1.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
4.
States of Germany
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Germany is a federal republic consisting of sixteen federal states. Since todays Germany was formed from a collection of several states, it has a federal constitution. The remaining 13 states are called Flächenländer, the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 was through the unification of the western states created in the aftermath of World War II. West Berlin, while not part of the Federal Republic, was largely integrated and considered as a de facto state. In 1952, following a referendum, Baden, Württemberg-Baden, in 1957, the Saar Protectorate rejoined the Federal Republic as the Saarland. Federalism is one of the constitutional principles of Germany. After 1945, new states were constituted in all four zones of occupation, in 1949, the states in the three western zones formed the Federal Republic of Germany. This is in contrast to the development in Austria, where the Bund was constituted first. The use of the term Länder dates back to the Weimar Constitution of 1919, before this time, the constituent states of the German Empire were called Staaten. Today, it is common to use the term Bundesland. However, this term is not used officially, neither by the constitution of 1919 nor by the Basic Law of 1949, three Länder call themselves Freistaaten, Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia. He summarizes the arguments for boundary reform in Germany. The German system of dual federalism requires strong Länder that have the administrative and fiscal capacity to implement legislation, too many Länder also make coordination among them and with the federation more complicated. But several proposals have failed so far, territorial reform remains a topic in German politics. Federalism has a tradition in German history. The Holy Roman Empire comprised many petty states numbering more than 300 around 1796, the number of territories was greatly reduced during the Napoleonic Wars. After the Congress of Vienna,39 states formed the German Confederation, the new German Empire included 25 states and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The empire was dominated by Prussia, which controlled 65% of the territory, after the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles, the remaining states continued as republics of a new German federation
5.
Central European Summer Time
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It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
6.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
7.
Mitte (locality)
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Mitte is a central locality of Berlin in the homonymous district of Mitte. Until 2001 it was itself an autonomous district and it comprises the historic centre of Alt-Berlin around the churches of St. Nicholas and St. For these reasons Mitte is considered the heart of Berlin, the history of Mitte corresponds to the history of the entire city until the early 20th century, and with the Greater Berlin Act in 1920 it became the first district of the city. It was among the areas of the city most heavily damaged in World War II and this ended on 1 January 1961, when western Staaken was incorporated into then East German Falkensee, which had already been under its de facto administration since 1 June 1952. Between 1961 and 1990 Mitte, one of the most important boroughs of East Berlin, one of the most important border crossings was Checkpoint Charlie, near Kreuzberg. Situated in central Berlin and mostly in its old town, it is traversed by the river Spree and it borders the localities of Tiergarten, Moabit, Wedding, Gesundbrunnen, Prenzlauer Berg, Friedrichshain, and Kreuzberg
8.
West Berlin
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West Berlin was an enclave which comprised the western part of the city of Berlin during the Cold War. It was formally controlled by the Western Allies and formed a de facto part of West Germany, and was entirely surrounded by the Soviet-controlled East Berlin and East Germany. West Berlin had great significance during the Cold War, as it was widely considered by westerners as an island of freedom. A wealthy city, West Berlin was noted for its liberal and cosmopolitan character. With about two million inhabitants, West Berlin had the biggest population of any city in Cold War Germany and it was 100 miles east of the Inner German border and only accessible by land from West Germany by narrow rail and highway corridors. It consisted of the American, British, and French occupation sectors established in 1945 and was de facto part of West Germany and it had a special and unique legal status because its administration was formally conducted by the Western Allies. East Berlin, de jure occupied and administered by the Soviet Union, was the de facto capital of East Germany, the Berlin Wall, built in 1961, physically divided West Berlin from its East German surroundings until it fell in 1989. The Potsdam Agreement established the framework for the occupation of Germany in the wake of World War II. The territory of Germany, as it existed in 1937, would be reduced by most of Eastern Germany thus creating the former territories of Germany. The remaining territory would be divided into four zones, each administered by one of the allied countries, according to the agreement, the occupation of Berlin would end only as a result of a quadripartite agreement. The Western Allies were guaranteed three air corridors to their sectors of Berlin, and the Soviets also informally allowed road, at first, this arrangement was intended to be only a temporary administrative structure, with all parties declaring that Germany and Berlin would soon be reunited. However, as the relations between the allies and the Soviet Union soured and the Cold War began, the joint administration of Germany. Soon, Soviet-occupied Berlin and western-occupied Berlin had separate city administrations, in 1948, the Soviets tried to force the Western Allies out of Berlin by imposing a land blockade on the western sectors—the Berlin Blockade. The West responded by using its air corridors for supplying their part of the city with food, in May 1949, the Soviets lifted the blockade, and West Berlin as a separate city with its own jurisdiction was maintained. Following the Berlin Blockade, normal contacts between East and West Berlin resumed, however, in cases this proved only temporary. In 1952, the East German government began sealing its borders, as a direct result the electrical grids were separated and phone lines were cut. However, the culmination of the schism did not occur until 1961 with the construction of the Berlin Wall. From the legal theory followed by the Western Allies, the occupation of most of Germany ended in 1949 with the declaration of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic
9.
Counterculture
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A counterculture is a subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, often in opposition to mainstream cultural mores. A countercultural movement expresses the ethos and aspirations of a population during a well-defined era. When oppositional forces reach critical mass, countercultures can trigger dramatic cultural changes, John Milton Yinger originated the term contraculture in his 1960 article in American Sociological Review. Some scholars have attributed the counterculture to Theodore Roszak, author of The Making of a Counter Culture and it became prominent in the news media amid the social revolution that swept the Americas, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand during the 1960s. Scholars differ in the characteristics and specificity they attribute to counterculture, mainstream culture is of course also difficult to define, and in some ways becomes identified and understood through contrast with counterculture. Counterculture might oppose mass culture, or middle-class culture and values, Counterculture is sometimes conceptualized in terms of generational conflict and rejection of older or adult values. Counterculture may or may not be explicitly political and it typically involves criticism or rejection of currently powerful institutions, with accompanying hope for a better life or a new society. It does not look favorably on party politics or authoritarianism, typically, a fringe culture expands and grows into a counterculture by defining its own values in opposition to mainstream norms. Countercultures tend to peak, then go into decline, leaving an impact on mainstream cultural values. Their life cycles include phases of rejection, growth, partial acceptance, during the late 1960s, hippies became the largest and most visible countercultural group in the United States. The cultural shadows left by the Romantics, Bohemians, Beats, the counterculture of the 1960s and early 1970s generated its own unique brand of notable literature, including comics and cartoons, and sometimes referred to as the underground press. In the United States, this includes the work of Robert Crumb and Gilbert Shelton, another such hippie/anarchist bookshop was Mushroom Books, tucked away in the Lace Market area of Nottingham. Some genres tend to challenge societies with their content that is meant to question the norms within cultures. More often than not, sources of these controversies can be found in art such as Marcel Duchamp whose piece Fountain was meant to be an attack on the most basic conventions of art in 1917. Instead of being a topic to fear, they have initiated subtle trends that other artists, in order to achieve such liberation, consciousness raising and direct action were employed. At the outset of the 20th century, homosexual acts were punishable offenses in these countries, the prevailing public attitude was that homosexuality was a moral failing that should be punished, as exemplified by Oscar Wildes 1895 trial and imprisonment for gross indecency. But even then, there were dissenting views, according to Charles Kaisers The Gay Metropolis, there were already semi-public gay-themed gatherings by the mid-1930s in the United States. There were also bars and bathhouses that catered to gay clientele, but homosexuality was typically subsumed into bohemian culture, and was not a significant movement in itself
10.
Turks in Germany
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Turks in Germany, also referred to as German Turks and Turkish Germans, refers to ethnic Turkish people living in Germany. These terms are used to refer to German-born individuals who are of full or partial Turkish ancestry. The Turkish people form the largest ethnic minority in Germany, moreover, they form the second largest Turkish population in the world, after Turkey. The Turkish people who immigrated to Germany brought their culture with them, including the Turkish language and these cultural values were passed down to their children and descendants who maintain these traditions. Moreover, the greater German society has also exposed to the Turkish culture, particularly in regards to Turkish food. At least, the latest assessments, Germany officials do also confirm that there are estimated 11 million Turks in Germany, most of them at least 9.6 million Turks have applied German citizenship acting in 1999 German citizenship rules. The other 1.4 million Turks are still Turkish citizens currently in Germany with Turkish passports and Turkey-related population coming from Syria, or Iraq or Iran, or elsewhere in March 2017. The Turkish people have been in contact with the German states since the century when the Ottoman Empire attempted to expand their territories beyond the north Balkan territories. The Ottoman Turks held two sieges in Vienna, the first Siege of Vienna in 1529 and the Second Siege of Vienna in 1683, in particular, it was the aftermath of the second siege which provided the circumstances for a Turkish community to permanently settle in Germany. Many Ottoman soldiers and camp followers who were left behind after the siege of Vienna became stragglers or prisoners. It is estimated that at least 500 Turkish prisoners were settled in Germany. Historical records show that some Turks became traders or took up other professions, indeed, some Turks fared very well in Germany, for example, one Ottoman Turk is recorded to have been raised to the Hanoverian nobility. Historical records also show that many Ottoman Turks converted to Christianity, consequently, more Turks were taken by the Europeans as prisoners. Indeed, the Turkish captives taken to Germany were not solely made up of men, for example, General Schöning took two of the most beautiful women in the world in Buda who later converted to Christianity. Another Turkish captive named Fatima became the mistress of Augustus II the Strong, records show that at this point it was not uncommon for Turks in Germany to convert to Christianity. For example, records show that 28 Turks converted to Christianity and were settled in Württemberg, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Turkish people continued to enter the German lands as soldiers employed by the Prussian kings. Historical records show that this was evident with the expansion of Prussia in the mid-18th century. For example, in 1731, the Duke of Kurland presented twenty Turkish guardsmen to King Frederick William I, the Prussian king’s fascination with the enlightenment was reflected in their consideration for the religious concerns of their Muslim troops
11.
Bundestag
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The Bundestag is a constitutional and legislative body at the federal level in Germany. For its similar function, it is described as a lower house of parliament along the lines of the US House of Representatives. The German constitution, however, does not define the Bundestag, since 1999 it has met in the Reichstag Building in Berlin. Norbert Lammert is the current President of the Bundestag, Members of the Bundestag are usually elected every four years by all adult German citizens in a mixed system of constituency voting and list voting. There are currently 631 seats, however, one – belonging to the CDU – remains vacant. The Election Day, however, can be if the Federal Chancellor loses a vote of no confidence. In the 19th century the name Bundestag was the designation for the assembly of the sovereigns and mayors of the Monarchies. Its seat was in the Free City of Frankfurt on the Main, two decades later, the current parliament building was erected. The Reichstag delegates were elected by direct and equal male suffrage, the Reichstag did not participate in the appointment of the Chancellor until the parliamentary reforms of October 1918. After this the Reichstag met only rarely, usually at the Krolloper following the Reichstag fire starting in 1933 to unanimously rubber-stamp the decisions of the government and it last convened on 26 April 1942. With the new constitution of 1949, the Bundestag was established as the new German parliament, the Bundeshaus in Bonn is the former Parliament Building of Germany. The sessions of the German Bundestag were held there from 1949 until its move to Berlin in 1999, today it houses the International Congress Centre Bundeshaus Bonn and in the north areas the branch office of the Bundesrat. The southern areas became part of German offices for the United Nations in 2008, the former Reichstag building housed a history exhibition and served occasionally as a conference center. The Reichstag building was occasionally used as a venue for sittings of the Bundestag and its committees and the Bundesversammlung. In 2005, an aircraft crashed close to the German parliament. It was then decided to ban private air traffic over Central Berlin, together with the Bundesrat, the Bundestag is the legislative branch of the German political system. The committees play a prominent role in this process, Plenary sessions provide a forum for members to engage in public debate on legislative issues before them, but they tend to be well attended only when significant legislation is being considered. This check on executive power can be employed through binding legislation, public debates on government policy, investigations, for example, the Bundestag can conduct a question hour, in which a government representative responds to a previously submitted written question from a member
12.
Spree
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The Spree is a river that flows through the Saxony, Brandenburg and Berlin states of Germany, and in the Ústí nad Labem region of the Czech Republic. Approximately 400 kilometres in length, it is a left tributary of the River Havel. It is the river on which the centre of Berlin was built. The reach of the river between the Dämeritzsee and Müggelsee to the east of Berlin is known as the Müggelspree, the source of the Spree is located in Neugersdorf, Germany, in the Lusatian Highlands near the Czech border. It runs on the border for a distance at two points before leaving the hills and passing through the old city of Bautzen/Budyšin, the center of the Sorbs in Upper Lusatia. Just to the north of Bautzen the river flows through the Bautzen Reservoir, further north the river passes through the city of Spremberg and the Spremberg Reservoir before reaching the city of Cottbus. To the north of Cottbus the river enters the Spreewald, a wetlands area in Lower Lusatia. In the Spreewald the river passes through the towns of Lübbenau, Lübben, just below Leibsch, the Dahme Flood Relief Canal diverts water from the Spree to run into the River Dahme at Märkisch Buchholz. The Spree continues north from Leibsch before flowing into the Neuendorfer See at the edge of the Spreewald. From the Neundorfer See it then flows in a direction to the Schwielochsee. From Fürstenwalde the river continues to flow westwards, through the Dämeritzsee and Müggelsee, to Köpenick in the part of Berlin, where it is joined by its tributary. The final reach of the Spree is where it is best known, on its route through Berlin, the river passes Berlin Cathedral, the Reichstag and the Schloss Charlottenburg. The renowned Museum Island, with its collection of five museums, is actually an island in the Spree. The Badeschiff is a swimming pool moored in the Spree. Small craft, such as punts, are used in wetlands of the Spreewald. Larger craft can reach as far upstream as Leibsch, although the upper reaches are relatively shallow and are only used by leisure craft. Some intermediate reaches are unnavigable and by-passed by canals, for a stretch of about 20 kilometres east of and flowing through Fürstenwalde, the river forms part of the Oder-Spree Canal. On this reach, and on the reach west of the confluence with the River Dahme at Köpenick, the canal diverges from the Spree just east of Fürstenwalde and later joins the River Dahme at the Seddinsee
13.
Landwehr Canal
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The Landwehr Canal, or Landwehrkanal in German, is a 10. 7-kilometre long canal parallel to the Spree river in Berlin, Germany, built between 1845 and 1850 according to plans by Peter Joseph Lenné. It connects the upper part of the Spree at the Osthafen in Friedrichshain with its part in Charlottenburg, flowing through Kreuzberg. Lenné designed a canal with sloped walls, a width of 20 m at the surface. In the course of two enlargements, it reached a breadth of 22 m and a depth of 2 m, today the waterway is mainly used by tourist boats and pleasure craft. The Landwehr Canal leaves the Spree River in the Osthafen in Friedrichshain and it immediately descends through the Schleusenufer and heads in a straight line south west to its junction with the Neukölln Ship Canal, which provides a connection to the Teltow Canal. Although this has since been filled and partially converted to a public garden, further west in Kreuzberg, the canal is paralleled for about 1 kilometre by the U1 line of the Berlin U-Bahn, which runs here as an elevated railway. Shortly after that, the elevated U2 line crosses the canal, after entering Tiergarten, the canal flows between the Großer Tiergarten Park and the Berlin Zoological Garden. Here the canal passes through the Unterschleuse and is bridged by the Berlin Stadtbahn and this historic elevated railway carries S-Bahn, Regional-Express and InterCity trains. The Landwehr Canal rejoins the Spree River in Charlottenburg, immediately opposite the entrance to the Charlottenburg Canal at a waterways crossroad known as Spreekreuz. After Rosa Luxemburg was murdered on January 15,1919, her body was dumped into the Landwehr Canal, in 1920 Anna Anastasia Anderson attempted suicide by jumping into the water. In 1932 initial construction of the Shell-Haus overlooking the canal was completed, on 27 April 1945 the Russian Army was closing in on the German Armys final defensive stronghold in the Tiergarten district of Berlin. On 8 June 1962 a party of fourteen East German refugees commandeered the river steamer Friedrich Wolff, erected steel plates around the wheelhouse and sailed from the Spree into the Landwehr Canal. An East German patrol boat intercepted them and opened fire, but West German police returned fire and all landed safely on the canal bank, in the West
14.
Paul-Lincke-Ufer
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Paul-Lincke-Ufer is a street in Berlin running along the Landwehr Canal Canal in the Kreuzberg quarter of the city. The street runs from Kottbusser Brücke all the way to the Treptow Canal, opposite is found the Maybach Ufer where the Turkish Market takes place on Tuesday, Friday and some Saturdays. The street came into being with the creation of the Landwehr Canal a parallel channel to the Spree river dug in 1845–1850. It was originally named Kottbusser Ufer until 1946 when it was named after Paul Lincke the composer of operattas and songs such as Glow worm, the street was part of the American Sector of West Berlin. It became the most important Turkish community in Berlin, nearly all the buildings on the bank survived the destruction of World War II and therefore represent an important architectural monument to early twentieth century architecture of Berlin. Notable people associated with the canal are Rosa Luxemburg who was murdered, notable buildings include a listed building from 1929, the former electricity substation designed by architect Hans Heinrich Müller. Due to the combination of Industrial and Gothic elements, the became known as the Cathedral of Electricity. The Bernstein piano factory lies just behind the Paul-Lincke-Ufer, the current postcode is 10999 though it used to be SO36 which is also the name of a club in the area. Landwehr Canal Umspann Werk Boule Platz Paul-Lincke-Ufer im Bezirkslexikon des Luisenstädtischen Bildungsvereins umspannwerk-kreuzberg. de kreuzberger-chronik. de
15.
Berlin U-Bahn
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The Berlin U-Bahn is a rapid transit railway in Berlin, the capital city of Germany, and a major part of the citys public transport system. Together with the S-Bahn, a network of train lines. In addition, a tram network operates in the parts of the city. Opened in 1902, the U-Bahn serves 173 stations spread across ten lines, with a track length of 151.7 kilometres. Trains run every two to five minutes during peak hours, every five minutes for the rest of the day, over the course of a year, U-Bahn trains travel 132 million km, and carry over 400 million passengers. In 2015,534.5 million passengers rode the U-Bahn, the entire system is maintained and operated by the Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe, commonly known as the BVG. Designed to alleviate traffic flowing into and out of central Berlin, the East Berlin U-Bahn lines from West Berlin were severed, except for two West Berlin lines that ran through East Berlin. These were allowed to pass through East Berlin without stopping at any of the stations, Friedrichstraße was the exception because it was used as a transfer point between U6 and the West Berlin S-Bahn system, and a border crossing into East Berlin. The system was reopened following the fall of the Berlin Wall. The Berlin U-Bahn is the most extensive network in Germany. In 2006, travel on the U-Bahn was equivalent to 122.2 million km of car journeys, at the end of the 19th century, city planners in Berlin were looking for solutions to the increasing traffic problems facing the city. As potential solutions, industrialist and inventor Ernst Werner von Siemens suggested the construction of elevated railways, while AEG proposed an underground system. Years of negotiations followed until, on 10 September 1896, work began on an elevated railway to run between Stralauer Tor and Zoologischer Garten, with a short spur to Potsdamer Platz. Known as the Stammstrecke, the route was inaugurated on 15 February 1902, before the year ended, the railway had been extended, by 17 August, east to Warschauer Brücke, and, by 14 December, west to Knie. In a bid to secure its own improvement, Schöneberg also wanted a connection to Berlin, the elevated railway company did not believe such a line would be profitable, so the city built the first locally financed underground in Germany. It was opened on 1 December 1910, just a few months earlier, work began on a fourth line to link Wilmersdorf in the south-west to the growing Berlin U-Bahn. The early network ran mostly east to west, connecting the areas in and around Berlin. In order to open up the network to more of the workers of Berlin, in 1920, the surrounding areas were annexed to form Groß-Berlin, removing the need for many negotiations, and giving the city much greater bargaining power over the private Hochbahngesellschaft
16.
Viktoriapark
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The Viktoriapark is an urban park in the locality of Kreuzberg in Berlin, Germany. It is situated on the Tempelhofer Berge range, forming the northern slope of the ground moraine Teltow Plateau and it provides an excellent viewpoint over much of the central and southern portions of the city. In summer an artificial waterfall originates at the foot of the monument, about 600 bottles are pressed each year. The king renamed the hill Kreuzberg after the Iron Cross at the top of the monument, the monument comprised only a small plot of land measuring about 2,839.83 m2. The surrounding fields were private real estate, the year before it had been elevated through a basement structure of 8 m. On the occasion of the elevation of the monument ideas appeared to lay out a park around it, two years later the design of a park was put out to tender. However, it took the city parliament until 29 March 1886 to decide for laying out a park, on 14 December 1887 Berlin acquired 8.5 ha of unbuilt land from several owners, mostly north and west of the monument. Right adjacent to the south was the Tivoli brewery, and in the east and northeast villas had developed close to the monument. Some built-up parcels on the side of Kreuzbergstraße had been bought. On 28 June 1888 the city parliament decided for Mächtigs design, so Mächtig and the sculptor Albert Manthe travelled through the Giant Mountains visiting natural waterfalls to get inspired. Having returned Mächtig himself assisted by a confidant foreman started modelling, the city parliament only approved Mächtigs altered waterfall designs on 25 March 1891. For the waterfall Mächtig used pieces of rock from the Giant Mountains, whereas some authors claim the Kreuzberg waterfall was modelled on the Zackel Falls in then Steinbach in Lower Silesia, Nungesser is doubting that. Another opinion is that it was modelled on another waterfall in the Giant Mountains, also the Wolfsschlucht, designed into another exploited sand pit east of the monument, followed the homonymous example in Adersbach/Adršpach in the Giant Mountains. On 14 October 1893 the waterfall ran for the first time on trial, gas motors in a neighbouring machine house pumped up the water. Since summer 189413,000 L per minute are cascading the 24 m down to the lower pond. Between 1898 and the First World War the waterfall was electrically illuminated at night shining in light resembling Bengal fire, however, the operation of the waterfall was interrupted between 1914 and 1935, and again 1938 and 1961. On the occasion of the festive days firemen reflooded the idle waterfall for one day by pumping the water uphill with their fire fighting devices replacing the war-ravaged pumphouse, the park is further adorned by sculptures and monuments. However, only three of the 3-metre tall herms survived the Second World War, since 1989 their marble originals are preserved in the court of Leibniz High School, while aluminum replicas were posted at their original locations, with Rückerts replica meanwhile stolen
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Kreuzberg (Tempelhofer Berge)
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The Kreuzberg is a hill in the Kreuzberg locality of Berlin, Germany, in former West Berlin. It rises about 66 m above the sea level, on 27 September 1921 the borough assembly of the VIth borough of Berlin decided to name the borough after the hill. Since the 1850s the hill was also nicknamed Monte Cruce or Monte Croce, the Kreuzberg is a natural hill and forms part of the Tempelhofer Berge range stretching along the northern descent of the Teltow Plateau between Schöneberg and the Rollberge in Neukölln. It rises about 66 m above the sea level and 32 m above the northerly adjacent Berlin-Warsaw glacial valley, the Teltow Plateau is a flatly undulating ground moraine landscape. The Kreuzbergs relatively steep northern slope derives from the erosion by running into the Berlin-Warsaw glacial valley. On 23 September 1435 Order Master Balthasar von Schlieben of the Knights Hospitaller sold – among others – the Kreuzberg to Berlin-Cölln, after spending much of the day on the Kreuzberg in vain, at about 16,00 h, Electress Elizabeth of Denmark urged her husband to leave. They returned to town, where a thunderstorm started and a lightning killed four horses, on their return the crowd awaited the elector and his entourage and welcoming him laughing. In 1553 Joachim I Nestor ordered to plant vines on the slopes, in 1588 the financial chamber of the city of Cölln recorded for one of the vineyards an output of 13 and a half tuns of red and white wine, amounting to 35 threescore and 45 groats. For 1595 Cöllns financial chamber accounted for the sale of 36 tuns of wine for 144 rixdollars, partially exported to Poland-Lithuania, Saxony, and Sweden. The severe devastations and depopulation by the Thirty Years War caused the death or flight of many a vinitor, entailing the neglection, the slopes became deserted and turned into sandy wasteland. For 1720 a mulberry plantation is recorded, with their leaves needed for the etatist attempts to establish silk production in Brandenburg-Prussia, however, alternative usages of the slopes remained mostly successless, so many slopes became again deserted and turned into wasteland, some owners continued viticulture. Western German wine had meanwhile outdone the local competition, on the Kreuzberg, like on some neighbouring hills, remained vineyards until 1739/1740, when a hefty frost killed most of the vine stock, among them Red Malvasian and Muscateller are recorded. The city surrendered and the confederated troops occupied Berlin for four days between October 9 and 12, during the War of the Sixth Coalition against France, in 1813 Colonel Hermann von Boyen prompted to work sconces south of Runder Berg and the other hills of the Tempelhofer Berge range. Plantations of about 4,000 fruit trees were stubbed and levelled, alone on the Kreuzberg 20 cannons were put up directing towards the approaching French Armée de Berlin under Oudinot. Already in September 1813 the sloppily constructed huts of the citadel collapsed, the semi-circular original access path, measuring a width of 20 Prussian feet, and branching off Methfesselstraße, was already under construction at that time. The adjacent land, measuring 72 Morgen, remained property of Götze, Tietz, in June 1820 the Lärmkanonenschanze was levelled again. For 19 September 1818 Duke Charles of Mecklenburg arranged the laying of the stone for the war memorial projected for the top of the Kreuzberg. The laying of the stone was attended - among others - by the king, Tzar Alexander I, Christian Daniel Rauch
18.
Greater Berlin Act
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Berlin had been part of the Province of Brandenburg since 1815. On 1 April 1881, the city became Stadtkreis Berlin, a city district separate from Brandenburg, the Greater Berlin Act was passed by the Prussian parliament on 27 April 1920 and came into effect on 1 October of the same year. With this, the act was an important foundation for the rise of Berlin to a centre of Europe in the 1920s. Apart from minor changes, the city boundary defined in the law is still the same as today, since the reunification of Germany it is the border between the German states of Berlin and Brandenburg
19.
Friedrichstadt (Berlin)
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Friedrichstadt was an independent suburb of Berlin, and is now a historical neighbourhood of the city itself. The neighbourhood is named after the Prussian king Frederick I, Friedrichstadt is located south of the Dorotheenstadt neighbourhood, and southwest of the historical suburb of Friedrichswerder. It is located south of the twin-city zone of Berlin and Cölln, today, the northern part of the neighbourhood is located in the borough of Berlin-Mitte, while the southern part of the neighbourhood is located in borough of Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg. The border between the two boroughs runs along the side of Niederkirchnerstraße and Zimmerstraße. A large portion of the Spittelmarkt and adjoining Hausvogteiplatz were once part of a military installation associated with the suburb of Friedrichswerder. In order to assist with the layout and the placement of buildings and houses, various architects and engineers, including Johann Nering, Johann Behr. The new city was founded in 1691, Friedrichstadt was the third expansion of the Berlin-Cölln city center, after Dorotheenstadt and Friedrichswerder. Friedrichstadt was built outside of the Berlins fortifications, south of Dorotheenstadt, however, the city was protected both by the militia of Leipzig and a lengthening of the western city wall of Dorotheenstadt. Today, this is the site of Mauerstraße, toward the south, Friedrichstadt originally extended to the present-day Zimmerstraße. From that southern point, the city extended approximately to the fortifications of the city of Neu-Cölln, to enter the city from Friedrichswerder, one entered through the Leipziger Tor, and to enter from Dorotheenstadt, one came through the Friedrichs-Tor. This new area of the city, however, was not referred to as Friedrichstadt until 1706, Friedrichstadt was designed with an unusually austere geometric style for the time, with broad streets which intersected at right angles to each other. Because the ground upon which the new neighbourhood was to be built was boggy and unstable, many houses in the city had to be built on stilts and stakes. As a result of government sponsored building rush,300 houses stood in Friedrichstadt in 1692, many settlers in the city were Huguenots seeking refuge from the French government. Jerusalems Chapel, which used to stand outside of the area before, was included into Friedrichstadts municipal borders. In 1701 the Judge Krause at the neighboured Kammergericht added a chapel for his family to the church building. To accommodate more German and French settlers, ground was broken on the constructions of two churches, the French Church of Friedrichstadt, and the German New Church, in 1701. Construction of new homes continued in the city until 1708, in 1711 at the corner of Jäger and Markgrafen streets a new building for the Societät der Wissenschaften, founded by Gottfried Leibniz, opened. Today the building is occupied by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, with that, the independence of Friedrichstadt ended, as it was incorporated as a part of the new Berlin
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Luisenstadt
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Luisenstadt is a former quarter of central Berlin, now divided between the present localities of Mitte and Kreuzberg. It gave its name to the Luisenstadt Canal and the Luisenstädtische Kirche, the area of the neighbourhood was originally named Myrica and was acquired in 1261 by the city of Cölln. Luisenstadt is bounded on the north by the river Spree, in the west by the Lindenstraße, a smaller part of the zone now belongs to Mitte and the greater part to Kreuzberg
21.
Prussian National Monument for the Liberation Wars
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The Prussian National Monument for the Liberation Wars is a war memorial in Berlin, Germany, dedicated in 1821. The monument is located on the Kreuzberg hill in the Victoria Park in the Tempelhofer Vorstadt, the monument was conceived at a time of deteriorating relations between the reactionaries and the reformers of the civic movement within Prussia. The monument is of cast iron, a technique en vogue at the time and its younger socket brick building is faced with grey Silesian granite and was designed by the Prussian architect Heinrich Strack and realised by the Prussian engineer Johann Wilhelm Schwedler. Its centerpiece is a turret of 60 Prussian feet, resembling the spire tops of Gothic churches. This dedication is authored by August Boeckh, who was member of the class of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. Frederick William III had rejected three alternative proposals by the philosophical class, in 1813 the defeated and intimidated king, forced into a coalition with France since 1812, refrained to take his chance to shake off the French supremacy in the wake of Napoleons defeats in Russia. Ludwig Yorck, commanding the Prussian units supporting the French, had declared their neutrality towards the Russians without royal accord, in early 1813 irregular units, guerrillas lacking royal accord, formed who swore their allegiance to the fatherland, but not to the king. The hesitant king could not stop this anymore, but only approve it on March 17 in his address An mein Volk, so on 21 March 1819, Frederick Willam III even forbade his subjects to address any further petitions as to fulfilling his promise. The dedication mentions the magnanimosity of the people stood in blatant contrast to the kings reluctance. The ponderous officialese name evoked many alternative names developed for the monument, the monument is located on the 66-metre high top of the Kreuzberg in the Tempelhofer Vorstadt. Between 1888 and 1894 the Victoria Park was laid out around the monument, the monument, topped by an iron cross, became name-giving for the hill it stands on, before mostly called Tempelhofer Berg, but also denoted by many other names in its history. The monument by Karl Friedrich Schinkel has been called the «relatively modest outcome of grandiose plans», however, like many other projects the memorial church never materialised due to lacking money. Already in late 1813 other projects for monuments had been launched by Ernst Moritz Arndt, Karl Sieveking, Johann Heinrich von Dannecker, Leo von Klenze, Schinkel considered for his project to ask the magistrate of Berlin to build a memorial. So like jumping the ship also the initiative for a war memorial did not originate with the king. On 17 March 1813, when the king had jumped on the bandwagon for the wars, he established the military decoration of the Iron Cross, backdated to March 10. He commissioned Schinkel to design the Iron Cross after a royal sketch, on 26 June 1818 Schinkel commissioned the Royal Prussian Iron Foundry to cast the pieces for the monument, including its statues. The foundry estimated costs of thaler 20,646, on 4 September 1818 the king approved the stipulated price of thaler 1,100 and an additional 400 as compensation for fixtures. The adjacent land, measuring 72 Morgen, remained property of Götze, Tietz, duke Charles of Mecklenburg arranged the laying of the foundation stone for 19 September 1818, attended - among others - by Tzar Alexander I, Christian Daniel Rauch and Schinkel
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Karl Friedrich Schinkel
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Karl Friedrich Schinkel was a Prussian architect, city planner, and painter who also designed furniture and stage sets. Schinkel was one of the most prominent architects of Germany and designed both neoclassical and neogothic buildings and his most famous buildings are found in and around Berlin. Schinkel was born in Neuruppin, Margraviate of Brandenburg, when he was six, his father died in the disastrous Neuruppin fire of 1787. He became a student of architect Friedrich Gilly and his father, David Gilly, after returning to Berlin from his first trip to Italy in 1805, he started to earn his living as a painter. When he saw Caspar David Friedrichs painting Wanderer above the Sea of Fog at the 1810 Berlin art exhibition he decided that he would never reach such mastery of painting, after Napoleons defeat, Schinkel oversaw the Prussian Building Commission. From 1808 to 1817 Schinkel renovated and reconstructed Schloss Rosenau, Coburg and he also rebuilt the ruins of Chorin Abbey. He believed that in order to avoid sterility and have a soul, a building must contain elements of the poetic and the past and his most famous extant buildings are found in and around Berlin. He also carried out improvements to the Crown Princes Palace and to Schloss Charlottenburg, Schinkel was also responsible for the interior decoration of a number of private Berlin residences. Later, Schinkel moved away from classicism altogether, embracing the Neo-Gothic in his Friedrichswerder Church, Schinkel died in Berlin, Province of Brandenburg. Schinkel, however, is noted as much for his theoretical work and these and other designs may be studied in his Sammlung architektonischer Entwürfe and his Werke der höheren Baukunst. He also designed the famed Iron Cross medal of Prussia, with essays by Kurt W. Forster and Wolfgang Pehnt, ISBN 0-86559-105-9. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-88221-866-4, die Geschichte vom Leben und Sterben des Baumeisters Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Christoph von Wolzogen, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Unter dem bestirnten Himmel, edition Fichter, Frankfurt 2016, ISBN 978-3-943856-33-0. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, The Last Great Architect. Prefatory essay from Collection of Architectural Designs including those designs which have been executed and objects whose execution was intended by Karl Friedrich Schinkel
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Napoleonic Wars
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The wars resulted from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and the Revolutionary Wars, which had raged on for years before concluding with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Napoleon became the First Consul of France in 1799, then Emperor five years later, inheriting the political and military struggles of the Revolution, he created a state with stable finances, a strong central bureaucracy, and a well-trained army. The British frequently financed the European coalitions intended to thwart French ambitions, by 1805, they had managed to convince the Austrians and the Russians to wage another war against France. At sea, the Royal Navy destroyed a combined Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in October 1805, Prussian worries about increasing French power led to the formation of the Fourth Coalition in 1806. France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July, although Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, it did not bring a lasting peace for Europe. Hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia, the Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support. The Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, the Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia. Unwilling to bear the consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse and retreat of the Grand Army along with the destruction of Russian lands. In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France, a lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813. The Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814 and he was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power. However, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again, the Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June. The Congress of Vienna, which started in 1814 and concluded in 1815, established the new borders of Europe and laid out the terms, Napoleon seized power in 1799, creating a de facto military dictatorship. The Napoleonic Wars began with the War of the Third Coalition, Kagan argues that Britain was irritated in particular by Napoleons assertion of control over Switzerland. Furthermore, Britons felt insulted when Napoleon stated that their country deserved no voice in European affairs, for its part, Russia decided that the intervention in Switzerland indicated that Napoleon was not looking toward a peaceful resolution of his differences with the other European powers. The British quickly enforced a blockade of France to starve it of resources. Napoleon responded with economic embargoes against Britain, and sought to eliminate Britains Continental allies to break the coalitions arrayed against him, the so-called Continental System formed a league of armed neutrality to disrupt the blockade and enforce free trade with France
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Hobrecht-Plan
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The Hobrecht-Plan is the binding land-use plan for Berlin in the 19th century. It is named after its main editor James Hobrecht who was serving for the urban planning police. The finalized plan Bebauungsplan der Umgebungen Berlins was resolved in 1862, the plan did not only cover the area around the cities of Berlin and Charlottenburg, but it did describe also a spatial regional planning on a large perimeter. Thus it also prepared the city and its municipalities for the Greater Berlin Act of 1920. The Hobrecht-Plan inspired new urban plans after 1990 by construction senator Hans Stimmann and his colleagues, so the then divided Berlin would grow together. The industrial revolution led to a rural exodus at the beginning of the 19th century. Berlin as the Prussian capital was the target of many emigrants resulting in a rapid growth. After the Napoleonic Wars the city grew by 10,000 new inhabitants every year accelerating in the middle of the century so that the area would reach the millions at the end of the century. There had been already some urban planning on the city before Hobrecht and this includes proposals from Karl Friedrich Schinkel and planning maps from Johann Carl Ludwig Schmid dating to 1825 and 1830. Peter Joseph Lenné proposed a regional planning in 1840 named Projektierte Schmuck- und Grenzzüge von Berlin mit nächster Umgebung. All the persons were well-renowned landscape architects, Hobrecht was instead a geodesist who had just extended his formation with a civil engineer examination on transportation planning in 1858. Soon after entering the royal Prussian urban planning police he was commanded in 1859 to head the commission on creation of a plan for Berlin. He traveled to Hamburg, Paris and London in 1860 to learn about the development status in urban planning especially their sewer systems. In the 1860s the Berlin Customs Wall was removed and there were plans to amalgamation of the suburbs of Berlin on 1 January 1861. Based on the just finished land surveys and existing land-use proposals James Hobrecht constructed a map showing a possible land-use for a city at a size of 1.5 to 2 million inhabitants. It incorporated the land between the Customs Wall and a line being constructed to encircle the city, the area came to be known architecturally as the Wilhelmine Ring. That Hobrecht-Plan did show two large ring roads encircling both of Berlin and Charlottenburg with dozens of arterial roads entering the city, the area between these were divided into rectangular spaces. Unlike the urban planning of Paris, Hobrecht did respect the existing roads, villages, the map was resolved on 18 July 1862 and it would influence the urban structure of Berlin for the centuries to come
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Wilhelmine Ring (Berlin)
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The Wilhelmine Ring is the name for a belt of distinctive multi-occupancy rental housing blocks constructed in the second half of the 19th century around the historic city center of Berlin. It is characterized by a settlement pattern with four- to five-story residential buildings with side. The designation reflects the period of origin of this town planning solution under the German monarchs Wilhelm I, the Wilhelmine Ring comprises large parts of the Berlin subdistricts Wedding, Gesundbrunnen, Prenzlauer Berg, Friedrichshain, Kreuzberg, Neukölln, Schöneberg, Tiergarten, Moabit and Charlottenburg. It arose primarily in the undeveloped area between the Berlin Customs Wall, which was removed in the 1860s, and a railway line constructed between 1867 and 1877 to encircle the city. Living accommodations for this rapid influx of workers were needed in the vicinity of the new factories. In 1861 a large scale incorporation of neighboring settlements had expanded the area of Berlin by some 70 percent, according to census figures,547,571 people lived in the city in that year. The rear wing apartments, by contrast, were smaller and plainer, harder to ventilate, without views. These back apartments were rented by working-class families, who in turn sublet rooms to supplement their modest income. In the Wilhelmine Ring the population density was over 1000 per hectare, only in 1887 did a new regulation impose stricter constraints on property developers. For example, the eaves or lower edge of the roof could not be higher than 22 meters, wherever it was not badly destroyed in World War II the Wilhelmine Ring is still very present in today’s Berlin and a distinctive feature of the city. Although the ring is still characterized by high density construction and a scarcity of open spaces, in the course of urban redevelopment, renovation and modernization, inner courtyards were sometimes expanded by removing rear or side wings. In other cases the size of the apartments was considerably increased by combining them into larger units
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Berlin Anhalter Bahnhof
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The Anhalter Bahnhof is a former railway terminus in Berlin, Germany, approximately 600 metres southeast of Potsdamer Platz. The stations name lives on in the Berlin S-Bahn station of the same name, opened in October 1939 as part of the North-South S-Bahn link. The Anhalter Bahnhof was the Berlin terminus of a line begun on 15 April 1839, opened on 1 July 1841 as far as Jüterbog, passing through the historical state of Anhalt, it became known as the Anhalt line and this in turn gave the Berlin terminus its name. It quickly developed into a network that carried train services to and from Leipzig, Frankfurt am Main, and so the Anhalter Gate was created in 1839-40, and bore a strong resemblance to architect Karl Friedrich Schinkels Potsdam Gate up the road. A new thoroughfare, Anhalter Straße, led from the gate into the city, the Anhalter Gate was one of four extra ones provided in the years after the customs walls original erection, increasing the total number of gates around the city from 14 to 18. The customs wall eventually became redundant and was demolished in 1866-67, in 1872, architect Franz Heinrich Schwechten designed the vast new station that would also be the biggest in Germany and at the time the biggest in Continental Europe, though it was later surpassed. A temporary station was opened in 1874, the old one was demolished in 1875, on 15 June 1880, the new terminus was opened by Kaiser Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The new façade was 101 m across and embellished with zinc sculptures titled Day and Night by Ludwig Brunow, emil Hundrieser was responsible for a sculpture on the very top of the façade called The International Traffic. Inside the building was a lavish and spacious booking hall with waiting rooms. A separate entrance and reception area were provided for visiting royalty, behind all this, the huge iron and glass train-shed roof by writer and engineer Heinrich Seidel measured 171 m long by 62 m wide, and rose to 34 m in height along its centre line. The Anhalter Güterbahnhof, also opened, south of the Landwehr Canal on the date as the passenger station. Initially the rebuilt terminus was still handling train services mainly to and from Leipzig, Frankfurt am Main and Munich, however, two years later it inherited a whole new range of services with the closure of the Dresdner Bahnhof. This terminus had opened on 17 June 1875, with trains to Dresden, Prague and Vienna, the Anhalter Bahnhof was more than capable of handling these services as well, and so on 15 October 1882 they were switched, and the Dresdner Bahnhof closed. By 1930, trains left its six platforms every three to five minutes, carrying an average of 44,000 people daily. Though still less busy than the Potsdamer Bahnhof up the road, the Anhalter Bahnhof was superior in its sheer scale, there were even five underground shops down there. Begun in 1934, it was opened in two phases, the suburban lines to Zossen and Licherfelde-Ost via Papestraße and Priesterweg were connected to the tunnel on November 6,1939, making the new North-South transversal line complete. This underground station was placed at the west side of the overground station. At Anhalter Bahnhof S-Bahn station a direct route to the mainline terminus above was provided from 19 December 1940
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Bombing of Berlin in World War II
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Berlin, the capital of Nazi Germany, was subject to 363 air raids during the Second World War. It was also attacked by aircraft of the Red Air Force, British bombers dropped 45,517 tons of bombs, the Americans dropped 23,000 tons. As the bombings continued more and more people moved out, by May 1945,1.7 million people had fled. When the Second World War began in 1939, the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, the United Kingdom had a policy of using aerial bombing only against military targets and against infrastructure such as ports and railways of direct military importance. The first RAF raid on the interior of Germany took place on the night of 10 –11 May, although killing German civilians was never an explicit policy, it was obvious that area bombing must lead to large-scale civilian casualties. With the technology available at the time, the bombing of military targets was possible only by daylight. Before 1941, Berlin, at 950 kilometres from London, was at the range attainable by the British bombers then available to the Allied forces. It could be bombed only at night in summer when the days were longer and it has been argued that this action may actually have saved Britain from defeat. During 1940 there were raids on Berlin, all of which did little damage. The raids grew more frequent in 1941, but were ineffective in hitting important targets. The head of the Air Staff of the RAF, Sir Charles Portal, justified these raids by saying that to get four million people out of bed, the Soviet Union started a bombing campaign on Berlin on 8 August 1941 that extended into early September. Navy bombers, operating from the Moonzund Archipelago conducted 8 raids to Berlin with 3-12 aircraft in each raid, Army bombers, operating from near Leningrad, executed several small raids to Berlin. In total in 1941,33 Soviet aircraft dropped 36,000 kilograms of bombs on Berlin, combat and operational losses for the Soviets tallied 17 aircraft destroyed and 70 crewmen killed. On 7 November 1941, Sir Richard Peirse, head of RAF Bomber Command, launched a raid on Berlin. More than 20 were shot down or crashed, and again little damage was done and this failure led to the dismissal of Peirse and his replacement by Sir Arthur Travers Harris, who believed in both the efficacy and necessity of area bombing. Harris said, The Nazis entered this war under the rather childish delusion that they were going to everyone else. At Rotterdam, London, Warsaw, and half a hundred other places and they sowed the wind, and now they are going to reap the whirlwind. At the same time, new bombers with longer ranges were coming into service, particularly the Avro Lancaster, during most of 1942, however, Bomber Commands priority was attacking Germanys U-boat ports as part of Britains effort to win the Battle of the Atlantic
28.
Ullstein Verlag
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The Ullstein Verlag was founded by Leopold Ullstein in 1877 at Berlin and is one of the largest publishing companies of Germany. It published newspapers like B. Z. and Berliner Morgenpost and books through its subsidiaries Ullstein Buchverlage, the newspaper publishing branch was taken over by Axel Springer AG in 1956. In 1894 he also acquired the Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung weekly, which as technology advanced and permitted heavy use of photographs, the B. Z. am Mittag, relaunched in 1904, became Germanys first tabloid newspaper. From 1927 Ullstein also published Die Grüne Post weekly newspaper under chief editor Ehm Welk, the number of authors working for Ullstein also included Vicki Baum and Franz Blei. In 1934 the Jewish Ullstein family was disseized by the Nazi authorities, after the war the publishing house was restored to the Ullstein family, but soon came into financial problems. In 1956 a share of 26% was purchased by Axel Springer, under Springer the remaining West Berlin newspapers Berliner Morgenpost and B. Z. shifted towards a right-wing alignment with a distinct anticommunist stance. The Ullstein book-publishing house was sold to Random House in 2003, the sale, which was subject to the agreement of the Bundeskartellamt, was only approved in part. The Heyne, Südwest and Diana publishing houses became part of Random House, and the remainder of the Ullstein group was sold on to the Bonnier Group
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August Scherl
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August Scherl, a German newspaper magnate, was born on 24 July 1849 in Düsseldorf, and died on 18 April 1921 in Berlin. August Hugo Friedrich Scherl founded a newspaper and publishing concern on 1 October 1883 and he was editor of the Berlin Local Advertiser since 3rd November 1883, and his publishing house started the weekly magazine Die Woche in 1899. In 1904 he took over publication of the popular magazine Die Gartenlaube. As a result his publishing company had the largest circulation of any in Germany at the time, Scherl was also active with theater projects, with lottery systems and a Gyro Monorail. These costly projects were not commercially successful, so he sold his interests in the German Publishers Association and his nationwide newspaper empire was taken over by Alfred Hugenberg in 1916, and later by Max Amann. When young Scherl lived with his parents in Naunynstrasse, in life he remained in the central district of Berlin. He had a constructed in Dahlem in secret, in order to surprise his wife. When she made a comment about the building, when driving past it, Scherl had the house demolished. The secret of his success was his readiness to take risks, understanding of economics, foresight, innovation, the Generalanzeiger-Presse in Germany was founded by Scherl. Franz Menges, Scherl, August, Neue Deutsche Biographie,22, Berlin, Duncker & Humblot, pp. 698–699
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Rudolf Mosse
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Rudolf Mosse was a German publisher and philanthropist. Mosse was born in Grätz, Grand Duchy of Posen, as the son of Dr. Markus Moses, advertising was not at all developed in Germany at that time, and it was in this direction that Mosse at the age of twenty-four saw his opportunity. He organized an agency at Berlin, which finally extended itself to most of the larger cities of Germany, Austria. It was through his initiative that advertising supplements were added to Kladderadatsch, Fliegende Blätter, Gartenlaube, Über Land und Meer, organ des Central-Vereins deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens. Among other publications of his were the Bäder Almanach and the Deutsches Reichsadressbuch and his printing establishment, founded in 1872, was one of the largest of its kind. Mosse was also known for his philanthropic work, in 1892 he established a fund for his employees with a capital of 100,000 marks, and in 1895 another fund of 1,000,000 marks for the same purpose. He represented the Jewish community of Berlin for ten years, one of his six brothers, Emil Mosse, became his business partner in 1884, while another Albert Mosse, achieved prominence as a jurist. Mosse is buried in the Weissensee Cemetery, Berlin, adolph Kohut, Berühmte Israelitische Männer und Frauen, ii. 389-394 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Isidore Singer, Isidor Warsaw. New York, Funk & Wagnalls Company
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Axel Springer
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Axel Cäsar Springer was a German journalist and the founder and owner of the Axel Springer SE publishing company. Springer was born in Altona near Hamburg, where his father worked as publisher, Springers career started as an apprentice compositor and publisher at the publishers Hammerich & Lesser-Verlag, his fathers company. After that, he received training in the news agency Wolffs Telegraphisches Bureau. Starting in 1934, he worked as a journalist with Altonaer Nachrichten until the closure of the newspaper in 1941. From 1941 to 1945, he published works in Hammerich & Lesser Verlag. He founded his own publishing company Axel Springer GmbH in Hamburg in 1946 and he published the Hamburger Abendblatt newspaper, preceded by some magazines, including the popular radio and TV programm magazine Hörzu. In 1952, Springer started the publication of the tabloid Bild, becoming the newspaper for millions in Germany. He went on to launch and acquire a string of papers and magazines characterised by entertainment and conservative politics, Die Welt among others. The Axel Springer AG today is one of the magazine, newspaper and online media companies in Europe with over 230 newspapers. Springer was swift to denounce those who questioned the economic miracle of the fifties and sixties, Springers tabloid Bild newspaper was attacked in 1974s The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum by Heinrich Böll. In 1977 Günter Wallraff, a famous German writer and journalist worked for four months as an editor for Bild newspaper in Hanover, under name Hans Esser. In his books Der Aufmacher and Zeugen der Anklage he portrays his experiences among the staff of the tabloid. To uphold liberty and law in Germany, a country belonging to the Western family of nations, to promote reconciliation of Jews and Germans and support the vital rights of the State of Israel. To support the Transatlantic Alliance, and solidarity with the United States of America in the values of free nations. To reject all forms of political extremism, to uphold the principles of a free social market economy. The corporate constitution defines fundamental sociopolitical convictions but does not offer opinions, Springer died in West Berlin in 1985. His heiress is his fifth wife Friede Springer who,30 years Springers junior, had been his sons nanny
32.
Berlin Wall
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The Berlin Wall was a guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989. Its demolition officially began on 13 June 1990 and was completed in 1992, the barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area that contained anti-vehicle trenches, fakir beds and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that the Wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the will of the people in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that had marked East Germany, the West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the Wall of Shame—a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt—while condemning the Walls restriction on freedom of movement. Between 1961 and 1989, the Wall prevented almost all such emigration, during this period, around 5,000 people attempted to escape over the Wall, with an estimated death toll ranging from 136 to more than 200 in and around Berlin. After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany, crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the Wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, euphoric people and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the Wall, contrary to popular belief the Walls actual demolition did not begin until the summer of 1990 and was not completed until 1992. The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for German reunification, the capital of Berlin, as the seat of the Allied Control Council, was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the citys location, which was fully within the Soviet zone. Within two years, political divisions increased between the Soviets and the occupying powers. Property and industry was nationalized in the East German zone, if statements or decisions deviated from the described line, reprimands and punishment would ensue, such as imprisonment, torture and even death. Indoctrination of Marxism-Leninism became a part of school curricula, sending professors. The East Germans created a political police apparatus that kept the population under close surveillance. In 1948, following disagreements regarding reconstruction and a new German currency, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several countries began a massive airlift, supplying West Berlin with food. The Soviets mounted a public campaign against the Western policy change. Communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948, preceding large losses therein, in May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade, permitting the resumption of Western shipments to Berlin. The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949, by a secret treaty, the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs accorded the East German state administrative authority, but not autonomy. The Soviets permeated East German administrative, military and secret police structures and had full control, East Germany differed from West Germany, which developed into a Western capitalist country with a social market economy and a democratic parliamentary government
33.
Squatting
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Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential—that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. Author Robert Neuwirth suggested in 2004 that there were one billion squatters globally and he forecasts there will be two billion by 2030 and three billion by 2050. Yet, according to Kesia Reeve, squatting is largely absent from policy and academic debate and is rarely conceptualised, as a problem, as a symptom, Squatting can be related to political movements, such as anarchist, autonomist, or socialist. It can be a means to conserve buildings or to provide housing, while these settlements may, in time, grow to become both legalised and indistinguishable from normal residential neighbourhoods, they start off as squats with minimal basic infrastructure. Thus, there is no sewage system, drinking water must be bought from vendors or carried from a nearby tap, besides being residences, some squats are used as social centres or host give-away shops, pirate radio stations or cafés. In Spanish-speaking countries, squatters receive several names, such as okupas in Spain, Chile or Argentina, Squatting by necessity is in itself a political issue, therefore also a statement or rather a response to the political system causing it. During the period of recession and increased housing foreclosures in the 2000s, squatting became far more prevalent in Western. In some cases, need-based and politically motivated squatting go hand in hand, conservational – i. e. preserving monuments because the authorities have let them decay Political – e. g. Property law and the state have traditionally favored the property owner, however, in many cases where squatters had de facto ownership, laws have been changed to legitimize their status. Anarchist Colin Ward comments, Squatting is the oldest mode of tenure in the world and this is as true of the Queen with her 176,000 acres as it is of the 54 percent of householders in Britain who are owner-occupiers. They are all the recipients of stolen land, for to regard our planet as a commodity offends every conceivable principle of natural rights. U. K. police official Sue Williams, for example, has stated that Squatting is linked to Anti-Social Behaviour and can cause a great deal of nuisance, in some cases there may also be criminal activities involved. The public attitude toward squatting varies, depending on legal aspects, socioeconomic conditions, in particular, while squatting of municipal buildings may be treated leniently, squatting of private property often leads to strong negative reaction on the part of the public and authorities. Adverse possession is a method of acquiring title to property through possession for a period under certain conditions. Countries where this principle exists include England and the United States, however, some non-common law jurisdictions have laws similar to adverse possession. For example, Louisiana has a doctrine called acquisitive prescription. There are large communities in Kenya, such as Kibera in Nairobi. An estimated 1,000 people live in the Grande Hotel Beira in Mozambique, the Zabbaleen settlement and the City of the Dead are both well-known squatter communities in Cairo
34.
Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin
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Berlin is both a city and one of Germany’s federal states. Since a 2001 administrative reform, it has made up of twelve boroughs or districts, each with its own local government, though all boroughs are subject to Berlin’s city. Each borough is governed by a council with five councillors and a borough mayor, the borough council is elected by the borough assembly. The borough governments power is limited, and subordinate to the Berlin Senate, the borough mayors form a council of mayors, which advises the Senate. Each borough is made up of several officially recognized subdistricts or neighborhoods, the neighborhoods do not have their own governmental bodies, but are recognized by the city and the boroughs for planning and statistical purposes. Berliners often identify more with the neighborhood where they live than with the borough that governs them, the neighborhoods are further subdivided into statistical tracts, which are mainly used for planning and statistical purposes. The statistical tracts correspond roughly but not exactly with neighbourhoods recognized by residents, by 2000, Berlin comprised 23 boroughs, as three new boroughs had been created in East Berlin. Today Berlin is divided into boroughs, reduced from 23 boroughs before Berlins 2001 administrative reform. An administrative reform in 2001 merged the existing boroughs into the current 12 boroughs, the power of the borough governments is limited and their performance of assigned tasks is subject to a regulatory supervision by the Senate. The BVV assembly is elected by the boroughs population and therefore acts as a borough parliament. It elects the members of the council, checks its daily administration and is able to make applications and recommendations. The twelve borough mayors regularly meet in the Council of Mayors, led by the citys Governing Mayor, the localities have no local government bodies, and the administrative duties of the former locality representative, the Ortsvorsteher, were taken over by the borough mayors. Only the unchanged boroughs of Neukölln, Reinickendorf and Spandau havent changed their field, the coat of arms of Pankow was created with a new design in 2008, having been the only district without an emblem for 7 years. As of 2012, the boroughs are made up of a total of 96 officially recognized localities. Almost all of them are subdivided into several other zones. The largest Ortsteil is Köpenick, the smallest one is Hansaviertel, the most populated is Neukölln, the least populated is Malchow
35.
Friedrichshain
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Friedrichshain is a district of Berlin, Germany. From its creation in 1920 until 2001, it was a city borough. Formerly part of East Berlin, it is adjacent to Mitte, Friedrichshain is named after the Volkspark Friedrichshain, a vast green park at the northern border with Prenzlauer Berg. In the Nazi era, the borough was called Horst-Wessel-Stadt, Friedrichshain is one of the trendy districts of Berlin and has experienced gentrification. The largely working-class district was created in 1920 when Greater Berlin was established by referendum, Friedrichshain united the Frankfurter Vorstadt, already part of Berlin, and the villages of Boxhagen and Stralau. It took its name from the Volkspark, which was planned in 1840 to commemorate the centenary of Frederick the Great’s coronation, much of the district was settled in the rapid industrialization of the 19th and early 20th centuries, led by growth in manufacturing and crafts. It owed much to the opening of the line between Berlin and Frankfurt in 1846, and the opening of the first waterworks in 1865 at Stralauer Tor. In 1874 the Krankenhaus im Friedrichshain was opened, Berlins first hospital beside the university clinic Charité, in the early 1900s, the districts largest employer was the Knorr-Bremse brake factory, the Knorrpromenade, one of Friedrichshains most attractive streets, was built to house the management. The street network of Friedrichhain was originally specified in the Hobrecht-Plan, during World War II Friedrichshain was one of the most badly damaged parts of Berlin, as Allied strategic bombers specifically targeted its industries. As late as the nineties, some buildings still displayed bullet holes from the house to house fighting during the Battle of Berlin. After the war ended, the boundary between the US and Soviet occupation sectors ran between Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg, with Friedrichshain in the east and Kreuzberg in the west and this became a sealed border between East and West Berlin when the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. In the period of De-Stalinization following the Soviet leaders death, the boulevard was renamed Karl-Marx-Allee at one end, neither of these buildings serve their original function today. It is known for its bars, clubs, pubs. There were numerous squats in Friedrichshain, with many in and around Rigaer Straße, Mainzer Straße, following German reunification, the availability of comparatively cheap rented accommodation attracted students and artists. Nowadays numerous restoration works are under way and Friedrichshain is developing at a fast pace becoming more and more gentrified itself, at the opposite end of the district, the Volkspark Friedrichshain is a large park serving the densely populated area of Prenzlauer Berg on the other side. Its distinctive features include the Märchenbrunnen and two green and pleasant mountains consisting purely of rubble and the ruins of two World War II Flak towers, peaceful green oases like the Volkspark Friedrichshain offer opportunities for sports and recreation in leafy nature. The Spreeufer is lovely for walks along the riverside, concerning its culinary offerings, this area also boasts a great choice of restaurants in all price ranges as well as many charming cafés. Culture lovers enjoy this neighborhood because of various small exhibition spaces, venues, cinemas, Frankfurter Allee features various shopping facilities as well as the Ring-Center shopping mall
36.
Oberbaum Bridge
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The Oberbaum Bridge is a double-deck bridge crossing Berlins River Spree, considered one of the citys landmarks. It links Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg, former boroughs that were divided by the Berlin Wall, the lower deck of the bridge carries a roadway, which connects Oberbaum Straße to the south of the river with Warschauer Straße to the north. The upper deck of the bridge carries Berlin U-Bahn line U1, the bridge appears prominently in the 1998 film Run Lola Run. The bridge is built on the boundary of the municipal area with its rural environs. A wooden drawbridge was built as part of the wall, it served as a gate to the city, the name Oberbaumbrücke stemmed from the heavy tree trunk, covered in metal spikes, that was used as a boom to block the river at night to prevent smuggling. At 154 meters it was Berlins longest, but was no longer adequate to the amount of crossing it. Plans began to be drawn up for a new stone construction, the Siemens & Halske company, which was planning to build the Berlin U-Bahn, insisted on a combined crossing for road vehicles, pedestrians, and the new rail line. The new bridge opened in 1896 after two years of construction, in time for the Berlin Trades Exhibition, the two towers were inspired by the Middle Gate Tower in the northern Brandenburg city of Prenzlau. Although purely cosmetic, they served as a reminder that the site was once Berlin’s river gateway, in 1902 the first segment of the U-Bahn opened. Its inaugural journey, carrying 19 passengers, ran from Stralauer Thor, at the end of the bridge. Stralauer Thor was dismantled after being damaged in a 1945 air raid, after Berlin absorbed several other municipalities in 1920, the Oberbaum Bridge became the crossing between the new boroughs of Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg. In April 1945 the Wehrmacht blew up the section of the bridge in an attempt to stop the Red Army from crossing it. After the war ended, Berlin was divided into four sectors, the Oberbaum Bridge crossed between the American and Soviet sectors. Until the mid-1950s, pedestrians, motor vehicles, and the city tramway were able to cross the bridge without difficulty, the West Berlin U-Bahn line was forced to terminate at Schlesisches Tor. Beginning on 21 December 1963, the Oberbaum Bridge was used as a border crossing for West Berlin residents only. It opened to pedestrians and traffic on 9 November 1994, the anniversary of the opening of the Berlin Wall. The U-Bahn line to Warschauer Straße station was reopened a year later, since 1997, a neon installation entitled Stone - Paper - Scissors by Thorsten Goldberg has adorned the bridge. Due to their higher turnout and the armament, the Friedrichshain detachments have won the water battle on a regular basis
37.
Deutsche Mark
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The Deutsche Mark, abbreviated DM or D-Mark, was the official currency of West Germany and unified Germany until the adoption of the euro in 2002. In English, but not in German, it is called the Deutschmark. Mark coins and banknotes continued to be accepted as valid forms of payment in Germany until 28 February 2002. However, in 2012, it was estimated that as many as 13.2 billion marks were in circulation, with polls showing a narrow majority of Germans favouring the currencys restoration. The Deutsche Bundesbank has guaranteed that all German marks in form may be changed into euros indefinitely. Banknotes and coins can even be sent to the Bundesbank by mail, on 31 December 1998, the Council of the European Union fixed the irrevocable exchange rate, effective 1 January 1999, for German mark to euros as DM1.95583 = €1. One Deutsche Mark was divided into 100 Pfennig, a mark had been the currency of Germany since its original unification in 1871. Before that time, the different German states issued a variety of different currencies, though most were linked to the Vereinsthaler, a silver coin containing 16 2⁄3 grams of pure silver. Although the mark was based on rather than silver, a fixed exchange rate between the Vereinsthaler and the mark of 3 marks =1 Vereinsthaler was used for the conversion. The first mark, known as the Goldmark, was introduced in 1873, with the outbreak of World War I, the mark was taken off the gold standard. The currency thus became known as the Papiermark, especially as inflation, then hyperinflation occurred. The Papiermark was replaced by the Rentenmark from November 15,1923, due to the strains between the Allies each zone was governed independently as regards monetary matters. The US occupation policy was governed by the directive JCS1067, as a consequence a separate monetary reform in the U. S. zone was not possible. Each of the Allies printed its own occupation currency, the Deutsche Mark was officially introduced on Sunday, June 20,1948 by Ludwig Erhard. Large amounts were exchanged for RM10 to 65 Pfennig, in addition, each person received a per capita allowance of DM60 in two parts, the first being DM40 and the second DM20. A few weeks later Erhard, acting against orders, issued an edict abolishing many economic controls which had been implemented by the Nazis. He did this, as he confessed, on Sunday because the offices of the American, British. He was sure if he had done it when they were open
38.
Punk rock
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Punk rock is a rock music genre that developed in the early to mid-1970s in the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia. Rooted in 1960s garage rock and other forms of what is now known as proto-punk music, Punk bands typically produced short or fast-paced songs, with hard-edged melodies and singing styles, stripped-down instrumentation, and often political, anti-establishment lyrics. Punk embraces a DIY ethic, many bands self-produce recordings and distribute them through informal channels, the term punk was first used in relation to rock music by some American critics in the early 1970s, to describe garage bands and their devotees. The following year saw punk rock spreading around the world, for the most part, punk took root in local scenes that tended to reject association with the mainstream. An associated punk subculture emerged, expressing youthful rebellion and characterized by distinctive styles of clothing and adornment, by the beginning of the 1980s, faster, more aggressive styles such as hardcore and street punk had become the predominant mode of punk rock. Musicians identifying with or inspired by punk also pursued a range of other variations, giving rise to post-punk. At the end of the 20th century, punk rock had been adopted by the mainstream, as pop punk and punk bands such as Green Day. The first wave of rock was aggressively modern, distancing itself from the bombast. According to Ramones drummer Tommy Ramone, In its initial form, unfortunately, what happens is that people who could not hold a candle to the likes of Hendrix started noodling away. Soon you had endless solos that went nowhere, by 1973, I knew that what was needed was some pure, stripped down, no bullshit rock n roll. In critic Robert Christgaus description, It was also a subculture that rejected the political idealism. Technical accessibility and a DIY spirit are prized in punk rock, in the early days of punk rock, this ethic stood in marked contrast to what those in the scene regarded as the ostentatious musical effects and technological demands of many mainstream rock bands. Musical virtuosity was often looked on with suspicion, according to Holmstrom, punk rock was rock and roll by people who didnt have very many skills as musicians but still felt the need to express themselves through music. In December 1976, the English fanzine Sideburns published an illustration of three chords, captioned This is a chord, this is another, this is a third. The title of a 1980 single by the New York punk band Stimulators, inscribed a catchphrase for punks basic musical approach. The previous year, when the rock revolution began in Great Britain, was to be both a musical and a cultural Year Zero. As a Clash associate describes singer Joe Strummers outlook, Punk rock is meant to be our freedom, were meant to be able to do what we want to do. Scholar Daniel S. Traber argues that attaining authenticity in the identity can be difficult, as the punk scene matured, he observes
39.
SO36
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The SO36 club is a music club on Oranienstrasse near Heinrichplatz in the area of Kreuzberg in Berlin, Germany. It takes its name from the postcode of that area, SO36. The Kreuzberg district has historically been home to the Berlin punk rock movement, SO36 was originally focused largely on punk music and in the 1970s was often frequented by musicians such as Iggy Pop and David Bowie. After problems Martin Kippenberger took over the management in 1979 and tried to create a crossover between punk, new wave and visual art, in those days the club rivaled New Yorks CBGB as one of the finest new-wave venues in the world. However unlike CBGB the venue still stands as of November 2015 and remains a fixture on the Berlin music scene championing new artists, while staying true to its punk past. English rock band Killing Joke named a song $, O,36 on their eponymous first album, the Electric Ballroom held at the club is considered a legendary fixture of the Berlin Techno gay scene. Gayhane founded 1997 by Turkish performer Fatma Souad is the nucleus of the Berlin Turkish gay, DJ Ipek, an internationally known DJ and performer at the club, is responsible for the Gayhane mixture of Arabic, Turkish and Indian music. German photographer Nicolaus Schmidt created both a documentary and fictitious portrait of the club, called an amalgam of western and oriental culture
40.
Iggy Pop
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James Newell Osterberg, Jr. known professionally as Iggy Pop, is an American singer-songwriter, musician, producer and actor. He was the vocalist of influential proto-punk band The Stooges, who reunited in 2003, Pops music has encompassed a number of styles over the course of his career, including garage rock, punk rock, hard rock, art rock, new wave, jazz and blues. In 2010, The Stooges were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Osterberg was raised in a trailer park in Ypsilanti, Michigan. He is of German, English and Irish descent on his fathers side and his father was adopted by a Swedish American family and took on their surname. His later stage name, Iggy, is derived from the Iguanas, after exploring local blues-style bands such as the Prime Movers, he eventually dropped out of the University of Michigan and moved to Chicago to learn more about blues. While in Chicago, he played drums in blues clubs, helped by Sam Lay who shared his connections with Iggy, inspired by Chicago blues as well as bands like The Sonics, MC5 and The Doors, he formed the Psychedelic Stooges and began calling himself Iggy. The band was composed of Iggy on vocals, Ron Asheton on guitar, Ashetons brother Scott on drums and their first show was played at a Halloween party at a house in Detroit, Michigan. Members of the MC5 were also in attendance, the seeds of Pops stage persona were sown when he saw The Doors perform in 1967 at the University of Michigan and was amazed by the stage antics and antagonism displayed by singer Jim Morrison. Morrisons extreme behavior, while performing in a band, inspired the young Pop to push the boundaries of stage performance. Other influences on Pops vocals and persona were Mick Jagger and James Brown, Pop was the first performer to do a stage-dive, which he started at a concert in Detroit. Pop, who traditionally performs bare-chested, also performed such stage theatrics as rolling around in broken glass, exposing himself to the crowd, I attended two concerts by the Doors. The first one I attended was early on and they had not gotten their shit together yet and that show was a big, big, big influence on me. They had just had their big hit, “Light My Fire”, so, here’s this guy, out of his head on acid, dressed in leather with his hair all oiled and curled. The stage was tiny and it was really low, part of me was like, Wow, this is great. He’s really pissing people off and he’s lurching around making these guys angry, people were rushing the stage and Morrison’s going Fuck you. You can fill in your sexual comments yourself, the other half of it was that I thought, If they’ve got a hit record out and they can get away with this, then I have no fucking excuse not to get out on stage with my band. It was sort of the case of, Hey, I can do that, there really was some of that in there. In a 1995 interview with Bust Magazine, he relates, And the other thing was we went to New York. ”And we didn’t have anywhere to crash, and they played for us, and they completely rocked, and we were really ashamed. ”In 1968, one year after their debut and now dubbed The Stooges, the band signed with Elektra Records, again following in the footsteps of The Doors
41.
David Bowie
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David Robert Jones, known professionally as David Bowie, was an English singer, songwriter and actor. He was a figure in music for over five decades, regarded by critics and musicians as an innovator. His career was marked by reinvention and visual presentation, his music, during his lifetime, his record sales, estimated at 140 million worldwide, made him one of the worlds best-selling music artists. In the UK, he was awarded nine platinum album certifications, eleven gold and eight silver, in the US, he received five platinum and seven gold certifications. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996, born in Brixton, South London, Bowie developed an interest in music as a child, eventually studying art, music and design before embarking on a professional career as a musician in 1963. Space Oddity became his first top-five entry on the UK Singles Chart after its release in July 1969, after a period of experimentation, he re-emerged in 1972 during the glam rock era with his flamboyant and androgynous alter ego Ziggy Stardust. The character was spearheaded by the success of his single Starman and album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, in 1976, Bowie starred in the cult film The Man Who Fell to Earth and released Station to Station. Heroes and Lodger followed, each reached the UK top five. He then reached his peak in 1983 with Lets Dance. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Bowie continued to experiment with styles, including industrial. He stopped concert touring after 2004, and his last live performance was at a charity event in 2006, in 2013, Bowie returned from a decade-long recording hiatus with the release of The Next Day. He remained musically active until he died of cancer two days after the release of his final album, Blackstar. David Robert Jones was born on 8 January 1947, in Brixton, south London and his mother, Margaret Mary Peggy, was born in Kent, and had Irish ancestry, she worked as a waitress. His father, Haywood Stenton John Jones, from Yorkshire, was an officer for the childrens charity Barnardos. The family lived at 40 Stansfield Road, near the border of the south London areas of Brixton, Bowie attended Stockwell Infants School until he was six years old, acquiring a reputation as a gifted and single-minded child—and a defiant brawler. In 1953, Bowie moved with his family to the suburb of Bromley and his voice was considered adequate by the school choir, and he demonstrated above-average abilities in playing the recorder. Upon listening to Little Richards song Tutti Frutti, Bowie would later say, presleys impact on him was likewise emphatic, I saw a cousin of mine dance to. Hound Dog and I had never seen her get up and be moved so much by anything and it really impressed me, the power of the music
listen)), a part of the combined Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg borough located south of Mitte since 2001, is one of the best-known areas of Berlin, Germany. Kreuzberg, colloquially also known as X-Berg (derived from the meaning of Kreuz ("cross")), is often described as consisting of two distinctive parts: the SO 36, home to many immigrants; and SW 61, roughly coterminous with the old postal codes for the two areas in West Berlin.[1] Kreuzberg has emerged from its history as one of the poorest quarters in Berlin in the late 1970s, during which it was an isolated section of West Berlin[2] to one of Berlin's cultural centers in the middle of the now reunified city, known around the world for its alternative scene and counterculture.[3][4]
Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf
Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg
Lichtenberg
Marzahn-Hellersdorf
Mitte
Neukölln
Pankow
Reinickendorf
Spandau
Steglitz-Zehlendorf
Tempelhof-Schöneberg
Treptow-Köpenick