baengnokdam in
Hallasan
Jeju-do
–
Waves crashing on Jeju seashore
2.
South Korea
–
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
South Korea
–
Flag
South Korea
–
Balhae and
Silla, 830 CE
South Korea
–
Jikji, the first known book printed with movable metal type in 1377. Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris
3.
Confucianism
–
Confucianism, also known as Ruism, is described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or simply a way of life. In the Han dynasty, Confucian approaches edged out the proto-Taoist Huang-Lao, the disintegration of the Han political order in the second century CE opened the way for the doctrines of Buddhism and Neo-Taoism, which offered spiritual explanations lacking in Confucianism. A Confucian revival began during the Tang dynasty of 618-907, in the late Tang, Confucianism developed in response to Buddhism and Taoism and was reformulated as Neo-Confucianism. This reinvigorated form was adopted as the basis of the imperial exams, the abolition of the examination system in 1905 marked the end of official Confucianism. The New Culture intellectuals of the twentieth century blamed Confucianism for Chinas weaknesses. In the late twentieth century Confucian work ethic has been credited with the rise of the East Asian economy, with particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony, rather than on an otherworldly source of spiritual values, the core of Confucianism is humanistic. While Tiān has some characteristics that overlap the category of deity, it is primarily an impersonal absolute principle, Confucianism focuses on the practical order that is given by a this-worldly awareness of the Tiān. Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include rén, yì, and lǐ, and zhì. Rén is the essence of the human being which manifests as compassion and it is the virtue-form of Heaven. Yì is the upholding of righteousness and the disposition to do good. Lǐ is a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life according to the law of Heaven. Zhì is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold the cardinal moral values of rén and yì. In the 20th century Confucianisms influence diminished greatly, in the last decades there have been talks of a Confucian Revival in the academic and the scholarly community and there has been a grassroots proliferation of various types of Confucian churches. In late 2015 many Confucian personalities formally established a national Holy Confucian Church in China to unify the many Confucian congregations, strictly speaking, there is no term in Chinese which directly corresponds to Confucianism. In the Chinese language, the character rú 儒 meaning scholar or learned man is used both in the past and the present to refer to things related to Confucianism. The character rú in ancient China has diverse meanings, Some examples include, weak, soft, to tame, to comfort and to educate or to refine. Rújiā contains the character jiā, which means family. Rújiào and Kǒngjiào contain the Chinese character jiào, the teaching or transmission, used in such terms as education
Confucianism
–
Temple of Confucius of
Jiangyin,
Wuxi,
Jiangsu. This is a wénmiào (文庙), that is to say a temple where
Confucius is worshipped as Wéndì (文帝), "God of Culture".
Confucianism
–
Gates of the wenmiao of
Datong,
Shanxi.
Confucianism
–
Confucius, circa 1770.
Confucianism
–
Confucius and disciples, statues of the
Ashikaga Gakko, a Confucian school and oldest academy of
Japan.
4.
Spring and Autumn period
–
The Spring and Autumn period was a period in Chinese history from approximately 771 to 476 BC which corresponds roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. The periods name derives from the Spring and Autumn Annals, a chronicle of the state of Lu between 722 and 479 BC, which associates with Confucius. The gradual Partition of Jin, one of the most powerful states, marked the end of the Spring and Autumn period, in 771 BC, the Quanrong invasion destroyed the Western Zhou and its capital Haojing, forcing the Zhou king to flee to the eastern capital Luoyi. The event ushered in the Eastern Zhou dynasty, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn, during the Spring and Autumn period, Chinas feudal system of fengjian became largely irrelevant. The Zhou court, having lost its homeland in the Guanzhong region, held nominal power, during the early part of the Zhou dynasty period, royal relatives and generals had been given control over fiefdoms in an effort to maintain Zhou authority over vast territory. As the power of the Zhou kings waned, these became increasingly independent states. The most important states came together in regular conferences where they decided important matters, during these conferences one vassal ruler was sometimes declared hegemon. As the era continued, larger and more powerful states annexed or claimed suzerainty over smaller ones, by the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared and just a few large and powerful principalities dominated China. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, in Chengzhou, Prince Yijiu was crowned by his supporters as King Ping. The Zhou court would never regain its authority, instead. Though the king de jure retained the Mandate of Heaven, the title held little actual power, a total of 148 states are mentioned in the chronicles for this period,128 of which were absorbed by the four largest states by the end of the period. The kings prestige legitimized the military leaders of the states, over the next two centuries, the four most powerful states—Qin, Jin, Qi and Chu—struggled for power. These multi-city states often used the pretext of aid and protection to intervene, during this rapid expansion, interstate relations alternated between low-level warfare and complex diplomacy. Duke Yin of Lu ascended the throne in 722 BC, from this year on the state of Lu kept an official chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals, which along with its commentaries is the standard source for the Spring and Autumn period. Corresponding chronicles are known to have existed in states as well. In 717 BC, Duke Zhuang of Zheng went to the capital for an audience with King Huan, during the encounter the duke felt he was not treated with the respect and etiquette which would have been appropriate, given that Zheng was now the chief protector of the capital. In 715 BC Zheng also became involved in a dispute with Lu regarding the Fields of Xu. The fields had been put in the care of Lu by the king for the purpose of producing royal sacrifices for the sacred Mount Tai
Spring and Autumn period
–
History of China
Spring and Autumn period
–
Urbanization during the Spring and Autumn period.
Spring and Autumn period
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Chinese pu vessel with interlaced
dragon design, Spring and Autumn period.
Spring and Autumn period
–
A large
bronze tripod vessel from the Spring and Autumn period, now located at the
Henan Museum
5.
Confucius
–
Confucius was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and his followers competed successfully with many other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but only many years after his death. Confuciuss principles had a basis in common Chinese tradition and belief and he championed strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration, and respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. He also recommended family as a basis for ideal government and he espoused the well-known principle Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself, the Golden Rule. Confucius is also a deity in Daoism. According to tradition, three generations before Confucius time, his ancestors had migrated from the Song state to the Lu state, Confucius was a descendant of the Shang dynasty Kings through the Dukes of Song. Confucius family and personal name respectively was Kong Qiu, in Chinese, he is most often known as Kongzi. He is also known by the honorific Kong Fuzi, in the Wade–Giles system of romanization, the honorific name is rendered as Kung Fu-tzu. The Latinized name Confucius is derived from Kong Fuzi, and was first coined by 16th-century Jesuit missionaries to China, within the Analects, he is often referred to simply as the Master. In 1 AD, Confucius was given his first posthumous name, in 1530, he was declared the Extremely Sage Departed Teacher. He is also known separately as the Great Sage, First Teacher and it is generally thought that Confucius was born on September 28,551 BC. His birthplace was in Zou, Lu state and his father Kong He, also known as Shuliang He, was an officer in the Lu military. Kong died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai in poverty and his mother would later die at less than 40 years of age. At age 19 he married his wife Qiguan, and a year later the couple had their first child, Qiguan and Confucius would later have two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died early in her life as a child. Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts, Confucius was born into the class of shi, between the aristocracy and the common people. When his mother died, Confucius is said to have mourned for three years, as was the tradition, the Lu state was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were three families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy
Confucius
–
A portrait of Confucius by the
Tang dynasty artist
Wu Daozi (680–740)
Confucius
–
Lu can be seen in China's northeast.
Confucius
–
The Dacheng Hall, the main hall of the
Temple of Confucius in
Qufu
Confucius
–
The
Analects of Confucius
6.
Warring states period
–
The Warring States Period derives its name from the Record of the Warring States, a work compiled early in the Han dynasty. The political geography of the era was dominated by the Seven Warring States, namely, Qin, The State of Qin was in the far west, with its core in the Wei River Valley and Guanzhong. This geographical position offered protection from the states of the Central Plains, the Three Jins, Northeast of Qin, on the Shanxi plateau, were the three successor states of Jin. These were, Han, south, along the Yellow River, Zhao, the northernmost of the three. Qi, located in the east of China, centred on the Shandong Peninsula, described as east of Mount Tai, Chu, located in the south of China, with its core territory around the valleys of the Han River and, later, the Yangtze River. Yan, located in the northeast, centred on modern-day Beijing, late in the period Yan pushed northeast and began to occupy the Liaodong Peninsula Besides these seven major states, some minor states also survived into the period. Yue, On the southeast coast near Shanghai was the State of Yue, Sichuan, In the far southwest were the States of Ba and Shu. These were non-Zhou states that were conquered by Qin late in the period, in the Central Plains comprising much of modern-day Henan Province, many smaller city states survived as satellites of the larger states, though they were eventually to be absorbed as well. Zhongshan, Between the states of Zhao and Yan was the state of Zhongshan, the Spring and Autumn period was initiated by the eastward flight of the Zhou court. There is no one single incident or starting point for the Warring States era, some proposed starting points are as follows,481 BC, Proposed by Song-era historian Lü Zuqian, since it is the end of the Spring and Autumn Annals. 476–475 BC, The author, Sima Qian, of Records of the Grand Historian who chose the year of King Yuan of Zhou. 403 BC, The year when Han, Zhao and Wei were officially recognised as states by the Zhou court, author Sima Guang of Zizhi Tongjian tells us that the symbol of eroded Zhou authority should be taken as the start of the Warring States era. The Spring and Autumn period led to a few states gaining power at the expense of many others, during the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence. Other major states also existed, such as Wu and Yue in the southeast, the last decades of the Spring and Autumn era were marked by increased stability, as the result of peace negotiations between Jin and Chu which established their respective spheres of influence. This situation ended with the partition of Jin, whereby the state was divided between the houses of Han, Zhao and Wei, and thus enabled the creation of the seven major warring states. This allowed other clans to gain fiefs and military authority, and decades of struggle led to the establishment of four major families. The Battle of Jinyang saw the allied Han, Zhao and Wei destroy the Zhi family, with this, they became the de facto rulers of most of Jins territory, though this situation would not be officially recognised until half a century later. The Jin division created a vacuum that enabled during the first 50 years expansion of Chu and Yue northward
Warring states period
–
History of China
Warring states period
–
Warring States about 350 BC
Warring states period
–
Tomb Guardian held at
Birmingham Museum of Art
Warring states period
–
A
jade -carved
dragon garment ornament from the Warring States period
7.
Mencius
–
Mencius or Mengzi was a Chinese philosopher who is the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself. He was an itinerant Chinese philosopher and sage, and one of the interpreters of Confucianism. Supposedly, he was a pupil of Confucius grandson, Zisi, like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled throughout China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform. During the Warring States period, Mencius served as an official and he expressed his filial devotion when he took three years leave of absence from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mothers death. Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world, Mencius is buried in the Mencius Cemetery, which is located 12 km to the northeast of Zouchengs central urban area. A stele carried by a giant stone tortoise and crowned with dragons stands in front of his grave, Menciuss mother is often held up as an exemplary female figure in Chinese culture. As an expression, the idiom refers to the importance of finding the environment for raising children. Menciuss father died when he was very young and his mother Zhǎng raised her son alone. At first they lived by a cemetery, where the mother found her son imitating the paid mourners in funeral processions, therefore, the mother decided to move. The next house was near a market in the town, there the boy began to imitate the cries of merchants. So the mother moved to a next to a school. Inspired by the scholars and students, Mencius began to study and his mother decided to remain, and Mencius became a scholar. Another story further illustrates the emphasis that Menciuss mother placed on her sons education, as the story goes, once when Mencius was young, he was truant from school. His mother responded to his apparent disregard for his education by taking up a pair of scissors and this was intended to illustrate that one cannot stop a task midway, and her example inspired Mencius to diligence in his studies. There is another legend about his mother and his wife, involving a time when his wife was at home alone and was discovered by Mencius not to be sitting properly, Mencius thought his wife had violated a rite, and demanded a divorce. She is one of 125 women of which biographies have been included in the Lienü zhuan, Duke Huan of Lus son through Qingfu was the ancestor of Mencius. He was descended from Duke Yang of the State of Lu 魯煬公 Duke Yang was the son of Bo Qin, the genealogy is found in the Mencius family tree. Mencius descendants lived in Zoucheng in the Mencius Family Mansion, where the Mencius Temple was also built, Meng Haoran and Meng Jiao were descendants of Mencius who lived during the Tang dynasty
Mencius
–
Mencius, from Myths and Legends of China, 1922 by E. T. C. Werner
Mencius
–
An image of Mencius in the sanctuary of the Mencius Temple, Zoucheng
Mencius
–
A
Yuan Dynasty turtle with a stele honoring Mencius
8.
Xun Kuang
–
Xun Kuang, also widely known as Xun Zi, was a Chinese Confucian philosopher who lived during the Warring States period and contributed to the Hundred Schools of Thought. A book known as the Xunzi is traditionally attributed to him, Xunzis doctrines were influential in forming the official state doctrines of the Han dynasty, but his influence waned during the Tang dynasty relative to that of Mencius. Xunzi witnessed the chaos surrounding the fall of the Zhou dynasty and rise of the Qin state – which upheld legalistic doctrines focusing on control, by means of law. Unlike other Confucians, Xunzi allowed that penalties could play a legitimate, educated in the state of Qi, Xunzi taught proponents of legalism, including the Qin Chancellor Li Si and Han Fei, and is sometimes considered a precursor to Han Fei or a Legalist himself. In reality, there is little evident influence of Xunzi on Han Fei, like Shang Yang, Xunzi believed that humanitys inborn tendencies were evil and that ethical norms had been invented to rectify people. Xunzis variety of Confucianism therefore has a darker, more flavour than the optimistic Confucianism of Mencius. But like most Confucians, he believed people could be refined through education and ritual. Xunzi mentioned Laozi as a figure for the first time in early Chinese history, herbert Giles and John Knoblock both consider the naming taboo theory more likely. The early years of Xunzis life are enshrouded in mystery, nothing is known of his lineage. Sima Qian records that he was born in Zhao, and Anze County has erected a memorial hall at his supposed birthplace. He was first known at the age of fifty, around 264 BC, Xunzi was well respected in Qi, the King Xiang of Qi honoured him as a teacher and a libationer. It was around this time that Xunzi visited the state of Qin and praised its governance, and debated military affairs with Lord Linwu in the court of King Xiaocheng of Zhao. Later, Xunzi was slandered in the Qi court, and he retreated south to the state of Chu, where Lord Chunshen, in 238 BC, Lord Chunshen was assassinated by a court rival and Xunzi subsequently lost his position. He remained in Lanling, a region in what is todays southern Shandong province, the year of his death is unknown. Ethical Argumentation, A Study in Hsün Tzus Moral Epistemology, in Knechtges, David R. Chang, Taiping. Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature, A Reference Guide, Part Three, Early Chinese Texts, A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley, Society for the Study of Early China, Institute of East Asian Studies, the Concept of Man in Early China. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan, the World of Thought in Ancient China
Xun Kuang
–
Confucianism
9.
Western Han
–
The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period. Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered an age in Chinese history. To this day, Chinas majority ethnic group refers to itself as the Han people and it was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods, the Western Han or Former Han and the Eastern Han or Later Han, the emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States, from the reign of Emperor Wu onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD, the Han dynasty was an age of economic prosperity and saw a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty. The coinage issued by the government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty. The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations, the Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu of Han launched several campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries, the territories north of Hans borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Imperial authority was seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, following Liu Bangs victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. Chinas first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty, the Qin unified the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion. Although Xiang Yu proved to be a commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia. Liu Bang assumed the title emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu, Changan was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han
Western Han
–
History of China
Western Han
–
A map of the Western Han Dynasty in 2 AD: 1) the territory shaded in dark blue represents the principalities and centrally-administered
commanderies of the Han Empire; 2) the light blue area shows the extent of the
Tarim Basin protectorate of the
Western Regions.
Western Han
–
A
silk banner from
Mawangdui,
Changsha,
Hunan province. It was draped over the coffin of
Lady Dai (d. 168 BC), wife of the Marquess Li Cang (利蒼) (d. 186 BC), chancellor for the Kingdom of Changsha.
Western Han
–
Han dynasty in 1 AD.
10.
Dong Zhongshu
–
Dong Zhongshu was a Han Dynasty Chinese scholar. He is traditionally associated with the promotion of Confucianism as the ideology of the Chinese imperial state. Dong was born in modern Hengshui, Hebei in 179 BC and his birthplace is associated with Wencheng Township, so in the Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals he is once mentioned as Lord Dong of Wencheng. He entered the service during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han. His relationship with the emperor was uneasy though, Dong Zhongshus thought integrated Yin Yang cosmology into a Confucian ethical framework. There are two works that are attributed to Dong Zhongshu, one of which is the Ju Xianliang Duice in three chapters, preserved under the Book of Han. Another of his works that has survived to the present is the Luxuriant Dew of the Spring. The Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals bears many marks of multiple authorship, whether the work was written by Dong himself has been called into question by several scholars including Zhu Xi, Cheng Yanzuo, Dai Junren, Keimatsu Mitsuo, and Tanaka Masami. Scholars now reject as later additions all the passages that discuss five elements theory and it seems safest to regard it as a collection of unrelated or loosely related chapters and shorter works, which could be subdivided into five categories. Most are more or less connected to the Gongyang Commentary and its school and it has been questioned, however, how correctly Kang Youwei understood Dong Zhongshus thought. Encyclopedia of China, 1st ed. Jin, Chunfeng, Dong Zhongshu, encyclopedia of China, 1st ed. Fei, Zhengang, Dong Zhongshu. Encyclopedia of China, 1st ed. Wm. Theodore de Bary and Irene Bloom Sources of Chinese Tradition, Columbia University Press, the Scholars Frustration Reconsidered, Melancholia or Credo. Journal of the American Oriental Society 110, 434-59, arbuckle, G. Inevitable treason, Dong Zhongshus theory of historical cycles and the devalidation of the Han mandate, Journal of the American Oriental Society 115. From Chronicle to Canon, The Hermeneutics of the Spring and Autumn Annals according to Tung Chung-shu, Cambridge University Press
Dong Zhongshu
–
Temple in honor of Dong Zhongshu in
Yangzhou
11.
Tian
–
Tiān is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion. During the Shang Dynasty, the Chinese referred to their god as Shàngdì or Dì. During the following Zhou Dynasty, Tiān became synonymous with this figure, Heaven worship was, before the 20th century, an orthodox state religion of China. In Taoism and Confucianism, Tiān is often translated as Heaven and is mentioned in relationship to its aspect of Dì. These two aspects of Daoist cosmology are representative of the nature of Taoism. They are thought to maintain the two poles of the Three Realms of reality, with the middle realm occupied by Humanity, the ancient oracle and bronze ideograms for dà 大 depict a stick figure person with arms stretched out denoting great, large. The oracle and bronze characters for tiān 天 emphasize the cranium of this great, either with a square or round head, two variant Chinese characters for tiān 天 heaven are 兲 and the Daoist coinage 靝. The sinologist Herrlee Creel, who wrote a study on The Origin of the Deity Tien. For three thousand years it has believed that from time immemorial all Chinese revered Tien 天, Heaven, as the highest deity. But the new materials that have available in the present century. It appears rather that Tien is not named at all in the Shang inscriptions, Tien appears only with the Chou, and was apparently a Chou deity. After the conquest the Chou considered Tien to be identical with the Shang deity Ti, first, Creel analyzes all the tian and di occurrences meaning god, gods in Western Zhou era Chinese classic texts and bronze inscriptions. His corpus of authenticated Western Zhou bronzes mention tian 91 times, second, Creel contrasts the disparity between 175 occurrences of di or shangdi on Shang era oracle inscriptions with at least 26 occurrences of tian. Upon examining these 26 oracle scripts that scholars have identified as tian 天 heaven, god, according to tradition, Tang of Shang assembled his subjects to overthrow King Jie of Xia, the infamous last ruler of the Xia Dynasty, but they were reluctant to attack. The king said, Come, ye multitudes of the people, listen all to my words. It is not I, the child, who dare to undertake what may seem to be a rebellious enterprise. Now, ye multitudes, you are saying, Our prince does not compassionate us, I have indeed heard these words of you all, but the sovereign of Hsiâ is an offender, and, as I fear God, I dare not but punish him. Now you are saying, What are the crimes of Hsiâ to us, the king of Hsiâ does nothing but exhaust the strength of his people, and exercise oppression in the cities of Hsiâ
Tian
–
Chinese
Bronze script character for tiān.
12.
Ren (Confucianism)
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Ren is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being altruistic. Ren is exemplified by a normal adults protective feelings for children and it is considered the outward expression of Confucian ideals. Yan Hui, one of the Four Sages, once asked his master to describe the rules of ren, Confucius replied, One should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper. Confucius also defined ren in the way, wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others, wishing to be enlarged himself. Confucius also said, Ren is not far off, he who seeks it has found it. Ren is close to man and never leaves him, the single logogram for ren is a composite of two distinct common hanzi, 人 and 二, with 人 assuming its common form inside another character, to which various interpretations have been assigned. One often hears that ren means how two people should treat one another, while such folk etymologies are common in discussions of Chinese characters, they often are as misleading as they are entertaining. In the case of ren - usually translated as benevolence or humaneness - Humaneness is Human-ness, for Confucius the interaction of completely dependent infant and caring parent is the most emotionally charged human interaction, “To love a thing means wanting it to live…”. The Way of humaneness is human interaction and through shared experience knowing one’s family, the Master said it is loving people. The Master said it is knowing people”, in other words, human love and interaction is the source of humaneness, the source of the human self. Another common interpretation of the elements is Man or a man connecting Heaven. 人+二=仁 man on two on right, the relationship between two human beings, means humanity, benevolence, seed. Originally the character was just written as丨二 representing yin yang, the line is yang. The character 人 and 仁 have the same pronunciation, when a human is unable to be humane, he or she does not qualify to be a human but an animal. Pre-imperial epigraphic sources testify to alternative writings of the character, 忎, 身 with 心 below. The principle of ren is related to the concepts of li, li is often translated as ritual while yi is often translated as righteousness. These three interrelated terms deal with agency as Confucians conceive it, li is the action which has been deemed appropriate by society, yi is the action that is indeed correct, while ren deals with the relationship between the agent and object of the action. Often li and yi are the same, however, that is not always the case, li is the outward expression of Confucian ideals, while ren is both the inward and outward expressions of those same ideals
Ren (Confucianism)
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Confucianism
13.
Li (Confucianism)
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Li is a classical Chinese word which is commonly used in Chinese philosophy, particularly within Confucianism. Li does not encompass a definitive object but rather a somewhat abstract idea and, the rites of li are not rites in the Western conception of religious custom. Rather, li embodies the entire spectrum of interaction with humans, nature, Confucius includes in his discussions of li such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. Among the earliest historical discussions on li stands the 25th year of Zhao Gong in the Zuo Zhuan, Li consists of the norms of proper social behavior as taught to others by fathers, village elders and government officials. The teachings of li promoted ideals such as filial piety, brotherliness, righteousness, good faith, the influence of li guided public expectations, such as the loyalty to superiors and respect for elders in the community. But it should maintain a healthy practice of selflessness, both in the actions themselves and in the proper example which is set for ones brothers. Approaches in the community, as well as personal approaches together demonstrate how li pervades in all things, the broad and the detailed, the good and the bad, the form and this is the complete realization of li. The rituals and practices of li are dynamic in nature, Li practices have been revised and evaluated throughout time to reflect the emerging views and beliefs found in society. Although these practices may change, which happens very slowly over time, the fundamental ideals remain at the core of li, Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of li. Some Confucians proposed the perfectibility of human beings with learning Li as an important part of that process, overall, Confucians believed governments should place more emphasis on li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. Confucius stressed the importance of the rites as fundamental to proper governmental leadership, in his sayings, Confucius regarded feudal lords in China that adopted the Chinese rites as being just rulers of the Central States. Contrarily, feudal lords that did not adopt these rites were considered uncivilized, Li should be practiced by all members of the society. Li also involves the superior treating the inferior with propriety and respect, as Confucius said a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety, ministers should serve their prince with loyalty. Li is one term by which the historiographers could name all the principles of conservatism they advanced in the speeches of their characters, Li Zhou ritual system 禮樂制度 禮教
Li (Confucianism)
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Confucianism
14.
Filial piety
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In Confucian philosophy, filial piety is a virtue of respect for ones parents, elders, and ancestors. The Confucian classic Xiao Jing or Classic of Xiào, thought to be written around the Qin-Han period, has historically been the source on the Confucian tenet of xiào / filial piety. The book, a conversation between Confucius and his student Zeng Shen, is about how to set up a good society using the principle of xiào, Filial piety is central to Confucian role ethics. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, one of the most famous collections of such stories is The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars. These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past, while China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them, historian Hugh D. R. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers, Filial piety is illustrated by the Chinese character xiao. The character is a combination of the character lao above the character zi, that is, in Korean Confucianism, the character 孝 is pronounced hyo. In Vietnamese, the character 孝 is written in Quoc Ngu as hiếu, in Japanese, the term is generally used in spoken and written language as 親孝行, oyakoukou, adding characters for parent and conduct to make the word more specific. For Confucius, filial piety was not merely blind loyalty to ones parents, more important than the norms of xiào were the norms of rén and yì. For Confucius and Mencius, xiào was a display of rén which was applied in ones dealings with all elders. However, in practice, xiào was usually reserved for ones own parents and grandparents, Filial piety was emphasized in Confucianism because devotion to ones parents was often associated with ones devotion to the state. Early Buddhism did not have a tradition of filial piety. Buddhism in India involved many men leaving or abandoning their families, parents, wives, the true Buddhist had to reject all family ties, just as they had to reject social and class ties if they were to pursue Nirvana. Family was viewed as just another encumbrance of mortal life that had to be dealt with, sorrow and grief were said to be born of those who are dear. In India, Buddhism also advocated celibacy among its monks which was unacceptable in the Confucian world view, when Buddhism was introduced to China, it was redefined to support filial piety. The Mouzi Lihuolun, a work defending Buddhism to the Chinese, presented arguments for Buddhist monks seemingly poor treatment of their parents, the Guiyangtu and Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra are also Buddhist works portraying lay householder duties and obligations in contrast with pure monastic renunciation. The Mouzi Lihuolun compares the Buddhist monk to a son who saves his father from drowning. A long time ago, the Chi people crossed a river in a boat
Filial piety
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Scene from the
Song Dynasty Illustrations of the
Classic of Filial Piety (detail), depicting a son kneeling before his parents.
Filial piety
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Illustrations of the Ladies' Classic of Filial Piety (detail),
Song Dynasty, depicting the section "Serving One's Parents-in-Law".
15.
Loyalty
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Loyalty is devotion and faithfulness to a cause, country, group, or person. Philosophers disagree on what can be an object of loyalty as some argue that loyalty is strictly interpersonal, as a philosophical concept, loyalty was largely untreated by philosophers until the work of Josiah Royce, the grand exception in Kleinigs words. This he attributed to odious associations that the subject had with nationalism, including Nazism, and with the metaphysics of idealism, however, he argued that such associations were faulty and that the notion of loyalty is an essential ingredient in any civilized and humane system of morals. Kleinig observes that from the 1980s onwards, the subject gained attention, with philosophers variously relating it to professional ethics, whistleblowing, friendship, Classical tragedy is often based on a conflict arising from dual loyalty. In the Gospel of Matthew 6,24, Jesus states, either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon and this relates to the authority of a master over his servants, who, according to Biblical law, owe undivided loyalty to their master. It traces the word loyalty to the 15th century, noting that then it referred to fidelity in service, in love. One who is loyal, in the sense of fealty, is one who is lawful. Hence the 1911 Britannica derived its primary meaning of loyalty to a monarch, often cited as one of the many virtues of Confucianism, meaning to do the best you can do for others. Loyalty is the most important and frequently emphasized virtue in Bushido and it combines other six virtues, such as Righteousness, Courage, Benevolence, Respect, Sincerity, Honour, and formed the Bushido code, It is somehow implanted in their chromosomal makeup to be loyal. Josiah Royce presented a different definition of the concept in his 1908 book The Philosophy of Loyalty, according to Royce, loyalty is a virtue, indeed a primary virtue, the heart of all the virtues, the central duty amongst all the duties. Royce presents loyalty, which he defines at length, as the moral principle from which all other principles can be derived. The short definition that he gives of the idea is that loyalty is the willing and practical, Loyalty is thoroughgoing in that it is not merely a casual interest but a wholehearted commitment to a cause. Royces view of loyalty was challenged by Ladd in the article on Loyalty in the first edition of the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Ralls observes that Ladds article is the Macmillan Encyclopaedias only article on a virtue, Ladd asserts that, contrary to Royce, causes to which one is loyal are interpersonal, not impersonal or suprapersonal. He states that Royces view has the defect of postulating duties over and above our individual duties to men. The individual is submerged and lost in this superperson for its tends to dissolve our specific duties to others into superhuman good. Even if one were identifying ones self-will with God, to be worthy of such loyalty God would have to be the summum bonum, the perfect manifestation of good
Loyalty
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Foxie, guarding the body of her master
Charles Gough, in Attachment by
Edwin Landseer, 1829
16.
Neo-Confucianism
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Although the Neo-Confucianists were critical of Taoism and Buddhism, the two did have an influence on the philosophy, and the Neo-Confucianists borrowed terms and concepts from both. Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Tang Dynasty, the Confucianist scholars Han Yu, the Song Dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi is seen as the first true pioneer of Neo-Confucianism, using Daoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy. Neo-Confucianism developed both as a renaissance of traditional Confucian ideas, and as a reaction to the ideas of Buddhism, although the Neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Daoist and Buddhist terminology and concepts. One of the most important exponents of Neo-Confucianism was Zhu Xi and he was a rather prolific writer, maintaining and defending his Confucian beliefs of social harmony and proper personal conduct. One of his most remembered was the book Family Rituals, where he provided detailed advice on how to conduct weddings, funerals, family ceremonies, Buddhist thought soon attracted him, and he began to argue in Confucian style for the Buddhist observance of high moral standards. It is reputed that he wrote many essays attempting to explain how his ideas were not Buddhist or Taoist, after Xi Ling, Wang Yangming is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker. Wangs interpretation of Confucianism denied the rationalist dualism of Zhus orthodox philosophy, a well known Neo-Confucian motif is paintings of Confucius, Buddha, and Lao Tzu all drinking out of the same vinegar jar, paintings associated with the slogan The three teachings are one. While Neo-Confucianism incorporated Buddhist and Taoist ideas, many Neo-Confucianists strongly opposed Buddhism and Taoism, indeed, they rejected the Buddhist and Taoist religions. One of Han Yus most famous essays decries the worship of Buddhist relics, nonetheless, Neo-Confucian writings adapted Buddhist thoughts and beliefs to the Confucian interest. Neo-Confucianism is a social and ethical philosophy using metaphysical ideas, some borrowed from Taoism, the rationalism of Neo-Confucianism is in contrast to the mysticism of the previously dominant Chan Buddhism. But the spirit of Neo-Confucian rationalism is diametrically opposed to that of Buddhist mysticism, whereas Buddhism insisted on the unreality of things, Neo-Confucianism stressed their reality. Buddhism and Taoism asserted that existence came out of, and returned to, non-existence, Buddhists, and to some degree, Taoists as well, relied on meditation and insight to achieve supreme reason, the Neo-Confucianists chose to follow Reason. The importance of li in Neo-Confucianism gave the movement its Chinese name, Neo-Confucianism was a heterogeneous philosophical tradition, and is generally categorized into two different schools. In medieval China, the mainstream of Neo-Confucian thought, dubbed the Tao school, had long categorized a thinker named Lu Jiuyuan among the unorthodox, non-Confucian writers. However, in the 15th century, the esteemed philosopher Wang Yangming took sides with Lu and critiqued some of the foundations of the Tao school, albeit not rejecting the school entirely. Objections arose to Yangmings philosophy within his lifetime, and shortly after his death, Chen Jian grouped Wang together with Lu as unorthodox writers, as a result, Neo-Confucianism today is generally categorized into two different schools of thought. The school that remained dominant throughout the medieval and early modern periods is called the Cheng-Zhu school for the esteem it places in Cheng Yi, Cheng Hao, the less dominant, opposing school was the Lu–Wang school, based on its esteem for Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming. In contrast to this model, the New Confucian Mou Zongsan argues that there existed a third branch of learning
Neo-Confucianism
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Bronze statue of Zhou Dunyi(周敦颐) in
White Deer Grotto Academy (白鹿洞書院)
Neo-Confucianism
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Portrait of Jo Gwang-jo
17.
New Confucianism
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New Confucianism is an intellectual movement of Confucianism that began in the early 20th century in Republican China, and further developed in post-Mao era contemporary China. It is deeply influenced by, but not identical with, the Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming dynasties and its philosophies have emerged as a focal point of discussion between Confucian scholars in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and the United States. The first generation of New Confucians came about as a response to the May Fourth movement, Confucianism was attacked as unscientific and contrary to the progress of a modern China. One notable figure during this time was Xiong Shili, who studied Buddhism in depth in his youth, borrowing from the school of Wang Yangming, Xiong developed a metaphysical system for the New Confucian movement and believed Chinese learning was superior to Western learning. Another figure, Feng Youlan, following the Neo-Confucian school of Zhu Xi, with the start of the communist regime in China in 1949, many of the leading intellectuals left the mainland to Taiwan, Hong Kong, and the United States. Notable figures of this generation include individuals like Tang Junyi, Mou Zongsan. Mou Zongsan, in particular, was well-versed in the ancient Chinese philosophical traditions and argued that Kant was, in many ways and these three, together with Zhang Junmai, issued in 1958 the New Confucian Manifesto consolidating their beliefs and drawing attention to their philosophical movement. In the last few decades, the most vocal representatives of the New Confucian movement have been the students of Mou Zongsan. Perhaps one of the most prominent, Tu Wei-ming, has promoted the idea that Confucianism saw three epochs, the classical pre-Han Confucianism, Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, and New Confucianism. This third generation has been instrumental in grounding Confucianism in non-Asian contexts, as can be seen through Boston Confucianism, whereas the English rendering of the movement is generally New Confucianism, there is a variety of translations in the Chinese. Many Taiwan-based writers will tend to use the term Contemporary New Confucianism to emphasize the continuity with the Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism. However, many within Mainland China prefer the term Modern New Confucianism with an emphasis on the period of modernization after May Fourth, New Confucianism is a school of Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism. New Confucianism is a political, ethical, and social philosophy using metaphysical ideas from both Western Philosophy and Eastern and it is categorized into three generations, starting with Xiong Shili and Feng Youlan as the first generation philosophers who set the basis. The second generation consists of Xiongs students, Mou Zongsan, Tang Junyi, the third generation is not determined via figures unlike previous generation but New Confucianism from 1980. Xiong and his followers attempts to reconstruct Confucianism gave New Confucianism its Chinese name, Xiong Shili is widely regarded as the thinker who laid down the basis for the revival of Confucianism as New Confucianism in the twentieth century. Much of the basis of New Confucianism comes from Xiongs New Doctrine, proficient in Buddhist classics, Xiong argued that classics of Eastern Philosophy must be integrated in contemporary Chinese philosophy for more solidity. Xiong recognized Buddhisms dark view of the nature, but also recognized that there are brighter sides to the human nature. For this very reason, he rejected the Buddhist learning of daily decrease which dictated that the practice to suppress ones dark nature was necessary and he arrived to such conclusion after his examination of Classic Confucianism. e
New Confucianism
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Confucianism
18.
Old Texts
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The last half of the 2nd century BC was the period when new versions of the Confucian classics were discovered. Hence they were called “old texts” and these newly discovered editions had an effect on later Confucianism. New Texts Confucian classics that were reconstructed from surviving copies and scraps, the Gongyang Zhuan and Guliang Zhuan commentaries and the Classic of Rites are called New Texts. Old Texts These alternate versions of the classics were found after the New Texts were compiled, some came from the Confucian family manor while others were found in the imperial archives or in private collections. The Rites of Zhou and the Zuo Zhuan commentary are Old Texts, forged Old Texts This only concerns the rediscovered version of Classic of History. During the Jin Dynasty, Mei Ze, a minor official discovered a preface by Kong Anguo and 25 chapters that he claimed were the Old Texts, suspicions emerged during the Song dynasty but it was not proven until Yan Ruoju circulated his thesis in the Qing dynasty. Recent archaeological recoveries of ancient classics have backed Yan, huangfu Mi, Wang Su, or Mei Ze himself is suspected as the forger. Received Texts The version that has transmitted to the present. It includes the Old Text version of Changes and Poetry, the New Text version of the Yili, a version of the Analects. By the time of 1st century, a new controversy had begun between these two texts, surviving scholars in the direct line of transmission of these books got hold of surviving copies and transliterated them into the new orthography. The old texts were the ones that off and on since the late 2nd and during the 1st century BC had turned up, some discovered in the walls of Confucius’s residence and they were called the “old texts” because they were written in the pre-Qin writing. The discoverers of the old texts, such as Liu Xin, claimed that all existing texts suffered from an interrupted pedigree, New text followers claim the old texts are forgeries that lack a line of transmission. In reality, the burning of the books probably did more than symbolically burn a few copies of the Confucian books conveniently at hand in the capital. Many other copies survived elsewhere, and these were available for copying into the new standard set by Qin. The new texts portray Confucius as a prophet or uncrowned king that should have received the Mandate of Heaven and he could perform miracles and wrote the Five Classics himself. The New Text school, founded by Dong Zhongshu, believed the texts were sacred and carried hidden clues to the future that they tried to decode and they were also interested in apocryphal writings that were obtuse and esoteric. They believed historical events were caused by forces beyond the control of man. They also believed officials should disobey the sovereigns decree if it will harm the state or dynasty, to betray the sovereign for the sovereigns own sake will keep the Mandate of Heaven in the dynastys hand and is an act of greater loyalty
Old Texts
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History
19.
Confucianism in Indonesia
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Together with the Hong Kong Confucian Academy it is one of the two branches that formed after the dissolution of mainland Chinas Confucian Church founded by Kang Youwei in the early 20th century. In 1883, Boen Tjhiang Soe, after being rebuilt in 1906, the colonial Dutch called it Geredja Boen Bio or Geredja Khonghoetjoe, Church of Confucius. At the present time it is a place of worship for Confucians in Surabaya, in 1886, the first book of Confucius History in Indonesian, was published by Lie Kim Hok. In 1897, Sishu, the Four Books, were translated in Indonesian by Toean Njio Tjoen Ean and were published in Ambon, in 1900, the translation and commentary of Thai Hak and Tiong Yong were completed by Tan Ging Tiong. In 1918, the Confucian Council of Solo was legally founded, in 1923, a congress was held at Yogyakarta, Central Java, which established the Khong Kauw Tjong Hwee, the Central Assembly of Confucianism. On April 16,1955 it was renamed the Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia, Majelis Tinggi Agama Khonghucu Indonesia, Confucius Confucianism Confucian church Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post-independence Indonesia
Confucianism in Indonesia
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Zhong Shu, the logo of the church.
20.
Edo Neo-Confucianism
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Edo Neo-Confucianism, known in Japanese as Shushi-Gaku, refers to the schools of Neo-Confucian philosophy that developed in Japan during the Edo period. Neo-Confucianism reached Japan during the Kamakura period, the 17th-century Tokugawa shogunate adopted Neo-Confucianism as the principle of controlling people and Confucian philosophy took hold. Neo-Confucians such as Hayashi Razan and Arai Hakuseki were instrumental in the formulation of Japans dominant early modern political philosophy, Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Chinese Tang Dynasty, the Confucianist scholars Han Yu and Li Ao are seen as forebears of the Neo-Confucianists of the Song Dynasty. The Song Dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi is seen as the first true pioneer of Neo-Confucianism, Neo-Confucianism developed both as a renaissance of traditional Confucian ideas, and as a reaction to the ideas of Buddhism and religious Daoism. Although the Neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Daoist and Buddhist terminology, Neo-Confucianism was brought to Japan during the late Kamakura period. Moreover, Neo-Confucianist thought derived from the works of Cheng Yi, Cheng Hao, and Zhu Xi, fujiwaras student, Hayashi Razan, served the Tokugawa shoguns, and through state patronage was able to establish the Shoheiko academy. After the Kansei Edict established Neo-Confucianism as Japans official ideology, the Shoheiko academy became the authority on Confucian orthodoxy. Although heterodox schools of Neo-Confucianism were officially banned, the schools still persisted in Japan, the Japanese philosopher Toju Nakae is one such case, who was more influenced by the heterodox Wang Yang-ming than he was by the orthodox Zhu Xi. The influence of Neo-Confucianism was challenged by the rise of the Kokugaku philosophical school in the 17th and 18th centuries, although philosophical competitors, Kokugaku and Neo-Confucianism would co-exist as the dominant philosophical thought of Japan until the arrival of Western philosophy during the Meiji period. Like Chinese and Korean Confucianism, Edo Neo-Confucianism is a social and ethical philosophy based on metaphysical ideas, the rationalism of Neo-Confucianism is in contrast to the mysticism of the previously dominant Zen Buddhism in Japan. But the spirit of Neo-Confucian rationalism is diametrically opposed to that of Buddhist mysticism, whereas Buddhism insisted on the unreality of things, Neo-Confucianism stressed their reality. Buddhism and Taoism asserted that existence came out of, and returned to, non-existence, buddhists, and to some degree, Taoists as well, relied on meditation and insight to achieve supreme reason, the Neo-Confucianists chose to follow Reason. The social aspects of the philosophy are hierarchical with a focus on filial piety, the samurai were especially avid readers and teachers of Confucian thought in Japan, establishing many Confucian academies. Neo-Confucianism also introduced elements of ethnocentrism into Japan, as the Chinese Neo-Confucians had regarded their own culture as the center of the world, the Japanese Neo-Confucians developed a similar national pride. Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, a Companion to Japanese History, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-9339-9
Edo Neo-Confucianism
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Fujiwara Seika from Japanese book 先哲像伝. Fujiwara was one of the major pioneers of Neo-Confucianism in Japan.
21.
Analects
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It is believed to have been written during the Warring States period, and it achieved its final form during the mid-Han dynasty. During the late Song dynasty the importance of the Analects as a work was raised above that of the older Five Classics. They were very important for Confucianism and Chinas overall morals, Confucius believed that the welfare of a country depended on the moral cultivation of its people, beginning from the nations leadership. He believed that individuals could begin to cultivate a sense of virtue through ren. He taught that a sense of virtue was his primary prerequisite for leadership. His primary goal in educating his students was to produce ethically well-cultivated men who would carry themselves with gravity, speak correctly, the work is therefore titled Lunyu meaning edited conversations or selected speeches. The view however was challenged by Qing dynasty philologist Cui Shu who argued on linguistic ground that the last five books are later than the rest of the work. Many modern scholars now believe that the work was compiled over a period of two hundred years, with some questioning the authenticity of some of the sayings. A Han dynasty writer Wang Chong however claimed that the Analects that existed during the Han dynasty was incomplete, at least three times the amount of those do not exist in the Analects at all. According to the Han dynasty scholar Liu Xiang, there were two versions of the Analects that existed at the beginning of the Han dynasty, the Lu version and the Qi version. The Lu version contained twenty chapters, and the Qi version contained twenty-two chapters, of the twenty chapters that both versions had in common, the Lu version had more passages. Each version had its own masters, schools, and transmitters, the old text version got its name because it was written in characters not used since the earlier Warring States period, when it was assumed to have been hidden. According to the Han dynasty scholar Huan Tan, the old version had four hundred characters different from the Lu version. Of these twenty-seven differences, the text only agrees with the old text version in two places. This text was recognized by Zhang Yus contemporaries and by subsequent Han scholars as superior to either individual version, the Qi version was lost for about 1800 years but re-found during the excavation of the tomb of Marquis of Haihun that was found 2011. No complete copies of either the Lu version or the old version of the Analects exist today. Archaeologists have since discovered two handwritten copies of the Analects that were written around 50 BC, during the Western Han dynasty and they are known as the Dingzhou Analects, and the Pyongyang Analects, after the location of the tombs in which they were found. The Dingzhou Analects was discovered in 1973, but no transcription of its contents was published until 1997, the Pyongyang Analects was discovered in 1992
Analects
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A page from the Analects
Analects
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The Analects of Confucius, from
Östasiatiska Museet, Stockholm
Analects
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A copy of Zhu Xi's commentary on the Analects, printed during the
Ming dynasty
22.
Great Learning
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The Great Learning was one of the Four Books in Confucianism. The Great Learning had come from a chapter in the Classic of Rites which formed one of the Five Classics and it consists of a short main text attributed to the teachings of Confucius and then ten commentary chapters accredited to one of Confucius disciples, Zengzi. The ideals of the book were supposedly Confuciuss, however the text was written after his death, Confucius, who incorporated ideas from earlier philosophers, compiled or edited the Classic of Rites and the Spring and Autumn Annals, two of the Five Classics. Confucius student, Zengzi wrote the introduction and exposition of the Great Learning, zeng Zi lived from 505-436 BC. Confucius taught 3000 pupils, of which 72 mastered the six arts and it is still unclear how much his students wrote and edited. The Great Learning developed from many authors adapting to the needs, the Cheng brothers, Yi and Hao both utilized the Great Learnings philosophies. Their ideas met with strong opposition, but were reconstituted by Zhu Xi. Chengs idea of yi was that it was identical with nature, Chengs yi emphasized the necessity of acquiring knowledge. During the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi rearranged the Great Learning and included it in the Four Books, along with the Doctrine of the Mean, the Analects of Confucius, Zhu Xi separated the Great Learning, which was originally a chapter in the Classic of Rites. Zhu Xi organized the book as Jing followed by ten expositions, Zhu Xi was a student of Li Tong. Zhu Xi developed the Chengs Confucian ideas and drew from Chan Buddhism and Daoism and he adapted some ideas from these competing religions into his form of Confucianism. Li Ao, a scholar, poet, and official, used, after the Song and Yuan Dynasties, The Great Learning became a required textbook in schools and a required reading for imperial examinations. During the Warring States Xunzi and Mengzi were influenced by the Great Learning, the Great Learning was used by Japan, Korea and later in the west. Such critics such as Lu Xiangshan and Wang Yangming later disliked the Great Learning because of the stress on scholarship rather than action, Wang Yangming rejected Zhu Xis changes and returned the text to the original, from the Classic of Rites. During the Han dynasty the Great Learning rose to prominence, the Dais divided the book into five sections. This included the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Evolution of Rites, the Yili, there is a popular commentary by philosopher Zhang written by his disciples. Han Yu and Li Ao both used The Great Learning, Li Ao incorporated a lot of Buddhist and Taoist ideas into his work. Zi Si – Confuciuss grandson – is said to have taught Mencius and he may also have written the beginning of the Great Learning
Great Learning
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Reproduction of a rendition of Great Learning by Yuan calligrapher Zhao Mengfu at the
Taiwan Confucian Temple in
Tainan, Taiwan.
23.
Mencius (book)
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A number of linguistic and textual clues suggest that the text was not written by Mencius himself but by his disciples, probably during the late 4th century BC. The Mencius comprises 7 chapters, each divided into two halves, with alternating short sayings and extensive dialogues on specific philosophical arguments. The Mencius was one of the most important texts of early Confucianism, notwithstanding its early importance to Confucianism, the Mencius was not canonized as one of the Chinese Classics until over 1000 years later during the Song dynasty. Oeuvres de Meng Tzeu, in Les Quatres Livres, dobson, W. A. C. H. Mencius, A New Translation Arranged and Annotated for the General Reader. Mencius, With Selections from Traditional Commentaries, Works related to Mencius at Wikisource The Works of Mencius, Legges English translation Mengzi Chinese text with Legges English translation Mencius, translated by A. Charles Muller
Mencius (book)
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Early 13th century Mencius printing held in
National Palace Museum
24.
Classic of Poetry
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It is one of the Five Classics traditionally said to have been compiled by Confucius, and has been studied and memorized by scholars in China and neighboring countries over two millennia. Since the Qing dynasty, its rhyme patterns have also analysed in the study of Old Chinese phonology. Early references refer to the anthology as the 300 Poems, with a typically inexact use of three hundred. The Odes first became known as a jīng, or a book, in the canonical sense. The same word shi later became a term for poetry. In English, lacking an exact equivalent for the Chinese, the translation of the word shi in this regard is generally as poem, song, before its elevation as a canonical classic, the Classic of Poetry was known as the Three Hundred Songs or the Songs. The Classic of Poetry contains the oldest chronologically authenticated Chinese poems, the majority of the Odes date to the Western Zhou period. A final section of 5 Eulogies of Shang purports to be songs of the Shang Dynasty as handed down by their descendents in the state of Song. According to the Eastern Han scholar Zheng Xuan, the latest material in the Shijing was the song Tree-stump Grove in the Odes of Chen, dated to the middle of the Spring and Autumn period. The content of the Poetry can be divided into two sections, the Airs of the States, and the eulogies and hymns. The Airs of the States are shorter lyrics in simple language that are generally ancient folk songs which record the voice of the common people. They often speak of love and courtship, longing for an absent lover, soldiers on campaign, farming and housework and they also include hymns used in sacrificial rites and songs used by the aristocracy in their sacrificial ceremonies or at banquets. Whatever the origin of the various Shijing poems as folk songs or not, in other words, they show an overall literary polish together with some general stylistic consistency. About 95% of lines in the Poetry are written in a four-syllable meter, lines tend to occur in syntactically related couplets, with occasional parallelism, and longer poems are generally divided into similarly structured stanzas. All but six of the Eulogies consist of a single stanza, almost all of the Airs, however, consist of three stanzas, with four-line stanzas being most common. Although a few rhyming couplets occur, the pattern in such four-line stanzas required a rhyme between the second and fourth lines. Often the first or third lines would rhyme with these, or with each other and this style later became known as the shi style for much of Chinese history. One of the characteristics of the poems in the Classic of Poetry is that they tend to possess elements of repetition and variation
Classic of Poetry
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The first song of the Classic of Poetry, handwritten by the
Qianlong Emperor, with accompanying painting.
Classic of Poetry
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Map of states during Western Zhou period
Classic of Poetry
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Image of a bronze figure of Confucius
Classic of Poetry
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Part of the Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn (孔子詩論), an early discussion of the Classic of Poetry
25.
Book of Documents
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The Book of Documents or Classic of History, also known as the Shangshu, is one of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature. It is a collection of rhetorical prose attributed to figures of ancient China, the Book of Documents was the subject of one of Chinas oldest literary controversies, between proponents of different versions of the text. The New Text version was preserved from Qin Shi Huangs burning of books, over time, the Old Text version of the Documents became more widely accepted, until it was established as the imperially sanctioned edition during the early Tang dynasty. The chapters are grouped into four sections representing different eras, the reign of Yu the Great. The Zhou section accounts for half the text. Some of its New Text chapters are among the earliest examples of Chinese prose, the history of the various versions of the Documents is particularly complex, and has been the subject of a long-running literary and philosophical controversy. According to a tradition, the Book of Documents was compiled by Confucius as a selection from a much larger group of documents. However, the history of both texts is obscure. Beginning with Confucius, writers increasingly drew on the Documents to illustrate general principles, six citations of unnamed Shū appear in the Analects. Although Confucius invoked the pre-dynastic emperors Yao and Shun, and figures from the Xia and Shang dynasties, increasing numbers of citations, some with titles, appear in 4th century BC works such as the Mencius, Mozi and Commentary of Zuo. These authors favoured documents relating to Yao, Shun and the Xia dynasty, the chapters currently believed to be the oldest were little used by Warring States authors, perhaps due to the difficulty of the archaic language or a less familiar world-view. Fewer than half the passages quoted by authors are present in the received text. Authors such as Mencius and Xunzi, while quoting the Documents and their attitude contrasts with the reverence that would be shown to the text in the Han dynasty, when its compilation was attributed to Confucius. Many copies of the work were destroyed in the Burning of Books during the Qin dynasty, Fu Sheng reconstructed part of the work from hidden copies in the late 3rd to early 2nd century BC, at the start of the succeeding Han dynasty. His version was known as the New Text because it was written in the clerical script and it originally consisted of 29 chapters, but the Great Speech chapter was lost shortly afterwards and replaced by a new version. The remaining 28 chapters were later expanded to 33 when Du Lin divided some chapters during the 1st century, another version was said to have been recovered from a wall of the home of Confucius in 186 BC by his descendent Kong Anguo. This version was known as the Old Text, because it was written in the pre-Qin seal script. Han dynasty sources give contradictory accounts of the nature of this find, according to the commonly repeated account of the Book of Han, the Old Text included the chapters preserved by Fu Sheng, another version of the Great Speech chapter and some 16 additional chapters
Book of Documents
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Fu Sheng expounding on the Classic, attributed to
Wang Wei (8th century)
Book of Documents
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Title page of annotated Shujing edition printed in 1279, held by Taiwan's
National Central Library
26.
Book of Rites
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As a core text of the Confucian canon, it is also known as the Classic of Rites, which some scholars believe was the original title before it was changed by Dai Sheng. The Book of Rites is a collection of texts of varied but uncertain origin and date. Some sections consist of definitions of terms, particularly those found in the Etiquette and Ceremonial, while others contain details of the life. Parts of the text have been traced to such works as the Xunzi and Lüshi Chunqiu. During the reign of Qin Shihuang, many of the Confucian classics were destroyed during the 213 BC Burning of the Books. The Book of Rites was said to have been fully reconstructed, since then, other scholars have attempted to redact these first drafts. According to the Book of Sui, Dai De reworked the text in the 1st century BC, reducing the original 214 books to 85, to this three were added towards the end of the Han dynasty, bringing the total to 49. In 1993, a copy of the Black Robes chapter was found in Tomb 1 of the Guodian Tombs in Jingmen, since the tomb was sealed around 300 BCE, the find reactivated academic arguments about the possible dating of the other Liji chapters by the Warring States period. Confucius described Li as all forms that provided a standard of conduct. Li literally means rites but it can also be used to refer to ceremonial or rules of conduct, the term has come to generally be associated with good form, decorum or politeness. Confucius felt that li should emphasize the spirit of piety and respect for others through rules of conduct, as outlined in the Book of Rites, li is meant to restore the significance of traditional forms by looking at the simplicity of the past. Confucius insisted that a standard of conduct that focused on traditional forms would be a way to ease the turmoil of collapsing Zhou state. The absolute power of li is displayed in the Book of Rites, the ideas of li were thought to become closely associated with human nature, ethics, and social order as the population integrated li into their lives. Li is beneficial to society because it guides people to recognize, as a result of the Book of Rites chapters, using a syncretic system and combining Daoist and Mohist beliefs, later scholars formed both the Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean. These two books were believed to be written by two of Confucius disciples one specifically being his grandson. Consequently, the Book of Rites and two of its by-products were large parts of the Chinese beliefs and industry for many centuries. Sacred Books of the East, volumes 27 and 28, Li Ki, ou Mémoires sur les bienséances, texte Chinois avec une double traduction en Francais et en Latin, volumes 1 and 2. Confucianism and the Family Rituals in Imperial China, New Jersey, Princeton University Press,1991, ISBN 978-0-691-03150-7 Confucius, James Legge, Chʻu Chai, Winberg Chai
Book of Rites
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An annotated version of the Book of Rites, dated before 907
27.
I Ching
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The I Ching, or Classic of Changes, is an ancient divination text and the oldest of the Chinese classics. The I Ching uses a type of divination called cleromancy, which produces apparently random numbers. Four numbers,6 to 9, are turned into a hexagram, the hexagrams themselves have often acquired cosmological significance and paralleled with many other traditional names for the processes of change such as yin and yang and Wu Xing. The core of the I Ching is a Western Zhou divination text called the Changes of Zhou, various modern scholars suggest dates ranging between the 10th and 4th centuries BC for the assembly of the text in approximately its current form. It is possible that other systems existed at this time. The name Zhou yi literally means the changes of the Zhou dynasty, the changes involved have been interpreted as the transformations of hexagrams, of their lines, or of the numbers obtained from the divination. Feng Youlan proposed that the word for changes originally meant easy, as in a form of divination easier than the oracle bones, there is also an ancient folk etymology that sees the character for changes as containing the sun and moon, the cycle of the day. Modern Sinologists believe the character to be derived either from an image of the sun emerging from clouds, the Zhou yi was traditionally ascribed to the Zhou cultural heroes King Wen of Zhou and the Duke of Zhou, and was also associated with the legendary world ruler Fu Xi. The Zhou yi itself does not contain this legend and indeed says nothing about its own origins, the Rites of Zhou, however, also claims that the hexagrams of the Zhou yi were derived from an initial set of eight trigrams. During the Han dynasty there were various opinions about the relationship between the trigrams and the hexagrams. The basic unit of the Zhou yi is the hexagram, a composed of six stacked horizontal lines. Each line is broken or unbroken. The received text of the Zhou yi contains all 64 possible hexagrams, along with the name, a short hexagram statement. The book opens with the first hexagram statement, yuán hēng lì zhēn, edward Shaughnessy describes this statement as affirming an initial receipt of an offering, beneficial for further divining. The word zhēn was also used for the divine in the oracle bones of the late Shang dynasty. It also carried meanings of being or making upright or correct, the names of the hexagrams are usually words that appear in their respective line statements, but in five cases an unrelated character of unclear purpose appears. The hexagram names could have been chosen arbitrarily from the line statements, the line statements, which make up most of the book, are exceedingly cryptic. Each line begins with a word indicating the number, base,2,3,4,5, top
I Ching
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A
Song dynasty edition of the I Ching (c. 1100)
I Ching
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Oracle turtle shell
I Ching
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Fifty yarrow Achillea millefolium subsp. m. var. millefolium stalks, used for I Ching divination.
I Ching
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A diagram of I Ching hexagrams sent to
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz from
Joachim Bouvet. The Arabic numerals were added by Leibniz.
28.
Spring and Autumn Annals
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The Spring and Autumn Annals is an ancient Chinese chronicle that has been one of the core Chinese classics since ancient times. The Annals is the chronicle of the State of Lu. It is the earliest surviving Chinese historical text to be arranged in annals form, because it was traditionally regarded as having been compiled by Confucius, it was included as one of the Five Classics of Chinese literature. The entries are written, averaging only 10 characters per entry. During the Warring States period, a number of commentaries to the Annals were created that attempted to elaborate on or find deeper meaning in the entries in the Annals. The Commentary of Zuo, the best known of these commentaries, became a classic in its own right, the Spring and Autumn Annals was likely composed in the 5th century BC, and apart from the Bamboo Annals is the only such work to have survived from that period. By the time of Confucius, in the 6th century BC, the Annals was not the only work of its kind, as many other Eastern Zhou states also kept annals in their archives. The entries average only 10 characters in length, the longest entry in the work is only 47 characters long. There are 11 entries that read simply *tung 螽 – a plague of insects, since the text of this book is terse and its contents limited, a number of commentaries were composed to explain and expand on its meanings. They are based upon different editions of the Spring and Autumn Annals, the surviving commentaries are known collectively as the Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals. Modern scholars disagree whether it is truly a commentary on the Spring. In any case, scholars have found it by far the most useful among the three surviving commentaries both as a source for the period and as a guide to interpreting the Annals. The Annals is one of the core Chinese classics and had an influence on Chinese intellectual discourse for nearly 2500 years. The Annals terse style was interpreted as Confucius deliberate attempt to convey lofty principles in subtle words, many Western scholars have given similar evaluations, the French sinologist Édouard Chavannes referred to the Annals as an arid and dead chronicle. The Annals have become so evocative of the era in which they were composed that it is now referred to as the Spring. The Chinese Classics, Volume 5, Parts I and II, studies on the Gongyang and Guliang Commentaries. Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, the Tso Chuan, Selections from Chinas Oldest Narrative History. Lüshi Chunqiu Full text of Spring and Autumn Annals Chinese Literature - Spring and Autumn Annals Chinaknowledge. de
Spring and Autumn Annals
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19th-century replica of
Du Yu 's 3rd-century Annals commentary
29.
Temple of Confucius
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A temple of Confucius or Confucian temple is a temple for the veneration of Confucius and the sages and philosophers of Confucianism in Chinese folk religion and other East Asian religions. They were formerly the site of the administration of the examination in China and Vietnam and often housed schools. The temples are known by a variety of names throughout East Asia, the two greatest temples in Qufu and Beijing are now known in Chinese as Temples of Confucius. In Shanghai, Vietnam, Korea, and Indonesia, they are known as Temples of Literature or Temples of the Sage of Literature, in Southern China, however, temples by that name generally honor Wenchang Wang, a separate deity associated with the scholar Zhang Yazi. In Japan, they are known as Temples or Halls of the Sage. The development of temples devoted to the cult of Confucius was an outcome of his gradual canonisation. In 195 BC, Han Gao Zu, founder of the Han Dynasty, sacrifices to the spirit of Confucius and that of Yan Hui, his most prominent disciple, began in the Imperial University as early as 241. In 454, the Liu Song dynasty of southern China built a prominent state Confucian temple, in 489, the Northern Wei constructed a Confucian temple in the capital, the first outside of Qufu in the north. In 630, the Tang Dynasty decreed that schools in all provinces and counties should have a Confucian temple, as a result of which temples spread throughout China. Well-known Confucian shrines include the Confucian Temple in Jianshui, the Confucian Temple in Xian, the Fuzi Miao in Nanjing, the Confucian Temple of old Tianjin is located on Dongmennei Dajie, a short distance west of Traditional Culture Street. Occupying 32 acres of land, The Confucian Temple is the largest extant traditional architectural complex in Tianjin, the largest and oldest Temple of Confucius is found in Confucius hometown, present-day Qufu in Shandong Province. The temple was expanded repeatedly over a period of more than 2,000 years until it became the huge complex currently standing, there is another temple in Quzhou. Beginning in the Tang dynasty, Confucian temples were built in prefectural and county schools throughout the empire, the front gate of the temple is called the Lingxing Gate. Inside there are three courtyards, although sometimes there are only two. However, the complex in Qufu has nine courtyards containing scores of steles commemorating visits by an emperor or imperial grants of titles upon descendants of Confucius. In imperial China, this housed the Spirit Tablets of Confucius. In front of the Dachengdian in Qufu is the Apricot Pavilion or Xingtan, another important building behind the main building is the Shrine of Adoring the Sage, which honoured the ancestors of Confucius and the fathers of the Four Correlates and Twelve Philosophers. Unlike Daoist or Buddhist temples, Confucian temples do not normally have images, in the early years of the temple in Qufu, it appears that the spirits of Confucius and his disciples were represented with wall paintings and clay or wooden statues
Temple of Confucius
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Gates of the Temple of Confucius of
Datong,
Shanxi. This is a wénmiào (文庙), "Temple of Culture", where Confucius is enshrined as the "God of Culture" (Wéndì 文帝).
Temple of Confucius
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The Kongmiao ("Temple of Conficius") of
Hangzhou,
Zhejiang.
Temple of Confucius
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The Kongmiao of
Jiading,
Shanghai.
Temple of Confucius
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The Dacheng hall of the Confucius' temple of
Harbin,
Heilongjiang.
30.
Confucian church
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The Confucian church is a Confucian religious and social institution of the congregational type. It was first proposed by Kang Youwei in the last years of the 19th century, a national Holy Confucian Church was established with the participation of many Confucian leaders on November 1,2015, the current spiritual leader is Jiang Qing. Similar models were followed by various newly created Confucian folk religious sects, such as the Xixinshe, the Daode Xueshe. The Confucian Church was founded by a disciple of Kang, Chen Huanzhang, in 1912, from 1913 to 1916, an important debate took place whether Confucianism should become the state religion and as such inscribed in the constitution of China. This finally didnt occur, and anti-religious campaigns mounting in the 1920s led to a dissolution of the Confucian church, while Kangs idea was not realised in China, it was carried forward in Hong Kong and amongst overseas Chinese peoples. The Hong Kong branch of Kangs movement took the name of Confucian Academy, members believe in Tian with Confucius as the prophet. Chinese people in the United States established independent, local Confucian churches such as the Confucius Church of Sacramento or the Confucius Church of Salinas, contemporary New Confucian scholars Jiang Qing and Kang Xiaoguang are amongst the most influential supporters of institutionalising the Confucian revival as a national Confucian Church. Jiang Qing is the current spiritual leader of the Holy Confucian Church, the Sage and the People, The Confucian Revival in China. The Religious Question in Modern China, Confucius and the Mediums, Is There a Popular Confucianism. Revival of Confucianism and Reconstruction of Chinese Identity, paper presented at, The Presence and Future of Humanity in the Cosmos, ICU, Tokyo, 18–23 March 2015. The Religiousness of Confucianism and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today, on, Cultural Diversity in China 1, 27-43. ISSN 2353-7795, DOI,10. 1515/cdc-2015-0005 Payette, Alex, shenzhens Kongshengtang, Religious Confucianism and Local Moral Governance. Part of, Role of Religion in Political Life, Panel RC43, 23rd World Congress of Political Science, carrying the Confucian Torch to the Masses, The Challenge of Structuring the Confucian Revival in the Peoples Republic of China. Confucianism as Religion, Controversies and Consequences, christian Civilization and the Confucian Church, The Origin of Secularist Politics in Modern China. On, Past and Present 218, 235-264, DOI,10. 1093/pastj/gts030 Philip Clart, Charles B. Jones. Religion in Modern Taiwan, Tradition and Innovation in a Changing Society, China Confucian Philosophy China Confucian Religion China Confucian Temples China Kongzi Network Ruist Masters Society Yidan xuetang of Beijing Articles Confucius Church Celebrates Historic Election. KCRA News service about the Confucius Church of Sacramento
Confucian church
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Project for the Confucian Church Headquarters (孔教总会堂) in
Beijing, next to the Confucian University. The Confucian University was opened in 1923, but the main church was never completed.
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