1.
New South Wales
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New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
2.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
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The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
3.
National park
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A national park is a park in use for conservation purposes. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns, although individual nations designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea, the conservation of wild nature for posterity and as a symbol of national pride. An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although Yellowstone was not officially termed a national park in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. The first area to use national park in its legislation was the USs Mackinac Island. Australias Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the third official national park. In 1895 ownership of Mackinac Island was transferred to the State of Michigan as a state park, as a result, Australias Royal National Park is by some considerations the second oldest national park now in existence. The largest national park in the meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park. According to the IUCN,6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006, IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. National parks are almost always open to visitors, in 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a sort of property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877, John Muir is today referred to as the Father of the National Parks due to his work in Yosemite. He published two articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on July 1,1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley, according to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for use, resort. Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation, a public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone at its establishment six years later was put under national control, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States first national park, being also the worlds first national park. In some European countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed, such as Drachenfels, Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory
4.
Sydney
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Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Berowra railway station
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Berowra railway station is located on the Main Northern line, serving the Sydney suburb of Berowra. It is served by Sydney Trains T1 North Shore Line services, Berowra station opened on 7 April 1887 when the Main Northern line was extended from Hornsby to Hawkesbury River. In 1909, the line was duplicated and the present island platform built, on 23 October 1983, a passing loop was opened opposite the platform. This allowed suburban services to terminate, and from January 1992, on 28 August 2006, Platform 3 opened on the passing loop as part of the CityRail Clearways Project, to allow suburban trains to terminate clear of the running lines. Trains now terminate on the middle Platform 2, allowing trains to overtake any terminating trains standing in the station. The upgrade also included provision of lifts, a new bridge for general station access. On 22 January 2007, Berowra station was almost engulfed as bushfires swept the Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, efforts from firefighters saved the station and a train which had terminated there
7.
State park
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State parks are parks or other protected areas managed at the sub-national level within those nations which use state as a political subdivision. State parks are established by a state to preserve a location on account of its natural beauty, historic interest. There are state parks under the administration of the government of each U. S. state, some of the Mexican states, the term is also used in the Australian state of Victoria. The equivalent term used in Canada, Argentina, South Africa, similar systems of local government maintained parks exist in other countries, but the terminology varies. State parks are thus similar to parks, but under state rather than federal administration. Similarly, local government entities below state level may maintain parks, in general, state parks are smaller than national parks, with a few exceptions such as the Adirondack Park in New York and Anza-Borrego Desert State Park in California. As of 2014, there were 10,234 state park units in the United States, there are some 739 million annual visits to the countrys state parks. The NASPD further counts over 43,000 miles of trail,217,367 campsites, many states include designations beyond state park in their state parks systems. Other designations might be state recreation areas, state beaches, some state park systems include long-distance trails and historic sites. The title of oldest state park in the United States is claimed by Niagara Falls State Park in New York, however several public parks previously or currently maintained at the state level pre-date it. Indian Springs State Park has been operated continuously by the state of Georgia as a park since 1825. In 1864 Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove were ceded by the government to California until Yosemite National Park was proclaimed in 1890. In 1878 Wisconsin set aside a vast swath of its forests as The State Park but, needing money. The first state park with the designation of state park was Mackinac Island State Park in 1895, list of U. S. state parks National Association of State Park Directors Wilderness preservation systems in the United States Ahlgren, Carol. The Civilian Conservation Corps and Wisconsin State Park Development, the State Park Movement in America, A Critical Review excerpt and text search Larson, Zeb. Silver Falls State Park and the Early Environmental Movement, oregon Historical Quarterly 112#1 pp, 34-57 in JSTOR Newton, Norman T. When Forests Trumped Parks, The Maryland Experience, 1906-1950, Maryland Historical Magazine 101#2 pp, 203-224
8.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
9.
Ku-ring-gai Council
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Ku-ring-gai Council is a local government area in the north shore region of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. The region is named after the Kuringgai tribe who inhabited the area. Major transport routes through the area include the Pacific Highway and North Shore railway line, there are also many domestic gardens in the residential parts of Ku-ring-gai. The Mayor of Ku-ring-gai Council is Cr, at the 2012 local government election, David Ossip, aged 20 years, made history as he became the youngest person to ever be elected as a Councillor in the history of Ku-Ring-Gai Council. He was elected as the Councils Deputy Mayor in September 2015, aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 0. 1% of the population, significantly below the national average of 2. 5%. The median age of people in the Ku-ring-gai Council area was 41 years, children aged 0 –14 years made up 20. 6% of the population and people aged 65 years and over made up 17. 4% of the population. Of people in the area aged 15 years and over,61. 5% were married and 6. 1% were either divorced or separated, a rate that is approximately half the national average. Population growth in the Ku-ring-gai Council area between the 2001 Census and the 2006 Census was 0. 93% and in the subsequent five years to the 2011 Census, the median weekly income for residents within the Ku-ring-gai Council area was significantly higher than the national average. At the 2011 Census, the area was diverse, with Asian languages spoken in more than 12% of households. Ku-ring-gai a Council is composed of ten Councillors elected proportionally as five separate wards, all Councillors are elected for a fixed four-year term of office. The Mayor is elected by the Councillors at the first meeting of the Council, the first leader of the council was elected at the first meeting on 8 December 1906, when Councillor William Cowan was elected as Shire President. There would not be a Deputy President until the election on 1 March 1920. On 22 September 1928, the Shire of Ku-ring-gai was proclaimed as the Municipality of Ku-ring-gai, in 1993, with the passing of a new Local Government Act, council was retitled as simply Ku-ring-gai Council and Aldermen were retitled as Councillors. During the term of former Planning Minister, Frank Sartor, planning law reforms were passed that gave development approval to a panel and this has been termed The Rape of Ku-ring-gai. The laws are intended to take development approval power away from local councils and to the Planning NSW, Planning panels are about to be introduced across New South Wales under recently passed planning reforms. In 2005-06, Ku-ring-gai had the second highest reported total development value in the state - A$1.7 billion, more than Parramatta, the proposal is currently on hold, pending a legal challenge initiated by the council. Ku-Ring-Gai Council Ku-Ring-Gai Art Centre and Gallery Artabase page
10.
Hornsby Shire
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Hornsby Shire is a local government area in the northern region of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. The Shire stretches from the M2 Hills Motorway in the south to the Hawkesbury River town of Wisemans Ferry, as at the 2011 Census the Shire had an estimated population of 156,847. The Mayor of Hornsby Shire is Cr Steve Russell, a member of the Liberal Party, a 2015 review of local government boundaries by the NSW Government Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal recommended that Hornsby Shire merge with adjoining councils. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 0. 4% of the population, the median age of people in the Hornsby Shire was 39 years. Children aged 0 –14 years made up 19. 4% of the population and people aged 65 years, of people in the area aged 15 years and over,57. 9% were married and 8. 0% were either divorced or separated. Population growth in the Hornsby Shire between the 2001 Census and the 2006 Census was 4. 58% and in the subsequent five years to the 2011 Census, the median weekly income for residents within the Hornsby Shire was higher than the national average. Hornsby Shire Council is composed of ten Councillors, including the Mayor, for a fixed term of office. The Mayor is directly elected while the nine other Councillors are elected proportionally as three separate wards, each electing three Councillors, in return he was granted land in the locality known as Hornsby Place. Hornsby Shire has remained rural for many decades. Some parts of this Shire were transferred in May 2016 due to New South Wales Local Government amalgamations, Hornsby calls itself the Bushland Shire. These provide large areas of parkland that form a green belt running from Sydney at the south to the Hawkesbury River at the Shires northern end. These parks are popular with day-trippers from all areas of Sydney. The northern half of Hornsby Shire remains an area, retaining a number of farmlands. The village of Galston is the centre of this rural area, the southern half of the Shire is urban, forming part of Sydneys suburbia. The Shire has two areas, in Hornsby and Thornleigh. The major commercial centres of the Shire, apart from Hornsbys central business district, are the suburbs of Pennant Hills, North Epping, suburbs including Epping were under Hornsby Shire. However they are transferred into other district councils including Parramatta City Council, the urban areas of Hornsby are serviced by two branches of the North Shore, Northern & Western Line) of the Sydney Trains network. The branches connect Hornsby to Chatswood via either Macquarie Park or Gordon, from Chatswood both branches proceed to the Sydney central business district
11.
Warringah Council
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Warringah Council was a local government area in the northern beaches region of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Warringah Council administered 152 square kilometres of land, including nine beaches 14 kilometres of coastline and it also contained Manly Dam, a popular place for recreation. The former Warringah local government area included a number of beaches for swimming and surfing, the last Mayor of Warringah Council was Cr Michael Regan, a member of the Your Warringah party. The seat of Council was located in Dee Why, the Mayor was directly elected while the nine other Councillors were elected proportionally with three separate wards each electing three Councillors. The last election was held on 8 September 2012, and the makeup of the Council, the last Council, elected in 2012, in order of election by ward, is as follows. The traditional Aboriginal owners of the land we now know as Warringah had mostly disappeared from this area within years of European settlement, the name Warringah was taken from the Aboriginal word for Middle Harbour. The use of the name Warringah was picked up again in 1906 when it was given to Shire 131, Warringah also has other meanings in various Aboriginal languages including ‘grey head’ and ‘signs of rain’. Warringah was explored early on in the settlement of Sydney, only a few weeks after the arrival of the First Fleet, however, it remained a rural area for most of the 1800s, with only small settlements in the valleys between headlands. While it was close to the city centre, to reach the area over land from Sydney via Mona Vale Road was a trip of more than 100 kilometres. On 7 March 1906, the Warringah Shire was proclaimed by the NSW Government Gazette and it ran roughly from Broken Bay in the north to Manly Lagoon to the south, and by Middle Harbour Creek and Cowan Creek in the west. It covered 264 square kilometres and had a population of around 2800, under the Shires Act, ratepayers with properties worth at least five pounds could vote for up to nine Councillors for a three-year term. The first meeting of this council took place in the Narrabeen Progress Hall on 19 June 1906. The six councillors elected in November 1906 were Ellison Quirk and John Duffy for A Riding, Alexander Ralston and Thomas Fishbourne for B Riding, holden and William Hews, for C Riding. The Council first met in Narrabeen Progress Hall on 14 June 1906, however these proved to be too small and the council moved meetings from 1912 for the next 60 years to a new Shire Hall also in Brookvale. Early subdivisions were usually given over for weekenders and holiday homes, after World War II, urbanisation began to occur, with family homes beginning to be built in the area, especially near the beaches. Retail, light industry and improved public amenity soon followed and it was also around this time that the tram lines were progressively closed across Sydney, to give way to more lanes for motor vehicles. Work began on a new Dee Why civic centre in 1971, designed by Sulman Prize-winning architect Colin Madigan, the building was completed in 1972 and the Council has remained there since 1973. In November 1979, Warringah Council opened the Warringah Aquatic Centre at Frenchs Forest, the Aquatic Centre hosted the NSW and Australian Swimming Titles, as well as the 1992 Olympic trials
12.
Local government in Australia
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Local government in Australia is the third tier of government in Australia administered by the states and territories, which in turn are beneath the federal tier. Local government is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia and two referenda in the 1970s and 1980s to alter the Constitution relating to local government were unsuccessful, every state government recognises local government in their respective constitutions. Unlike Canada, or the United States there is one level of local government in each state. In August 2016 there were 547 local councils in Australia, despite the single level of local government in Australia, there are a number of extensive areas with relatively low populations which are not a part of any local government area. Despite this, they occupy a role in each state. State-based departments oversee local councils and may intervene in their affairs, the first official local government in Australia was the Perth Town Trust, established in 1838, only three years after British settlement. The Adelaide Corporation followed, created by the province of South Australia in October 1840, the City of Melbourne and the Sydney Corporation followed, both in 1842. Council representatives attended conventions before Federation, however local government was regarded as outside the Constitutional realm. In the 1970s, the Whitlam Government expanded the level of funding to local governments in Australia beyond grants for road construction, general purpose grants become available for the first time. Significant reforms took place in the 1980s and 1990s in which state governments used metrics, each state conducted an inquiry into the benefits of council amalgamations during the 1990s. In the early 1990s, Victoria saw the number of local councils reduced from 210 to 78, South Australia, Tasmania and Queensland saw some reductions in the number of local governments while Western Australia and New South Wales rejected compulsory mergers. New South Wales eventually forced the merging of some councils, the main purpose of amalgamating councils was for greater efficiency and to improve operations, but forced amalgamation of councils is sometimes seen as a dilution of representative democracy. An increase in the range of services offered by councils, the council mergers have resulted in widespread job losses and lingering resentment from some whose roles have experienced a larger workload. The growth of the Regional Organisations of Councils has also been a factor in local government reform in Australia, in 1995, there were 50 such agreements across the country. A2002 study identified 55 ROCs with the largest involving 18 councils, Local governments are subdivisions of the states and the Northern Territory. Although they are all identical in function, Australian local governments have a variety of names. The term local government area is used to refer collectively to all local governments regardless of status, whilst the local governing body itself is generally known as a council. Today, the borough, city, district, municipality, region, shire, town, community government, Aboriginal shire
13.
Barrenjoey, New South Wales
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Barrenjoey is a locality in the suburb of Palm Beach, at the most northern tip of Pittwater. The headland is mostly made up of Hawkesbury sandstone which overlays Narrabeen shale, around 10,000 years ago the headland was cut off from the mainland due to the rising sea level, subsequent buildup of a sand spit or tombolo reconnected the island to the mainland. It is the location of the Barrenjoey Head Lighthouse, a lighthouse that was first lit in 1881, on 2 March 1788, Arthur Phillip named the headland Barrenjuee. The name has been spelt differently over time, Barrenjoey now being the name since 1966
14.
Suburb
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A suburb is a residential area or a mixed use area, either existing as part of a city or urban area or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of a city. In some areas, such as Australia, China, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and a few U. S. states, new suburbs are routinely annexed by adjacent cities. In others, such as Arabia, Canada, France, and much of the United States, Suburbs first emerged on a large scale in the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of improved rail and road transport, which led to an increase in commuting. Suburbs tend to proliferate around cities that have an abundance of adjacent flat land, the English word is derived from the Old French subburbe, which is in turn derived from the Latin suburbium, formed from sub and urbs. The first recorded usage of the term in English, was made by John Wycliffe in 1380, in Australia and New Zealand, suburbs have become formalised as geographic subdivisions of a city and are used by postal services in addressing. In rural areas in both countries, their equivalents are called localities, the terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density suburbs in proximity to the city center, and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area. The term middle suburbs is also used, Suburbs, in this sense, can range from areas that seem more like residential areas of a city proper to areas separated by open countryside from the city centre. In large cities such as London, suburbs include formerly separate towns and villages that have been gradually absorbed during a growth and expansion. In the United States and Canada, suburb can refer either to an residential area of a city or town or to a separate municipality or unincorporated area outside a town or city. The earliest appearance of suburbs coincided with the spread of the first urban settlements, large walled towns tended to be the focus around which smaller villages grew up in a symbiotic relationship with the market town. The word suburbani was first used by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas, as populations grew during the Early Modern Period in Europe, urban towns swelled with a steady influx of people from the countryside. In some places, nearby settlements were swallowed up as the city expanded. The peripheral areas on the outskirts of the city were generally inhabited by the very poorest, by the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city became more overcrowded and unsanitary. A major catalyst in suburban growth came from the opening of the Metropolitan Railway in the 1860s, the line joined the capitals financial heart in the City to what were to become the suburbs of Middlesex. Harrow was reached in 1880, and the line extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles from Baker Street. Unlike other railway companies, which were required to dispose of surplus land, in 1912, it was suggested that a specially formed company should take over from the Surplus Lands Committee and develop suburban estates near the railway. However, World War I delayed these plans and it was only in 1919, with expectation of a housing boom. The term Metro-land was coined by the Mets marketing department in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide and this promoted the land served by the Met for the walker, visitor and later the house-hunter
15.
Hawkesbury River
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The Hawkesbury River, is a semi–mature tide dominated drowned valley estuary located to the west and north of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The Hawkesbury River and its main tributary, the Nepean River. The Hawkesbury River is the tributary of Broken Bay. Secondary tributaries include Brisbane Water and Pittwater, that together with the Hawkesbury River flow into the Tasman Sea at Barrenjoey Head, the total catchment area of the river is approximately 21,624 square kilometres and the area is generally administered by the Hawkesbury–Nepean Catchment Management Authority. The land adjacent to the Hawkesbury River was occupied by the Darkinjung, Darug, Eora and they used the river as a source of food and a place for trade. The headwaters of the Hawkesbury River, the Avon River, the Cataract River, and these streams start on the inland-facing slopes of the plateau which forms the escarpment behind Wollongong. Flowing north-west, away from the sea, these combine to form the Nepean River. Near Penrith, the Warragamba River emerges from its canyon through the Blue Mountains and joins the Nepean, the other principal component of the upper Hawkesbury river system, the Grose River, rises in the area of Mount Victoria in the Blue Mountains. Once formed, the Hawkesbury River proper flows generally northwards, albeit with a significant number of meanders, initially the river passes the towns of Richmond and Windsor, which are the largest settlements on the river. At Windsor, the river is joined by the South Creek, as it flows north, it enters a more rural area, with only small settlements on the river. On this stretch it passes Sackville and Lower Portland, where it is joined by the Colo River, the Colo River and its tributaries drain the northern section of the Blue Mountains. From Lower Portland, the Hawkesbury River continues flowing northwards to the community of Wisemans Ferry where it is joined by the Macdonald River. Here its course turns eastwards and the landscape gradually becomes steeper. At Spencer, Mangrove Creek joins the river from the north, from here to the river mouth, road access to the river is limited to a few points. At Milsons Passage, the river is joined by Berowra Creek from the south, in the area around Brooklyn the river is crossed by the major road and rail services that follow the coast north from Sydney. The river finally reaches the ocean at Broken Bay, from the confluence of the Nepean and Grose Rivers to the sea, the Hawkesbury River has a total length of some 120 kilometres. Islands in the Hawkesbury River include, in order going downstream are Barr Island, Milson Island, Peat Island, Spectacle Island, Long Island, and Dangar Island. Despite forming the boundary of the metropolitan region of Sydney for its entire length
16.
Sydney rock engravings
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Sydney rock engravings are a form of Australian Aboriginal rock art consisting of carefully drawn images of people, animals, or symbols, in the sandstone around Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The engravings were made by the Aboriginal Australians who have lived in the Sydney region from about 25000 years ago until the present day, the engravings cannot be dated directly with current archaeological techniques, necessitating the use of indirect dating. The Sydney engravings are of a known as simple figurative. Other engravings show European sailing ships, and so cannot be more than about 200 years old, the dates therefore range from 5000 to 200 years ago. It is likely some of the freshest engravings represent the later part of that time range. However, the situation is complicated by the fact that the engravings were sometimes re-grooved during ceremonies. It has been claimed that some appear to show thylacines and other mammals which have been extinct in the Sydney region for many thousands of years. In support of this, it is true that rock art elsewhere does show extinct animals. However, at the moment there is no evidence to support these claims for Sydney rock art. Examination of the shows that they were made in several stages as follows, Presumably. Then a series of holes was drilled along the line, using a stone or shell. Finally, the holes were joined by rubbing a sharp stone along the line and this results in a U-shaped groove which is typically about 2 centimetres deep and 2 centimetres wide. The grooves were often maintained by re-grooving during ceremonies, which attempts at dating them. While their purpose is not known definitively, some educated guesses may be made by analogy with the culture of indigenous groups who survived into modern times. Some sites may have been increase sites, where a ceremony would be held to increase the availability of a source such as kangaroos or fish. It is thought that most of the sites depicting animals are of this type, another group of sites may have been where initiation ceremonies were held, to celebrate and facilitate the transition of a young boy into manhood. In other parts of Australia, we know that an initiation ceremony often involves a path from childhood into manhood. Other sites show Culture Heroes or Ancestral Beings such as Baiame, who has a striped head-dress and often a striped body, some sites also show evidence of Aboriginal Astronomy
17.
Terrey Hills, New South Wales
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Terrey Hills is a suburb of northern Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia 25 kilometres north of the Sydney central business district in the local government area of Warringah Council. It is part of the Northern Beaches region, Terrey Hills is also considered to be part of the Forest District, colloquially known as The Forest. Terrey Hills is a leafy suburb and in some areas semi-rural. Terrey Hills owes its name to the two original land holders Samuel Hills and Obediah James Terrey, Obediah Terrey acquired 640 acres in 1881 and Samuel Hills owned 100 acres nearby. The area was used by Aborigines prior to European settlement, one set of carvings is located near Larool Road and depicts hunting scenes with kangaroos, human figures and footprints. Terrey Hills Post Office opened on 17 June 1935, for the older history, Terrey Hills is noted as the laterite capital of the Sydney Basin for those interested in how laterite forms. The laterite of Terrey Hills was used for early road-making and also has used for rock wall coastal defence at Collaroy Beach. It is the place in New South Wales where fossils have been noted in laterite. A small struggle has been ongoing for years to protect the laterite exposure at Tumbledown Dick from the announced effects of Mona Vale road widening plans. The laterite was worked during the Great Depression when Australia had one third of the out of work. The Warringah Shire Quarry or gravel pit at Terrey Hills was an important place for the distribution of government relief work funding. In this it is noted that men were given work at the rate of two weeks on and one off, whereas the single men worked at the gravel pit at the rate of one week on. Apart from this there was little other work available at the time. For a weeks work digging laterite gravel with pick and shovel there was received £1, to be paid that, they had to walk to the relief office at Narrabeen. Besides digging the laterite, the workers based at Terrey Hills also built or improved the roads from Terrey Hills to Mona Vale, Cottage Point and Coal. Owing to its elevation and close proximity to the ocean, the station at Terrey Hills records the mildest temperatures of any weather station in the Greater Sydney region. Under Köppens scheme, the suburb has a humid subtropical and oceanic climate with warm summers. The shopping centre includes an IGA supermarket, a Post Office, specialty shops, Warringah Council has its Volunteer Services Centre located in Thompson Drive
18.
Australian National Heritage List
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The Australian National Heritage List is a heritage register, a list of national heritage places deemed to be of outstanding heritage significance to Australia. The list includes natural, historic and indigenous places, once on the National Heritage List the provisions of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 apply. The Australian National Heritage List, together with the Commonwealth Heritage List, in addition, the place must pass a significance threshold, it must have outstanding heritage value to the nation as a whole. This is determined by comparison to similar places. The Australian National Heritage List comprises the following sites, A One of 15 World Heritage places included in the National Heritage List on 21 May 2007, B Yard 4 North was added on 4 August 2009. Commonwealth Heritage List Media related to Australian National Heritage List at Wikimedia Commons Australian National Heritage List
19.
Petroglyph
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Petroglyphs are images created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or abrading, as a form of rock art. Outside North America, scholars often use such as carving, engraving. Petroglyphs are found world-wide, and are associated with prehistoric peoples. The word comes from the Greek word petro-, theme of the word meaning stone, and glyphein meaning to carve. The term petroglyph should not be confused with petrograph, which is an image drawn or painted on a rock face, both types of image belong to the wider and more general category of rock art or parietal art. Petroforms, or patterns and shapes made by large rocks. Inukshuks are also unique, and found only in the Arctic and they are a category of rock art, and sometimes found in conjunction with rock-cut architecture. However, they tend to be omitted in most works on rock art, a few such works exploit the natural contours of the rock and use them to define an image, but they do not amount to man-made reliefs. Rock reliefs have been made in many cultures, and were important in the art of the Ancient Near East. Rock reliefs are generally large, as they need to be to make an impact in the open air. Most have figures that are over life-size, and in many the figures are multiples of life-size, the vertical relief is most common, but reliefs on essentially horizontal surfaces are also found. The term typically excludes relief carvings inside caves, whether natural or themselves man-made, natural rock formations made into statues or other sculpture in the round, most famously at the Great Sphinx of Giza, are also usually excluded. Reliefs on large boulders left in their location, like the Hittite İmamkullu relief, are likely to be included. Some petroglyphs are dated to approximately the Neolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary, about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, if not earlier. Sites in Australia have petroglyphs that are estimated to be as much as 27,000 years old, around 7,000 to 9,000 years ago, other precursors of writing systems, such as pictographs and ideograms, began to appear. Petroglyphs were still common though, and some cultures continued using them much longer, petroglyphs have been found in all parts of the globe except Antarctica with highest concentrations in parts of Africa, Scandinavia, Siberia, southwestern North America and Australia. There are many theories to explain their purpose, depending on their location, age, some petroglyphs are thought to be astronomical markers, maps, and other forms of symbolic communication, including a form of pre-writing. Petroglyph maps may show trails, symbols communicating time and distances traveled, as well as the terrain in the form of rivers, landforms
20.
Indigenous Australians
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Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. In present-day Australia these groups are divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken, it is estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, a population collapse following European settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans may have caused a massive and early depopulation. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the flags of Australia. The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, first or earliest known and it comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab and origo. The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789 and it soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians. Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, however, use of either Aborigine or Aboriginal to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people, the term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land, Palawah in Tasmania and these larger groups may be further subdivided, for example, Anangu recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation Aboriginal Australians. This has been another factor in the promotion of the inclusive term Indigenous Australians. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders, a further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879, eddie Mabo was from Mer or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved. The term blacks has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement, while originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term black, the book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture
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Kuringgai
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The indigenous people identify themselves as Guringai. Their taurai is known to extend north to the Macleay River, Fraser came up with the name Kuringgai being a conjunction of the native words Koori/Guri to mean black man and Ngai, meaning black woman, or belonging to. According to Fraser, the Kuringgai were bordered by the Wachigari and the Paikalyung to the north, the Kamalarai to the northwest, the Wiradhari to the west and the Murrinjari to the south. However, Norman Tindale would later say in 1974 that the Awabakal are the one of a series of tribes to which the arbitrary term Kuringgai has been applied by Fraser. He divided the area Fraser labelled Kuringgai into several tribes, including the Tharawal, Eora, Dharuk, Darkinjang, Awabakal, Worimi, Birpai, Ngamba, the clan groups are the Garigal, Cammeragal, Borregegal, Awaba, Walkeloa with hundreds more. They were hunters and gatherers within their land, the Guringai lives were dictated by the seasons and the seasonal travels throughout their lands, with great ceremony. The Guringai still live in their traditional homelands, the Aborigines of New South Wales. Sauchie House, West Maitland, University of Newcastle, bibliography of Ku-ring-gai people and language resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
22.
Skippy the Bush Kangaroo
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The Nine Network readily repeated the series several times after Australian television switched to colour transmission in 1975. 2016 marks the 50th anniversary of Skippy, and 2017 marks the 50th anniversary of Skippy being filmed on location at Waratah Park, the Australian series was one of the most heavily exported programs. It was broadcast in all Commonwealth countries, including in Canada where it was adapted in Quebec for the Standard French market as Skippy le kangourou, the series was also widely distributed in Ghana where is aired weekly on the GBC. It was dubbed into Spanish in Mexico, where it is known as Skippy el canguro, and has seen in most Spanish-speaking countries, including Cuba and Spain. In Germany, it was known as Skippy, das Buschkänguruh, while in Italy was known as Skyppy il canguro, the series crossed the Iron Curtain and was aired in Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union in the 1970s and 1980s, and is still being broadcast in Iran. The show was popular in Scandinavia, indeed in Norway a chain of shopping centres were named in honour of the program, in Latín América are broadcast in Free TV in 1970s, in Pay TV vía Sundance Channel. When her father is transferred to a park in northern New South Wales, john Warwick as Sir Adrian Gillespie, Head of the NSW National Parks Board Elke Neidhardt as Dr. Anna Steiner, a German doctor and playing a support role Morgan Brain as Sgt. The stories revolved around events in the park, including its animals, the dangers arising from natural hazards, the boys mother is said to have died shortly after Sonny was born. The series was shot in northern Sydney at the Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, between nine and fifteen kangaroos were used for each show. The apparent manual dexterity was often achieved by using separate arms in the hands of human operators, in 1969 a movie-length Skippy and The Intruders was released. The series was revived in 1992 as the short-lived The Adventures of Skippy and this version also aired on Animal Planet in 1997, and is currently airing in the U. S. on TBNs Smile of a Child TV childrens network. In 1998, a spinoff series was produced. Titled Skippy, Adventures in Bushtown, it featured the anthropomorphic kangaroo Skippy as a park ranger, in 1999, Skippy starred in advertisements for the chocolate confectionery Rolo Cookies. In September 2008, actor Tony Bonner sued the company seeking residuals from merchandising. On 17 September 2009, a documentary Skippy, Australias First Superstar was broadcast on the ABC in Australia, the documentary was produced by WA-based documentary production company Electric Pictures. Also in 2009, the Nine Network began to rerun the series in a slot in the early hours of the morning. In 2013 9Gem started showing Skippy at 6, 30am, wikipedia French Page, Skippy le kangourou Skippy at the Internet Movie Database Classic Australian Television -Skippy Skippy – Memorable TV http, //aso. gov
23.
Broken Bay
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Broken Bay is the first major bay north of Sydney Harbour. Broken Bay has its origin at the confluence of the Hawkesbury River, Pittwater, the total catchment area of the bay is approximately 17.1 square kilometres. The entrance to Broken Bay lies between the northern Box Head and Barrenjoey Head to the south, Barrenjoey Lighthouse was constructed in 1881 to guide ships away from the prominent headland. The bay comprises three arms, being the prominent estuary of the Hawkesbury River in the west, Pittwater to the south and these three arms are flooded rivers formed at a time when the sea level was much lower than it is at the present day. The Hawkesbury River flows from the confluence of the Grose and Nepean Rivers at the base of the Blue Mountains, Pittwater extends south from Broken Bay and is the northernmost extent of the greater Sydney area. Pittwaters calm waters make it a popular sailing area, west Head, west of Barrenjoey Head, marks the divide between Pittwater and the Hawkesbury. Brisbane Water is the arm of Broken Bay and has the towns of Gosford. Lion Island, named for its profiles resemblance to a Sphinx from some viewpoints, is located at the entrance of Broken Bay, lion Island Nature Reserve covers the entire island, and is home to a colony of fairy penguins. James Cook recorded broken land seen north of Port Jackson just before sunset on 7 May 1770, however, there has been some controversy over whether what is now known as Broken Bay was what was sighted by Cook. Matthew Flinders, The colonists have called this place Broken Bay, ray Parkin in his book H. M. Bark Endeavour claims that the modern Broken Bay was passed unremarked at night, and that Cook was in fact referring to the area around Narrabeen Lagoon. Matthew Flinders placed Cooks Broken Bay at 33°42 South, near to the mouth of Narrabeen Lagoon, whatever the case, Governor Phillip was the first to examine the present day Broken Bay in a longboat from the Sirius on 2 March 1788. Lay claimed to have confirmed that copper wiring found at the site was consistent with that used in similar Japanese vessels
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Mount Kuring-gai railway station
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Mount Kuring-gai railway station is on the Main Northern line, serving the Sydney suburb of Mount Kuring-gai. It is served by Sydney Trains T1 North Shore Line services and some early morning, Mount Kuring-gai station opened on 5 October 1901 as a passing loop named Kuring-gai. It was renamed Mount Kuring-gai on 1 August 1904, and in 1909 the present station was built when the Main Northern line was duplicated, the station was the terminating point for some services and had a signal box to facilitate these workings. It was removed in April 1988
25.
Cowan railway station
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Cowan railway station is located on the Main Northern line in New South Wales, Australia. It serves the northern Sydney suburb of Cowan, opening in 1890, Cowan was a terminating point for CityRail suburban services until January 1992 when all services were curtailed at Berowra. A soundbound passing loop is located south of the station. In February 1999, it was extended south 1.1 kilometres to allow 1.5 kilometre freight trains to stable, north of the station the 8.6 kilometre Cowan Bank commences its descent. It is serviced by NSW TrainLink Central Coast & Newcastle Line services travelling from Sydney Central to Hamilton, transdev NSW operates one bus route via Cowan station,592, Hornsby station to Mooney Mooney Media related to Cowan railway station at Wikimedia Commons Cowan station details Sydney Trains
26.
Bobbin Head, New South Wales
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Bobbin Head is a point on Cowan Creek in the north of the suburb of North Turramurra, New South Wales, Australia. It is a part of Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. Bobbin Head is easily reached by taking Bobbin Head Road through North Turramurra or Kuringai Chase Road, the area also contains many fire trails and a mangrove boardwalk. Aboriginal engravings can be observed some of the bushwalk trails. There is also a trail along the waterfront inside the marina that chronicles the history of the area
27.
Palm Beach, New South Wales
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Palm Beach is a northern beachside suburb of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Palm Beach is located 41 kilometres north of the Sydney central business district, in the government area of Northern Beaches Council. Palm Beach sits on a peninsula at the end of Barrenjoey Road, Palm Beach is sometimes colloquially referred to as Palmy. Palm Beach is used for filming of the soap opera Home and Away. Palm Beach is bounded by Broken Bay to the north, the Tasman Sea to the east, Whale Beach, Avalon and Clareville to the south, Barrenjoey Headland, which is in the north of the suburb, is part of Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The headland at the northernmost point rises quite sharply from the beach to over 100 metres above sea level, and features an operational lighthouse. The narrow sandy isthmus or tombolo linking the south side of the headland to the rest of Palm Beach had extensive fencing, Palm Beach was later named after the Cabbage Tree palms livistona australis that were near Cabbage Tree Boat Harbour. The plants species name gave origin to Livistona Lane, off Palm Beach Road, the Southern end of the ocean beach is marked as Cabbage Tree Boat Harbour on a map of 1832. Palm Beach was later named after the Cabbage Tree palms livistona australis, Palm Beach, Barrenjoey and most of Whale Beach was granted to James Napper in 1816. During the 19th century, a few Europeans and Chinese lived at Snapperman Beach catching and drying fish. In 1900 all land, except Barrenjoey Headland, which had purchased by the government in 1881, was divided into 18 large blocks, listed as good grazing land. In 1912, the land was offered again in smaller blocks, offering fishing, sailing, golf. Most houses were built from sandstone, other materials were shipped in. Some were guest houses but most were second homes for those who could afford them, Palm Beach wharf was the terminus reached by boat from Newport or Bayview. Hordern and Wiltshire Parks and Mackay Reserve were donated by RJ Hordern, since World War II the area has become more residential but still remains a secluded peninsula at the northern point of Pittwater. Aboriginal inhabitants in area- Garigal clan of Guringai speaking people, lands extended from Broken Bay to Port Jackson and to Lane Cove. 1770- Captain Cook names Broken bay, 1788-1789- area explored by Governor Arthur Phillip and Captain John Hunter 1788- Arthur Phillip 2 March 1788, named Barrenjuee. Barrenjoey has had at least 9 different spellings, 1789- Smallpox epidemic killed 50%-90% of local Aboriginal population
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Pittwater
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The land adjacent to the Pittwater was occupied for many thousands of years by the Kuringgai Aboriginal peoples. They used the river as an important source of food and a place for trade, Pittwater was named Pitt Water in 1788 in honour of William Pitt the Younger, the then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The eastern parts of the catchment are largely urbanised whilst the western parts are primarily Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, Scotland Island is located within the estuary. Pittwater contains a diversity of habitat types including mangrove wetlands, saltmarsh, sand flats and seagrass meadows. Amongst the Kuringgai, there were smaller units called clans. During 1789 the impact of smallpox on aboriginal peoples led to extensive mortality, conservatively, between 500 and 1000 Aboriginal people died on the coastal strip bounded by Botany Bay and Broken Bay. A significant proportion of these were Kuringgai, the waterway was surveyed by crew members of HMS Sirius in 1788, and named Pitt Water after William Pitt the Younger, the then Prime Minister of Great Britain. Pitt Water was said to be the first place in Australia to be formally named, the first regular water transport across Pittwater was the cutter Francis which carried settlers and farm produce from Sydney between 1793 and 1800. These vessels were built on Scotland Island and were not sufficiently seaworthy to leave Broken Bay. A customs house operated from Pittwater between 1843 and 1900, and a government-built sandstone lighthouse was completed at Barrenjoey in 1881, both the Old Customs House and the lighthouse are listed on the Register of the National Estate. Shipping declined as a medium following road and rail construction through the region between 1850 and 1890, especially the construction of a rail bridge over the waterway in 1899. The last locally constructed shipping vessel was launched from a shipyard at Blackwall in 1912, however, since the 1950s, Pittwater has become predominantly residential in character and is a suburban region of Sydney. The greater Sydney metropolis has extended to Palm Beach, Church Point, today, the Pitwater is a popular water recreation, such as sailing and fishing. The area is an important natural area that comprises wetlands, bushland, lagoons. The Pittwater to Coffs Harbour Yacht Race is held in January annually, however, in 2016 the race was held as Pittwater to Southport since the facilities at Coffs Harbour had been badly damaged by East coast storms. The current ministry coordinator is Rob Lamont, who succeeded Phil Rawlings in June 2014, the Church also runs a once a month Prayer service on a Friday Night The Newport Anglican Church meets right next to the Pittwater Post Office at 9. 30am on Sundays. The Senior Minister is Rev. Jason Ramsay, since 2007
29.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
30.
Great North Walk
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The Great North Walk is a walking track which runs from Sydney to Newcastle in New South Wales, Australia. The main track,250 kilometres in length, runs between the Obelisk in Macquarie Place in Sydney to Queens Wharf Tower in Bicentennial Park in Newcastle and is well sign-posted, there are many side tracks which link the track to populated areas along the length of the walk. The walk includes a variety of wildlife and scenery. A 25-kilometre section at the northern, Newcastle end, is known as the Yuelarbah Track. This section runs from the Teralba railway station to the Queens Wharf on Newcastle Harbour, at Kahibah Station, the Great North Walk uses a short section of The Fernleigh Track and passes along the northern side of Glenrock Lagoon to get to the coast. The Great North Walk was initiated by Gary McDougall and Leigh Shearer-Heriot and they both planned and marked the original route from Sydney to Newcastle, with access to many linking tracks. Todays Great North Walk is quite true to the original trail, there have been books written around the walk. The original name for the Great North Walk was the Sydney to Hunter Project, the name the Great North Walk was derived from the first road from the Hunter Valley to Sydney, called the Great North Road. The track began construction in 1987 and was completed less than a later in early 1988. Workers from several countries including China, Thailand and Vietnam were hired by the N. S. W, State Government to complete the track by 1988. A small amount of controversy followed as the labourers won the contract to construct the track over a local landscaping. Claim was made that the contract was won because it cost as much as three times less than the local bid. The company, Ning-Pow Australia, who were responsible for providing the labourers for the project, were scrutinized for slow construction. The track was finished but was of poor quality. Following the bicentennial year, the N. S. W, State Government handed over maintenance responsibility to each sections respective land owners, mainly N. S. W. National Parks and Wildlife Service and State Forests, under new responsibility, the track was upgraded to a higher quality. In several places the track had to be re-constructed taking completely different routes, eventually, the track was completed to a good standard and remains well maintained in most places. After its official start in Macquarie Place, the walk continues through the suburb of Hunters Hill and it follows the river through the Lane Cove National Park to Thornleigh, then follows Berowra Creek
31.
Cowan, New South Wales
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It is described by some as part of the loosely defined North Shore region. Cowan shares the postcode of 2081 with Berowra, brooklyn, which lies 6 kilometres to the north-east of Cowan, is sometimes considered the northernmost suburb of the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area. The town takes its name from an Aboriginal word meaning big water, access by road to Cowan is via the Pacific Highway which traverses Cowan north to south. The M1 Sydney to Newcastle Freeway runs past Cowan, the Main Northern railway line runs parallel to the Pacific Highway through most of Cowan, descending north of the town via Cowan Bank. Cowan railway station is served by NSW TrainLink Central Coast & Newcastle Line services to Newcastle, electric overhead railway power facilities are located in the north of Cowan. Cowan Bank was the location of the 1990 Cowan railway accident, there is a single General Store that serves the Cowan community, which is located on the corner of the Pacific Highway and Fraser Road. A notable landmark of the Cowan area is the Pie In The Sky pie shop located approximately one kilometre north of Cowan on the Pacific Highway. Pie In The Sky was featured in the Australian film Lantana, Cowan Community Hall is a service provided by Hornsby Shire Council. Cowan Park and a picnic area are adjacent to the Fire Station on View Street. Cowan is served by one primary school, Cowan Public School. Cowan Post Office opened on 14 December 1936 and closed in 1993, however, frank Duarte – physicist and author
32.
Temperate rainforest
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Temperate rainforests are coniferous or broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate zone and receive heavy rainfall. For temperate rain forests of North America, Alabacks definition is widely recognized, the North American definition would in turn exclude a part of temperate rain forests in other countries. Temperate forests cover a part of the Earth, but temperate rainforests only occur in a few regions around the world. Jiri and across the southern coastline, southwest Japans Taiheiyo forests, coastal New South Wales. In Eastern North America, there are scattered pockets of temperate rainforest also exist along the Allegheny Plateau and these areas include sections of West Virginia, Western Pennsylvania, as well as Western Upstate New York and the Adirondack Mountains. A good example of these forests are found in Zoar Valley in Upstate New York, Cook Forest State Park within the Allegheny National Forest, like Eastern North America, much precipitation is in the form of rain and snow. In terms of the province system used by botany, the bulk of the region is the Rocky Mountain Floristic Region. They vary in their species composition, but are all predominantly coniferous, sometimes with an understory of broadleaved trees, most of the precipitation occurs in winter but summer fogs moisture is extracted by the trees and produces a fog drip keeping the forest moist. The Northern California coastal forests are home to the Coast Redwood, in the other ecoregions, Coast Douglas-fir, Sitka Spruce, Western Hemlock and Western redcedar are the most important tree species. A common feature of Pacific temperate rain forests of North America is the Nurse log, a fallen tree which as it decays, provides ecological facilitation to seedlings. Trees such as the Coast Douglas-fir, Western Hemlock, Western Red Cedar, Pacific Yew, Some of the largest expanses of old growth are found in Olympic National Park, Mount Rainier National Park, Tongass National Forest, Mount St. These inland rainforests have more continental climate with a proportion of the precipitation falling as snow. Being closer to the Rocky Mountains, there is more of a mammalian fauna. Some of the best interior rain forests are found in Mount Revelstoke National Park, Red spruce and Fraser fir are dominant canopy trees in high mountain areas. In higher elevation, Fraser fir is dominant, in middle elevation red spruce and Fraser fir grow together, below the spruce-fir forest, at around 1,200 metres, are forests of American beech, yellow birch, maple birch, and oak. Skunk cabbage and ground juniper are northern species that were pushed into the areas from the north, the mild and wet environment supports the high diversity of fungi. Over 2000 species live in area and scientists estimate many unidentified fungi may be there. Temperate rain forests occur in the Valdivian temperate rain forests and Magellanic subpolar forests ecoregions, the Valdivian and Magellanic temperate rainforests are the only temperate rain forests in South America
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Rainforest
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The monsoon trough, alternatively known as the intertropical convergence zone, plays a significant role in creating the climatic conditions necessary for the Earths tropical rainforests. Around 40% to 75% of all species are indigenous to the rainforests. It has been estimated there may be many millions of species of plants, insects. Tropical rainforests have been called the jewels of the Earth and the worlds largest pharmacy, the undergrowth in some areas of a rainforest can be restricted by poor penetration of sunlight to ground level. If the leaf canopy is destroyed or thinned, the ground beneath is soon colonized by a dense, tangled growth of vines, shrubs and small trees, the term jungle is also sometimes applied to tropical rainforests generally. Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no dry season. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C during all months of the year, average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm and can exceed 1,000 cm although it typically lies between 175 cm and 200 cm. Many of the tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough. The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Tropical forests have been called the Earths lungs, although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis, Tropical forests cover a large part of the globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions and they occur in North America, in Europe, in East Asia, in South America and also in Australia and New Zealand. A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants, examples include the emergent, canopy, understorey and forest floor layers. They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas, eagles, butterflies, bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer. The canopy layer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres to 45 metres tall, the densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species, epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches, and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to found in the emergent layer. A quarter of all species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, true exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows
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Toona ciliata
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Toona ciliata is a forest tree in the mahogany family which grows throughout southern Asia from Afghanistan to Papua New Guinea and Australia. It is commonly known as the red cedar, toon or toona, Australian redcedar, Burma cedar, Indian cedar and it is also known as Indian mahogany. In Australia its natural habitat is now extensively cleared subtropical rainforests of New South Wales, the Australian population was formerly treated as distinct species under the name Toona australis. The species can grow to around 60 m in height and its trunk can reach 3 m in girth, the largest recorded T. ciliata tree in Australia grew near Nulla Nulla Creek, west of Kempsey, New South Wales and was felled in 1883. The southernmost limit of distribution is on basaltic soils, growing west of the Princes Highway near the village of Termeil, south of Ulladulla, southern Illawarra. It also naturally occurs at Norfolk Island and it is one of Australias few native deciduous trees. The timber is red in colour, easy to work and very highly valued and it was used extensively for furniture, wood panelling and construction, including shipbuilding, and was referred to as red gold by Australian settlers. Heavily and unsustainably exploited in the 19th Century and early 20th Century, almost all the trees have been cut out. Availability of this timber is now limited, timber is currently also harvested in New Guinea. Although it is not generally a viable plantation species, trees are harvested by Forestry in the Atherton region of Queensland. The tree exudes a chemical that the cedar tip moth seeks out. The red cedar is planted in subtropical and tropical parts of the world as a shade tree. It is grown in the Hawaiian Islands and southern and eastern Africa, in parts of Zimbabwe and South Africa, it has naturalised, growing to maturity and spreading from seed. It is a seed producer and establishes readily. Cedar wood Macleay River Toona sureni Australian timbers National Register of Big Trees Distribution Map
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Geography of Sydney
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Sydney lies on a submergent coastline, where the ocean level has risen to flood deep river valleys carved in the Sydney sandstone. Port Jackson, better known as Sydney Harbour, is one such ria, the Sydney area lies on Triassic shales and sandstones. The sand that was to become the sandstone of today was washed from Broken Hill, the region mostly consists of low rolling hills and wide valleys in a rain shadow area near the Blue Mountains. There are more than 70 harbour and ocean beaches, including the famous Bondi Beach, most of Sydneys water storages are on tributaries of the Nepean River. Parramatta River drains an area of Sydneys western suburbs. Sydneys native plant species are predominantly eucalyptus trees, and its soils are usually red, Sydneys urban area covers 1,788 km². As at June 2015 Sydneys estimated population was 4.92 million, Sydney is particularly noted for its low population density, due to its history. Surrounded by land that was considered unowned by the citys founders, coupled with successive governments willingness to release new land on the citys outskirts for further development, this history has given Sydney a low-density self-image. The Cumberland Plain is an area which derives its recognition largely by comparison with the surrounding uplands of harder quartzose. The rising sea level between 18,000 and 6,000 years ago flooded the rias to form estuaries, erosion by coastal streams has created a landscape of deep canyons and remnant plateaus. The city has fault lines which run considerably deep beneath the Sydney basin, to the east the basin continues to the edge of the continental shelf. The centre of the basin is located around 30 kilometres west of the Sydney central business district at Fairfield, Sydney sandstone, being very porous, has shale lenses and fossil riverbeds dotted throughout and it is some 200 metres thick. The sandstone was deposited in a freshwater delta and is the caprock which controls the erosion. Six kilometres of sandstone and shale lie under Sydney, Bringelly Shale and Minchinbury Sandstone are often seen in the greater western parts of Sydney. Ashfield Shale is observed in the western suburbs. These components are part of the Wianamatta Shale group, mittagong Formation sighted in a few areas in northern Sydney. This means that the highest part of the visible lines almost always faces approximately south, there are volcanic rocks from low hills in the shale landscapes. The Basins sedimentary rocks have been subject to uplift with gentle folding, at a time in the past, monocline formed to the west of Sydney
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Government of New South Wales
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The Government of New South Wales, also referred to as the New South Wales Government or NSW Government, is the Australian state democratic administrative authority of New South Wales, in Australia. The Government of New South Wales, a constitutional monarchy, was formed in 1856 as prescribed in its Constitution. Since the Federation of Australia in 1901, New South Wales has been a state of the Commonwealth of Australia, under the Australian Constitution, New South Wales ceded legislative and judicial supremacy to the Commonwealth, but retained powers in all matters not in conflict with the Commonwealth. Section 109 of the Australian Constitution provides that, where a State law is inconsistent with a federal law, initially the Australian states retained significant independence. Over time, however, that independence has been eroded by both the proliferation of Commonwealth Law, and the increasing financial domination of the Commonwealth. New South Wales is governed according to the principles of the Westminster system, Executive power rests formally with the Executive Council, which consists of the Governor and senior ministers. The Governor, as representative of the Crown, is the repository of power, which is exercised by him or her on the advice of the Premier of New South Wales. The Premier and Ministers are appointed by the Governor, and hold office by virtue of their ability to command the support of a majority of members of the Legislative Assembly. In 2006, the Sesquicentenary of Responsible Government in New South Wales, the Act was assented to by the Queen on 3 April 2006. The following individuals serve as government ministers, at the pleasure of the Queen, the government ministers are listed in order of seniority, while their opposition counterparts are listed to correspond with the government ministers. All Opposition counterparts are members of the Parliament of New South Wales
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Department of the Environment (Australia)
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The Australian Department of the Environment was a department of the Government of Australia that existed between September 2013 and July 2016. The department was charged with responsibility for developing and implementing policy, programs and legislation to protect and conserve Australias environment. The department was an Australian Public Service Department of State in the environment portfolio, the head of the department was its Secretary, Dr Gordon de Brouwer PSM, responsible to the Minister for the Environment, the Hon. Josh Frydenberg MP. The department was formed by way of an Administrative Arrangements Order issued on 18 September 2013, the department was dissolved in July 2016 and its functions, along with energy policy functions, were moved to the newly established Department of the Environment and Energy. From when it was established in September 2013 to when it was dissolved in July 2016 the department faced significant cuts, the department developed and implemented national policy, programs and legislation to protect and conserve Australias environment and heritage. The most significant of those dealing with natural resource management came under the umbrella of the Natural Heritage Trust, both the Trust and National Action Plan were administered jointly with the Department of Agriculture. The Department of the Environment administered environmental laws, including the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and it was also responsible for Australias participation in a number of international environmental agreements. The department administered areas of the Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and the McDonald Islands, official website History of Australian Government Environment Ministers Directory of Australian Environment Departments Parks Australia australia. gov. au
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Government of Australia
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The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia is the government of the Commonwealth of Australia, a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 as a result of an agreement among six self-governing British colonies, the terms of this contract are embodied in the Australian Constitution, which was drawn up at a Constitutional Convention and ratified by the people of the colonies at referendums. Separation of powers is implied by the structure of the Constitution, the Australian system of government combines elements of the Westminster and Washington systems with unique Australian characteristics, and has been characterised as a Washminster mutation. Section 51 of the Constitution provides for the Commonwealth Governments legislative powers and allocates certain powers, all remaining responsibilities are retained by the six States. Further, each State has its own constitution, so that Australia has seven sovereign Parliaments, the High Court of Australia arbitrates on any disputes which arise between the Commonwealth and the States, or among the States, concerning their respective functions. The Commonwealth Parliament can propose changes to the Constitution, the Commonwealth Constitution also provides that the States can agree to refer any of their powers to the Commonwealth. This may be achieved by way of an amendment to the Constitution via referendum, more commonly powers may be transferred by passing other acts of legislation which authorise the transfer and such acts require the legislative agreement of all the state governments involved. This transfer legislation may have a clause, a legislative provision that nullifies the transfer of power after a specified period. In addition, Australia has several territories, two of which are self-governing, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory, Australian citizens in these territories are represented by members of both houses of the Commonwealth Parliament. The territory of Norfolk Island was self-governing from 1979 until 2016, the other territories that are regularly inhabited—Jervis Bay, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands—have never been self-governing. The federal nature of the Commonwealth and the structure of the Parliament of Australia were the subject of protracted negotiations among the colonies during the drafting of the Constitution, the House of Representatives is elected on a basis that reflects the differing populations of the States. Thus New South Wales has 48 members while Tasmania has only five, but the Senate is elected on a basis of equality among the States, all States elect 12 Senators, regardless of population. This was intended to allow the Senators of the smaller States to form a majority, the ACT and the NT each elect two Senators. The third level of government after Commonwealth and State/Territory is Local government, in the form of shires, towns, the Councils of these areas are composed of elected representatives, usually serving part-time. Their powers are devolved to them by the State or Territory in which they are located, with this act, Australian law was made unequivocally sovereign, and the High Court of Australia was confirmed as the highest court of appeal. The theoretical possibility of the British Parliament enacting laws to override the Australian Constitution was also removed, the Legislature makes the laws, and supervises the activities of the other two arms with a view to changing the laws when appropriate. The Australian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the Queen of Australia, a 76-member Senate, twelve Senators from each state are elected for six-year terms, using proportional representation and the single transferable vote, with half elected every three years. In addition to the state Senators, two senators are elected by voters from the Northern Territory, while another two senators are elected by the voters of the Australian Capital Territory
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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