1.
Sikkim
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Sikkim is a northeastern state of India. It borders China in its north and east, Bhutan in its east, Nepal in its west, Sikkim is also located close to the Siliguri Corridor near Bangladesh. Sikkim is the least populous and second smallest among the Indian states, Sikkims capital and largest city is Gangtok. Almost 25% of the state is covered by the Khangchendzonga National Park, the Kingdom of Sikkim was founded on the Silk Road by the Namgyal dynasty in the 17th century. It was ruled by a Buddhist priest-king known as the Chogyal, once a vassal state of Qing China, it became a princely state of British India in 1890. After the Peoples Republic of China invaded Tibet, Sikkim continued its status with the dominion. It enjoyed the highest literacy rate and per capita income among Himalayan states, in 1975, the Indian military deposed the Sikkimese monarchy. A referendum in 1975 led to Sikkim joining India as its 22nd state, modern Sikkim is a multiethnic and multilingual Indian state. Sikkim has 11 official languages, Nepali, Sikkimese, Lepcha, Tamang, Limbu, Newari, Rai, Gurung, Magar, Sunwar, English is taught in schools and used in government documents. The predominant religions are Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism, Sikkims economy is largely dependent on agriculture and tourism, and as of 2014 the state had the third-smallest GDP among Indian states, although it is also among the fastest-growing. Sikkim accounts for the largest share of production in India. It is the most organic farming state in India and it is also among Indias most environmentally conscious states, having banned plastic water bottles and styrofoam products. The most widely accepted theory of the name Sikkim is that it is a combination of two Limbu words, su, which means new, and khyim, which means palace or house. The name is believed to be a reference to the built by the states first ruler. The Tibetan name for Sikkim is Drenjong, which means valley of rice, while the Bhutias call it Beyul Demazong, the Lepcha people, the original inhabitants of Sikkim, called it Nye-mae-el, meaning paradise. In History, Sikkim is known as Indrakil, the garden of the war god Indra, little is known about Sikkims ancient history, beyond the fact that its original inhabitants were the Lepcha. The earliest historical mention of Sikkim is a record of the passage of the Buddhist saint Padmasambhava, also known as Guru Rinpoche, the Guru is reported to have blessed the land, introduced Buddhism, and foretold the era of monarchy that would arrive in Sikkim centuries later. According to legend, Khye Bumsa, a 14th-century prince from the Minyak House in Kham in eastern Tibet, Phuntsog Namgyal was succeeded in 1670 by his son, Tensung Namgyal, who moved the capital from Yuksom to Rabdentse
2.
Darjeeling district
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Darjeeling District is the northernmost district of the state of West Bengal in eastern India in the foothills of the Himalayas. The district is famous for its stations and Darjeeling tea. Kurseong, Siliguri and Mirik, three major towns in the district, are the subdivisional headquarters of the district. Kalimpong was one of the subdivisions but on 14 February 2017, geographically, the district can be divided into two broad divisions, the hills and the plains. The entire hilly region of the district comes under the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration and this body covers the three hill subdivisions of Darjeeling, Kurseong and Mirik and the district of Kalimpong. The foothills of Darjeeling Himalayas, which comes under the Siliguri subdivision, is known as the Terai, the district is bounded on the north by Sikkim, on the south by Kishanganj district of Bihar state, on the east by Kalimpong district and on the west by Nepal. Darjeeling district has a length from north to south of 18 miles, as of 2011, it was the second least populous district of West Bengal, after Dakshin Dinajpur. The name Darjeeling comes from the Tibetan words, Dorje and Ling, meaning the land of the thunderbolt, the history of Darjeeling district is linked to that of the Sikkim, East India Company, Nepal and Bhutan. Most of Darjeeling formed a part of dominions of the Chogyal of Sikkim, from 1780, the Gorkhas made several attempts to capture the entire region of Darjeeling. By the beginning of 19th century, they had overrun Sikkim as far eastward as the Teesta River and had conquered and annexed the Terai, in the meantime, the British were engaged in preventing the Gorkhas from over-running the whole of the northern frontier. The Anglo-Gorkha war broke out in 1814, which resulted in the defeat of the Gorkhas, according to the treaty, Nepal had to cede all those territories which the Gorkhas had annexed from the Chogyal of Sikkim to the British East India Company. In 1835, the hill of Darjeeling, including an enclave of 138 square miles, was given to the British East India Company by Sikkim. In November 1864, the Treaty of Sinchula was executed in which the Bhutan Dooars with the passes leading into the hills, the Darjeeling district can be said to have assumed its present shape and size in 1866 with an area of 1234 sq. miles. Before 1861 and from 1870–1874, Darjeeling District was a Non-Regulated Area, from 1862 to 1870, it was considered a Regulated Area. The phrase Non-Regulated Area was changed to Scheduled District in 1874, the status was known as Partially Excluded Area from 1935 until the independence of India. On 14 February 2017, Kalimpong district was carved out of Darjeeling district, the movement reached its peak around 1986-1988 but ended with the establishment of the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council in 1988. The hill areas of Darjeeling enjoyed some measure of autonomy under the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council, however, the demand for full statehood within India has emerged once again, with the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha as its chief proponent. The Gorkhaland Territorial Administration replaced the DGHC in August 2012 after the GJM signed an agreement with the government, the Darjeeling hill area is formed of comparatively recent rock structure that has a direct bearing on landslides
3.
Sagarmatha Zone
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Sagarmāthā is one of the fourteen zones located in eastern Nepal. It includes mountain districts of the Himalayas in the north, hill districts in the center and it is bordered by China to the north, India to the south, the Kosi Zone to the east and the Janakpur Zone to the west. Sagarmāthā is divided into six districts, The main city of the Sagarmāthā Zone is Rajbiraj which is also the headquarters. Other towns of the Sagarmāthā hill area are Katari, Okhaldhunga, Diktel, Salleri and Namche Bazaar, while Kathauna, Lahan, Fatepur, Rajbiraj, triyuga is an emerging city in the zone. Sagarmāthā takes its name from the Nepalese name for Mount Everest, Sagarmāthā means the Head in the Great Blue Sky. Development Regions of Nepal List of zones of Nepal List of districts of Nepal
4.
Bung
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A bung, stopper or cork is a truncated cylindrical or conical closure to seal a container, such as a bottle, tube or barrel. Unlike a lid, which encloses a container from the outside without displacing the inner volume, a glass stopper is often called a ground glass joint, a rubber stopper is sometimes called a rubber bung, and a cork stopper is called simply a cork. Bung stoppers used for wine bottles are referred to as corks, a common every-day example of a bung is the cork of a wine bottle. Bungs are used to seal the bunghole of barrels, other bungs, particularly those used in chemical barrels, may be made of metal and be screwed into place via threading. Ground glass joint are commonly used with laboratory glassware, mainly because of their nonreactivity, some stoppers used in labs have holes in them to allow the insertion of glass or rubber tubing. This is often used when a reaction is taking place in the flask or test tube, for instance, if one were to boil water in a test tube and wanted to collect the water vapor, one could seal the test tube with a stopper with holes in it. With tubing inserted into the hole, when the tube is heated, water vapor will rise through the hole, make its way through the tubing, and into the collection chamber of choice. The water vapor would not be able to escape into the air, because the stopper, in chemistry, bungs made of hardened rubber are frequently used in high school level demonstrations, or in small-scale experimental set-ups involving non-corrosive gases. Some chemistry bungs may also one or more holes so a glass tube or laboratory funnel may be inserted through the bung. In all cases, the keeps the experimentation environment sealed so that liquids or gases cannot escape. For applications that place higher demand on the bung in terms of temperature and mechanical stability or solvent resistance, silicone bungs are the standard for wine barrels and come in a number of varieties
5.
Sankhuwasabha District
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Sankhuwasabha District is in Province No.1 in eastern Nepal. The districts area is 3,480 km² with a population of 159,203 in 2001 and 158,742 in 2011, newly registered municipalities in this district are Chainpur and Madi. Bordering districts are Bhojpur, Terhathum and Dhankuta in Koshi Zone, Solukhumbu in Sagarmatha Zone, tingri County of Shigatse Prefecture in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China borders to the north. Indigenous janajati ethnics are Limbu, Yakkha, Lohorung, Bahing, Kulung, Rai, Gurung, the district is also known for cardamom farming. This wine has a market in the eastern cities of Biratnagar and Dharan. Arun Valley Tumlingtar Airport Districts of Nepal
6.
Solukhumbu District
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Solukhumbu District, a part of the Province No. 1, is one of the districts of Nepal, a landlocked country of South Asia. As the name suggests, it consists of the subregions Solu, the district, with Salleri as its headquarters, covers an area of 3,312 km² and had a population 107,686 in 2001 and 105,886 in 2011. Mount Everest is in the part of this district, within Sagarmatha National Park. Indigenous ethnic Kulung and hill Caste Chhetri are the groups living in the mid-hills. There is a hiking trail known as the Solukhumbu Trail. Solukhumbu District is a name in mountain tourism. The main attraction is Mount Everest, UNESCO has listed the Sagarmatha National Park as a World Heritage site. Sherpa culture and Tengboche Monastery are unique to this district, the Khumjung village is famous for Sherpa culture. Gokyo valley and Khumbu valley are the major Himalayan valleys famous among the adventure and nature seekers and this district is well known for adventure holidays
7.
Kirati people
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The Kirat or Kirati or Kiranti or Kirant people are indigenous ethnic groups of the Himalayas extending eastward from Nepal into India, Bangladesh, Burma and beyond. They migrated to their present locations via Assam, Burma, Tibet and their languages belong to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. The original inhabitants of the Dooars region of India, the Koch Rajbongshi and Mech and they derive their titles from the original place of their dwelling, Koch from the Koshi river, Mech from the Mechi River and Kachari is derived from Kachar, which means river basin. The basis of these claims relies on the fact that they are Mongoloids, the source of the word Kirat or Kirati is much disputed. One school of thought says that it comes from the Sanskrit word Kirata found in the Yajurveda, they are described as the mountain people. It is also described as Chinese in the Mahabharata, Kirtarjuniya, there are four different groups of Kirati tribes, including Himalayan Kiratis, Tibetan-Himalayan, Khas-Kiratis and the Kacharis of South Asian region. Their populations are such largest comparing to any ethnic groups of South Asia. C. According to Gopalvansavali,32 Kirat Kings ruled in the Kathmandu valley for 1963 years 8 months, the Lichhavi dynasty dethroned the Kirat rulers in 158AD. This means that Kirat King Yalambars reign started BC1779.8, if we calculate current 2017 +1779.8 =3796 is the Kirati new year in Maghe Sakranti in AD2017. New year is celebrated in Maghe Sakranti which is around mid-January, kirātas are mentioned in early Sanskrit literature as hunter tribes from the Himalayas. They are first mentioned in the Yajurveda, and in the Atharvaveda and they are often mentioned along with the Cinas Chinese. Hindu myth also has many incidents where the god Shiva imitates a married Kirati girl who later become Parvati. In Yoga Vasistha 1.15.5, Rama speaks of kirāteneva vāgurā a trap by Kiratas, so about 10th century BCE, they were thought of as jungle trappers, the ones who dug pits to capture roving deer. The same text also speaks of King Suraghu, the head of the Kiratas who is a friend of the Persian King, another wave of political and cultural conflict between Khas and Kirat ideals surfaced in the Kirat region of present-day Nepal during the last quarter of the 18th century. A collection of manuscripts from the 18th and 19th centuries, till now unpublished and unstudied by historians, have made possible a new understanding of this conflict. For over two millennia, a portion of the eastern Himalaya has been identified as the home of the Kirat people, of which the majority are known today as Limbu, Newar, Sunuwar, Rai. In ancient times, the entire Himalayan region was known as the Kimpurusha Desha and these people were also known as Nep, to which the name Nepala and Newar are believed to have an etymological link. The earliest references to the Kirat as principal inhabitants of the Himalayan region are found in the texts of Atharvashirsha and Mahabharata, for over a millennium, the Kirat had also inhabited the Kathmandu Valley, where they installed their own ruling dynasty
8.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
9.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
10.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
11.
Millet
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Millets are a group of highly variable small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Millets are important crops in the tropics of Asia and Africa. The crop is favored due to its productivity and short growing season under dry, millets are indigenous to many parts of the world. The most widely grown millet is pearl millet, which is an important crop in India, Finger millet, proso millet, and foxtail millet are also important crop species. Millets have been important food staples in human history, particularly in Asia and they have been in cultivation in East Asia for the last 10,000 years. Consumption of the minor millets has been practiced since the beginning of the ancient civilizations of the world, generally, the millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to grass family. They are highly tolerant of extreme conditions such as drought and are nutritious compared to the major cereals such as rice. They contain low phytic acid and are rich in fiber, iron, calcium. Moreover, these millets release sugar slowly in the blood and also diminish the glucose absorption, major millets are the most widely cultivated species. Eragrostideae tribe, Eleusine coracana, Finger millet - the fourth-most cultivated millet, paniceae tribe, Panicum miliaceum, Proso millet - the third-most cultivated millet. Pennisetum glaucum, Pearl millet - the most cultivated millet, setaria italica, Foxtail millet - the second-most cultivated millet. Jobs tears - of minor importance as a crop, eragrostideae tribe, Eragrostis tef, Teff - often not considered to be a millet. White fonio, Black fonio, Raishan, Polish millet - of minor importance as a crop, Japanese barnyard millet, Indian barnyard millet, Burgu millet, Common barnyard grass. Collectively, the members of this genus are called barnyard grasses or barnyard millets, other common names to identify these seeds include Jhangora, Samo seeds or Morio / Mario / Moraiaya seeds. Panicum sumatrense, Little millet Paspalum scrobiculatum, Kodo millet Urochloa ramosa, guinea millet Foxtail Millet is known to have been the first domesticated millet. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of millet to Shennong, the legendary Emperor of China, millets also formed important parts of the prehistoric diet in Indian, Chinese Neolithic and Korean Mumun societies. Broomcorn and foxtail millet were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China, for example, some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan. Evidence at Cishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 6500 BC, a 4, 000-year-old well-preserved bowl containing well-preserved noodles made from foxtail millet and broomcorn millet was found at the Lajia archaeological site in China
12.
Maize
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Maize, also known as corn, is a large grain plant first domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, the leafy stalk of the plant produces separate pollen and ovuliferous inflorescences or ears, which are fruits, yielding kernels or seeds. Maize kernels are used in cooking as a starch. Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico, recent research modified this view somewhat, scholars now indicate the adjacent Balsas River Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication. The Olmec and Mayans cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked and its believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas. The region developed a network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. Nevertheless, recent data indicates that the spread of maize took place even earlier, according to Piperno, A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Since then, even earlier dates have been published, the study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths and this is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands. Before they were domesticated, maize plants only grew small,25 millimetres long corn cobs, Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol, genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009. After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders carried it back to Europe, Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize, cassava, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for bread, since in Christian belief only wheat could undergo transubstantiation. At another level, Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, that not only would they weaken, despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize and archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates and it was cultivated in Spain just a few decades after Columbuss voyages and then spread to Italy, West Africa and elsewhere. The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant and it is known by other names around the world. The word corn outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, corn primarily means maize, this usage started as a shortening of Indian corn. Indian corn primarily means maize, but can more specifically to multicolored flint corn used for decoration
13.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
14.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
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Ethnologue
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Ethnologue, Languages of the World is a web-based publication that contains information about the 7,099 living languages in its 20th edition, which was released in 2017. The publication is well respected and widely used by linguists, Ethnologue is published by SIL International, a Christian linguistic service organization with an international office in Dallas, Texas. Ethnologue follows general linguistic criteria, which are based primarily on mutual intelligibility, shared language intelligibility features are complex, and usually include etymological and grammatical evidence that is agreed upon by experts. These lists of names are not necessarily complete, in 1984, Ethnologue released a three-letter coding system, called an SIL code, to identify each language that it described. This set of codes significantly exceeded the scope of other standards, e. g. ISO 639-1, the 14th edition, published in 2000, included 7,148 language codes. In 2002, Ethnologue was asked to work with the International Organization for Standardization to integrate its codes into an international standard. The 15th edition of Ethnologue was the first edition to use this standard and this standard is now administered separately from Ethnologue according to rules established by ISO, and since then Ethnologue relies on the standard to determine what is listed as a language. e. A language with which no-one retains a sense of ethnic identity, in December 2015, Ethnologue launched a soft paywall, users in high-income countries who want to refer to more than seven pages of data per month must buy a paid subscription. Ethnologues 18th edition describes 228 language families and six typological categories, in 1986, William Bright, then editor of the journal Language, wrote of Ethnologue that it is indispensable for any reference shelf on the languages of the world. In 2008 in the journal, Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona said, Ethnologue. has become the standard reference. However, he concluded that, on balance, Ethnologue is a comprehensive catalogue of world languages. Starting with the 17th edition, new editions of Ethnologue are to be published every year, linguasphere Observatory Register Glottolog Lists of languages List of language families Martin Everaert, Simon Musgrave, Alexis Dimitriadis, eds. The Use of Databases in Cross-Linguistic Studies, linguistic Genocide in Education-or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights. Evaluating language statistics, the Ethnologue and beyond
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International Institute for Asian Studies
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The International Institute for Asian Studies is a research and exchange platform based at Leiden University in the Netherlands. The objective of the institute is to encourage the multidisciplinary and comparative study of Asia and it acts as an interface between academic and non-academic partners including cultural, social and policy organisations. IIAS was jointly established in 1993 by the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Leiden University, the Universiteit van Amsterdam, the IIAS functions as a clearinghouse of knowledge and information and strives to contributes to the cultural rapprochement between Asia and Europe. It provides information services, constructs international networks, and sets up international cooperative projects, IIAS hosts many postdoctoral researchers in Asian Studies. Positionsare open for outstanding post-doctoral researchers from around the world focusing on one of IIAS thematic clusters, Asian Cities, Asian Heritages, the IIAS is an active initiator and facilitator of international cooperation. All of IIAS research programmes, fellowships and other activities are possible with the cooperation of national and international partner institutions and organisations. Since 2001, IIAS serves as the permanent secretariat for the International Convention of Asia Scholars, ICAS was set up to strengthen contact between researchers from Asia, Europe, and the USA working in Asian Studies. Urban Knowledge Network Asia UKNA is a network of 102 researchers from 13 partner institutes in Europe, China, India and its key objective is the nurturing of contextualised and policy-relevant knowledge on Asian cities. The exchanges are financed by the Marie Curie Actions ‘International Research Staff Exchange Scheme’ of the European Union
17.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
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Demographics of Nepal
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Nepalese also referred to as Nepalis or Nepali people are the Indo-Aryan and Sino-Tibetan citizens of Nepal under the provisions of Nepali nationality law. The country is home to people of different national origins. As a result, people of Nepal do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, although citizens make up the majority of Nepalese, non-citizen residents, dual citizen, and expatriates may also claim a Nepalese identity. Nepalese are descendants of migrants from parts of India, Kashmir, Tibet, and parts of Burma and Yunnan, Nepal is a multicultural and multiethnic country. Kathmandu Valley, in the hill region, constitutes a small fraction of the nations area but is the most densely populated. In the 2011 census, Nepals population was approximately 26 million people with a growth rate of 1. 35%. In 2016, the median age was approximately 25 years old. Only 4. 4% of the population is estimated to be more than 65 years old, 61% of the population is between 15 and 64 years old, and 34. 6% is younger than 14 years. In 2011, the Birth rate is estimated to be 22.17 births per 1,000 people with an infant mortality rate of 46 deaths per 1,000 live births. Compared to the infant mortality rate in 2006 of 48 deaths per 1000 live births, infant mortality rate in Nepal is higher in rural regions at 44 deaths per 1000 live births, whereas in urban regions the IMR is lower at 40 deaths per 1000 live births. This difference is due to a lack of delivery assistance services in rural communities compared to their counterparts who have better access to hospitals. Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 67.44 years for females and 64.94 years for males, the mortality rate is estimated to be 681 deaths per 100,000 people. Net migration rate is estimated to be 61 migrants per 100,000 people, according to the 2011 census,65. 9% of the total population is literate. The population of Nepal has been steadily rising recent decades, in the June 2001 census, there was a population of about 23 million in Nepal. The population increased by 5 million from the last census, the rate is 2. 3%. The current population is roughly 30 million which contributes to an increase of about 3 million people every 5 years. Source, Births and deaths Structure of the population, Total Fertility Rate and Crude Birth Rate, The following demographic statistics are from the 2011 Nepal Demographic, the following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Nationality Noun, Nepali, Nepalese, Gorkhali Adjective, Nepali, Nepalese, Gorkhali Religions Hindu 81. 34%, Buddhist 9. 04%, Muslim 4. 38%, Kirant 3. 04%, according to the 2001 national census,92 different living languages are spoken in Nepal
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Languages of Nepal
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The 2011 National census lists 123 Nepalese languages spoken as a mother tongue in Nepal. Most belong to the Indo-Aryan and Sino-Tibetan language families, the official language of Nepal is Nepali, formerly called Khaskura then Gorkhali. According to the 2011 national census, the percentage of Nepali Bhasi people is about 44. 6%, maithili is the second largest Nepalese language and according to 2011 Census, the percentage of Maithil people is 11. 57%. Three quarters of the 123 languages native to Nepal belong to the Tibeto-Burman language family, this includes Nepal Bhasa, the Dravidian languages are represented by Kurux, and the Munda languages of the Austroasiatic family by Santali and Mundari. The indigenous languages of Nepal that predated the influx of Indic, Tibeto-Burman, and other families barely survive in the Kusunda language, which is nearly extinct today. Nepal also has at several indigenous village sign languages, Jhankot Sign Language, Jumla Sign Language, and Ghandruk Sign Language, in addition to the Nepali Sign Language designed for national use
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Sino-Tibetan languages
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The Sino-Tibetan languages, in a few sources also known as Tibeto-Burman or Trans-Himalayan, are a family of more than 400 languages spoken in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. The family is only to the Indo-European languages in terms of the number of native speakers. The Sino-Tibetan languages with the most native speakers are the varieties of Chinese, Burmese, many Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken by small communities in remote mountain areas and as such are poorly documented. Several low-level groupings are well established, but the structure of the family remains unclear. A genetic relationship between Chinese, Tibetan, Burmese and other languages was first proposed in the early 19th century, and is now broadly accepted. The initial focus on languages of civilizations with long literary traditions has been broadened to include less widely spoken languages, some of which have recently, or never. However, the reconstruction of the family is less developed than for families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to access, and are often also sensitive border zones. During the 18th century, several scholars had noticed parallels between Tibetan and Burmese, both languages with extensive literary traditions. Early in the century, Brian Houghton Hodgson and others noted that many non-literary languages of the highlands of northeast India. The name Tibeto-Burman was first applied to this group in 1856 by James Richardson Logan, the third volume of the Linguistic Survey of India, edited by Sten Konow, was devoted to the Tibeto-Burman languages of British India. Studies of the Indo-Chinese languages of Southeast Asia from the century by Logan and others revealed that they comprised four families, Tibeto-Burman, Tai, Mon–Khmer. Julius Klaproth had noted in 1823 that Burmese, Tibetan and Chinese all shared common basic vocabulary but that Thai, Mon, Ernst Kuhn envisaged a group with two branches, Chinese-Siamese and Tibeto-Burman. August Conrady called this group Indo-Chinese in his influential 1896 classification, Conradys terminology was widely used, but there was uncertainty regarding his exclusion of Vietnamese. Franz Nikolaus Finck in 1909 placed Karen as a branch of Chinese-Siamese. Jean Przyluski introduced the term sino-tibétain as the title of his chapter on the group in Meillet and he retained Conradys two branches of Tibeto-Burman and Sino-Daic, with Miao–Yao included within Daic. The English translation Sino-Tibetan first appeared in a note by Przyluski. In 1935, the anthropologist Alfred Kroeber started the Sino-Tibetan Philology Project, funded by the Works Project Administration and based at the University of California, the project was supervised by Robert Shafer until late 1938, and then by Paul K. Benedict
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Tibetic languages
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Classical Tibetan is a major regional literary language, particularly for its use in Buddhist literature. The Tibetic languages are spoken by some 8 million or more people, outside of Lhasa itself, Lhasa Tibetan is spoken by approximately 200,000 exile speakers who have moved from modern-day Tibet to India and other countries. Tibetan is also spoken by groups of ethnic minorities in Tibet who have lived in proximity to Tibetans for centuries. Although some of the Qiang peoples of Kham are classified by China as ethnic Tibetans, Qiangic languages are not Tibetic, classical Tibetan was not a tonal language, but some varieties such as Central and Khams Tibetan have developed tone registers. Amdo and Ladakhi-Balti are without tone, Tibetic morphology can generally be described as agglutinative. e. Groups which do not allow mutual intelligibility, the notion of ‘dialect group’ is equivalent to the notion of language but does not entail any standardization. Thus if we set aside the notion of standardization, I believe it would be appropriate to speak of 25 languages derived from Old Tibetan. This is not only an issue but it gives an entirely different perception of the range of variation. When we refer to 25 languages, we make clear that we are dealing with a comparable in size to the Romance family which has 19 groups of dialects. The more divergent dialects such as this are spoken in the north and east near the Qiangic and Rgyalrongic languages, the Tibetic languages used for broadcasting within China are Standard Tibetan, Khams and Amdo. Tournadre adds Tseku and Khamba to Khams, and groups Thewo-Chone, Zhongu, other Some classifications group Khams and Amdo together as Eastern Tibetan. Some, like Tournadre, break up Central Tibetan, most Tibetic languages are written in one of two Indic scripts. Standard Tibetan and most other Tibetic languages are written in the Tibetan script with a historically conservative orthography that helps unify the Tibetan-language area, Some other Tibetan languages are written in the related Devanagari script, which is also used to write Hindi, Nepali and many other languages. However, some Ladakhi and Balti speakers write with the Urdu script, the Tibetan script fell out of use in Pakistani Baltistan hundreds of years ago upon the regions adoption of Islam. Many shops in Baltistans capital Skardu in Pakistans Northern Areas region have begun supplementing signs written in the Arabic-Persian script with signs written in the Tibetan script, Old Tibetan phonology is rather accurately rendered by the script. The finals were pronounced devoiced although they are written as voiced, the graphic combinations hr and lh represent voiceless and not necessarily aspirate correspondences to r and l respectively. The letter was pronounced as a guttural fricative before vowels. Whether the gigu verso had phonetic meaning or not remains controversial, for instance, Srongbtsan Sgampo would have been pronounced and babs would have been pronounced
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Upper Mustang
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Mustang, formerly Kingdom of Lo, is a remote and isolated region of the Nepalese Himalayas. Tibetan culture has been preserved by the isolation of the region from the outside world. The Upper Mustang comprise the northern two-thirds of Mustang District of Dhawalagiri Zone, the southern third of the district is called Thak and is the homeland of the Thakali, who speak the Thakali language, and whose culture combines Tibetan and Nepalese elements. Life in Mustang revolves around tourism, animal husbandry and trade, Mustangs status as a kingdom ended in 2008 when its suzerain Kingdom of Nepal became a republic. The influence of the world, especially China, is growing and contributing to rapid change in the lives of Mustangs people. Upper Mustang has a climate which is cool and semi-arid with precipitation in the range of 250–400 mm. It is in the shadow of the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri ranges. The population of the whole Mustang District in 2001 was 14,981, the inhabitants are either Thakalis, Gurung or, in traditional Mustang, primarily Tibetan. Most of the population of Mustang lives near the Kali Gandaki River, the tough conditions cause a large winter migration into lower regions of Nepal. The administrative centre of Mustang District is at Jomsom which has had an airport since 1962 and has become the main tourist entry point since Mustang was opened to tourism in 1992. The main hydrographic feature of Mustang is the Gandaki River, the river runs southward towards Nepal Terai, bisecting Mustang. Routes paralleling the river served as a major trade route between Tibet and India, especially for salt. Part of the valley in the southern Mustang District forms the Kali Gandaki Gorge. Upper Mustang is on an ancient trade route between Nepal and Tibet exploiting the lowest 4,660 metres pass Kora La through the Himalaya west of Sikkim and this route remained in use until Chinas annexation of Tibet in 1950. China eventually decided to trade and in 2001 completed a 20 kilometres road from the international border to Lo Manthang. Across the TAR border is Zhongba County of Shigatse Prefecture, China National Highway 219 follows the valley of the Yarlung Tsangpo River some 50 kilometres north of the border. Meanwhile, road-building from the south was inhibited by difficulties along the Kali Gandaki Gorge to the south, in 2010, a 9 kilometres gap remained but the road was completed before 2015 and is suitable for high clearance and 4 WD vehicles. Currently, the easiest and only widely used road corridor, from Kathmandu to Lhasa—named Arniko Highway in Nepal and this is some 465 metres higher than Kora La
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Bhotiya
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Bhotiya or Bot are groups of ethno-linguistically related Tibetan people living in the Transhimalayan region of the SAARC countries. The word Bhotiya comes from the classical Tibetan name for Tibet, the Bhotiya speak Ladakhi, a Tibetic language. The Bhotiya identify as Raghuvanshi Rajput and prefer to be referred as Thakur or Rajvanshi, the Bhotiya may be the original immigrants to north Oudh in the period of Nawab Asaf-Ud-Dowlah. The Bhotiya people are related to several other groups and ethnic boundaries are porous. One group is the Bhutia, the main group of the northern part of the Indian state of Sikkim. A second is the Uttarakhand Bhotiya of the upper Himalayan valleys of the Kumaon and these include the Shauka tribe of Kumaon, the Tolchhas and the Marchhas of Garhwal. A third related group are the Dzongkha speaking Ngalop people, the main group of Bhutan. The Bhotiya are also related to several dispersed groups in Nepal, in Nepal, Bhotiya are 0.1 percent of the population. They live in villages through the Himilayas, the language of the Bhotiya people is Ladkahi. It is usually written in the Tibetan alphabet, bhoti is spoken in Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet, and parts of Pakistan and West Bengal. Bhoti is not included in the languages official status in India. The Bhotiya, recognised by Mongoloid facial features, live in the northern and eastern regions of Nepal, the Bhotiya also live in the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura. In Uttar Pradesh, the Bhotiya live in the Bahraich, Gonda, Lakhimpur, Lucknow, Barabanki, Kanpur, and Kheri districts. The Bhotiya have six recognisable sub-groups, the Bhot, Bhotiya, the Bhutia of Sikkim, the Tibbati, the Bhut, the Gyakar Khampa of Khimling, Bhidang of Uttarakhand and the Bhutola. In Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, in Uttarakhand, the Bhotiya are a Scheduled Tribe under the Schedule caste order 1950, the constitutional Scheduled tribe 1967 SC/ST. The Constitution of India recognizes the Bhotiya, Bhotiya marriages are similar to Hindu weddings. When the brides palanquin arrives at her husbands house, gods are worshipped, rice, silver or gold is put in the hands of bridegroom, which he passes on to the bride. She places them in a fan, and hands them as a present to the wife of the barber
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Sherpa people
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Sherpa are an ethnic group from the most mountainous region of Nepal, the Himalayas. Sherpa as a surname is the result of census takers of the Nepalese government. Not recognizing that some only have one name, census takers wrote Sherpa in the place of a last name. The surname Sherpa has thus been adopted and involuntarily used as last names even though last names are not part of Sherpa culture, most Sherpa people live in Nepals eastern regions, however, some live farther west in the Rolwaling valley and in the Helambu region north of Kathmandu. Tengboche is the oldest Sherpa village in Nepal, Sherpa people also live in Tibet, Bhutan, as well as in the Indian states of Sikkim and the northern portion of West Bengal, specifically the district of Darjeeling. The Sherpa language belongs to the branch of the Tibeto-Burman languages. However, this language is separate from Lhasa Tibetan and unintelligible to Lhasa speakers, the number of Sherpas migrating to the West has significantly increased in recent years, especially to the United States. New York City has the largest Sherpa community in the United States, the 2001 Nepal census recorded 154,622 Sherpas within its borders. Some members of the Sherpa population are known for their skills in mountaineering, the Sherpa were nomadic people who first settled in the Solukhumbu District, Nepal, then gradually moved westward along salt trade routes. According to Sherpa oral history, four groups migrated out of Solukhumbu at different times, giving rise to the four fundamental Sherpa clans, Minyagpa, Thimmi and these four groups have since split into the more than 20 different clans that exist today. About 1840, Sherpa ancestors migrated from Kham, mahayana Buddhism religious conflict may have contributed to the migration in the 15th and 16th centuries. Sherpa migrants traveled through Ü and Tsang, before crossing the Himalaya, by the 1400s, Khumbu Sherpa people attained autonomy within the newly formed Nepali state. In the 1960s, as tension with China increased, Nepali government influence on the Sherpa people grew, in 1976, Khumbu became a national park, and tourism became a major economic force. According to Oppitz, Sherpas migrated from the Kham region in eastern Tibet to Nepal within the last 300–400 years, on the other hand, Gautam concluded that the Sherpa migrated from Tibet approximately 600 years ago, through the Nangpa La pass. It is presumed that the group of people from the Kham region, east of Tibet, was called Shyar Khamba, as the time passed, the Shyar Khamba, inhabitants of Shyar Khumbu, were called Sherpa. A recent Nepal Ethnographic Museum study postulated that present-day Nepal became a part of the kingdom of Nepal. Since ancient times, Sherpas, like other indigenous Kirat Nepalese tribes, would move one place to another place within the Himalayan region surviving as Alpine pastoralists. Genetic evidence shows that the majority of Sherpa have a Tibeto-Burman origin, genetically, the Sherpa cluster closest with Tibetans and Han Chinese
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Central Tibetan languages
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Central Tibetan, also known as Dbus a. k. a. Ü or Ü-Tsang, is the most widely spoken Tibetic language, Dbus and Ü are forms of the same name. Dbus is a transliteration of the name in Tibetan script, དབུས་ and that is, in Tibetan, the name is spelled Dbus and pronounced Ü. All of these names are applied specifically to the prestige dialect of Lhasa. Amdo Tibetan Ladakhi language Balti language Ü-Tsang
26.
Tibetan Muslims
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The Tibetan Muslims, also known as the Kachee, form a small minority in Tibet. Despite being Muslim, they are recognized as Tibetans by the government of the Peoples Republic of China, unlike the Hui Muslims. The Tibetan word Kachee literally means Kashmiri and Kashmir was known as Kachee Yul, thus, many of them display a mixture of Indo-Iranian and indigenous Tibetan facial features. The appearance of the first Muslims in Tibet has been lost in the mists of time, between the eighth and ninth centuries, the Abbasid rulers of Baghdad maintained relations with Tibet. However, there was little proselytisation among the missionaries at first, although many of them decided to settle in Tibet and marry Tibetan women. In 710-720, during the reign of Me Agtsom, the Arabs, during the reign of Sadnalegs, there was a protracted war with Arab powers to the West. It appears that Tibetans captured a number of Arab troops and pressed them into service on the Eastern frontier in 801, Tibetans were active as far west as Samarkand and Kabul. Some Tibetans in Qinghai who converted to Islam are now considered Hui people, the Balti people of Baltistan in Pakistan and Kargil are descendants of Tibetan Buddhists who mostly converted to Shia Islam, with a Sunni minority. Their Balti language is archaic and conservative and closer to Classical Tibetan than other Tibetan languages. Islam in China Uyghurs Hui people Dungan people Salar people Balti people Nepalese Muslims Akasoy, Anna, Burnett, Charles, Yoeli-Tlalim, Islam and Tibet, interactions along the musk routes
27.
Sunuwar people
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The Sunuwar are one of the indigenous peoples of Nepal and some areas in India. The majority of this tribe follow the Kirant religion and adopt the Mundhum culture, however, some population of this tribe is influenced by the Hinduism and Christianity also. According to the 2001 census, only 17. 4% were Kirant, the term ‘Kõinchs’ is also the name of the mother tongue. Other terms like Mukhiya or Mukhia are exonyms of the tribe, there is another common teasing name of the tribe coined from the Sunuwar language itself, e. g. Maaraapaache. Sunuwar have their language, religion, culture and social customs. They inhabit the hills of Nepal. They are autochthonous to the Molung Khola, Likhu Khola and Khimti Khola, by administrative division, they dwell in Okhaldhunga, Ramechhap and Dolakha districts of Nepal, politically known as Wallo Kirant after the fall of the Kirant dynasty at the ancient Nepal valley. Wallo Kirant in the past was their Kipat or communal land, most Sunuwar practice agriculture throughout the eastern hills of present-day Nepal. Crop cultivation and cattle farming are the agricultural works. Sunuwar people also took part in the Second World War and they were known as brave gorkhali, some Sunuwar still join the Nepal Army, Indian Army, Singapore Police Force and British Gurkha Army. Due to limited opportunities within the nation, people with education go abroad for work, attractive salaries and facilities in other countries motivate these people for jobs abroad. Only few Sunuwar people are involved in the government service and private sectors in Nepal, Sunuwar are very in rich culture and traditions. They have hundreds of traditional feasts and festivals which are difficult to explain in detail, every traditional feast and festival has its own objectives, characteristics and system of celebration. Some greatest traditional festivals such as Chandi Dance in, Sakela, Gil puja and they celebrate Shyadar-pidar festival on the Day of Buddha Purnima or after 5 days of Buddha Purnima according to Nepali calendar. Sunuwar New year is celebrated on the day of Basanta Panchami, as a community, they celebrate Meserani Pidar twice a year, with no specific date allocated as such. See more Sunuwar Dress Ne, सुनुवार पोसाक Sunuwari Song, Reuhita Ragimshumshaa Hal-Li Or HaliCha हाल्ली खेल Place, Khiji Chandeshwori DVC, Mainland after Kathmandu Month, November/Dec. Only One in the World Players, 12x12, As 12 Month Rule,1 Hali change the Area/court, arranged Marriage Escape Marriage Traction Marriage. Before but not now The 29 Kirat kings were as follows, Yalamber 2
28.
Rai people
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The Khambu or Rai are indigenous ethnolinguistic groups of Nepal, the Indian State of Sikkim and Darjeeling Hills. They were Rai meaning king (Rai means King in old Khas kura, when the king Prithvi Narayan Shah couldnt defeat Khambu king, he somehow took them in confidence that the land is theirs forever and gave them the title Rai in around B. S.1832. The title of Rai instead khambu kirant people who used to live in majh kirant for particular reason, then the post Rai was provided to the topmost leaders of the region. They were given the power to land tax. Thats why sometimes Rai people are called jimmi or jimmi-wal, the Rai belong to the Kirati group or the Kirat confederation that includes Limbu, Sunuwar, Yakkha and Dhimal ethnic groups. Rais are also found in significant numbers in the Indian state of Sikkim, Assam and in the northern West Bengal towns of Kalimpong, Kurseong, Mirik, according to Nepals 2001 census, there are 635,751 Rai in Nepal representing 2. 79% of the total population. Of this number,70. 89% declared themselves as practicing the traditional Kiranti religion, some groups number only a few hundred members. More than 32 different panoti languages and dialects are recognized within the Tibeto-Burman languages family and their languages are Pronominalised Tibeto-Burman languages, indicating their antiquity. The traditional Kiranti religion, predating Hinduism and Buddhism, is based on ancestor-worship, sumnima-Paruhang are worshipped as primordial parents. They are worshipped as Lord Shiva and Parvati, a major Rai holiday is the harvest festival, Nwogi, when fresh harvested foods are shared by all. The Bijuwa and Nakchhung or Priest plays an important role in Rai communities, the Rai people do not belong to the caste system. The Rai people have never accepted casteism and never adopted a caste, the Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities and the Nepal government have recognised this fact. Rai women decorate themselves lavishly with silver and gold coin jewellery, marriage unions are usually monogamous and arranged by parents, although love marriage, bride capture in the past and elopement are alternative methods. Sakela or Sakewa dance is the greatest religious festival of Kirant Rai people in Nepal, the Sakela celebration is a prayer to Mother Nature for healthy crops and protection from natural calamities. Therefore, the festival is known as Bhumi Puja. Starting on Baisakh Purnima, Sakela Ubhauli is celebrated for 15 days in Baisakh marking the beginning of the farming year, Nepal is a very ancient country, which has been ruled by many dynasties. Among them, the Kirat rule is taken as a significant one. In ancient Hindu scriptures, Nepal is referred as the Kirat Desh or the Land of Kirats, when the 28th Kirat King Paruka was ruling in the valley, the Sombanshi ruler attacked his regime many times from the west
29.
Lohorung people
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Lohorung are a janajati or ethnic native people of eastern Nepal. The Lohorung homeland is Sankhuwasabha district in the part of the Arun watershed. At present they are found in eight districts of Nepal, Ilam, Jhapa, Sunsari, Morang, Dhankuta, Terhathum, Lalitpur. They also live in states of India, Darjeeling and Kalimpong in West Bengal, Sikkim and Assam. The Lohorung language belongs to the Kiranti group of Sino-Tibetan languages, Lohorung Yakhkhaba Yuyong is a non-profit organization advocating for the Lohorung community. It is based in Kathmandu, Nepal, the main festivals of Lohorung are Nwagi and Iksamam
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Limbu people
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The name Limbu is an exonym of an uncertain origin. They call themselves Yakthumba (IPA, or Yakthungba, in Standard Tibetan, they are referred to as Sikkimese people and in Sikkimese as Shong or Tsong Tsang people. Portions of the Limbu population are located in the east and west districts of Sikkim. Limbu clans and tribes are divided into two gotras indicating their origin, Lhasa and Yunnan, the Limbu are known as Yakthung Thibong or Ten Limbu, from which thirteen Limbu subgroups have emerged. According to legend, five of the came from Yunnan. The Chinese text Po-ou-Yeo-Jing translated in 308 AD refers to the Yi-ti-Sai, accounts with Sirijunga Limbu, Lepcha and Newar are the only Sino-Tibetan languages of the Central Himalayas to possess their own pre-20th century scripts. Vowels, ʌ, ɑ, i, u, e, ɑi, o, ɑu, ɛ, ɔ Consonants k, kh, g, gh, ŋ, c/ts, ch/tsh, j/dz, jh/dz, t, th, d, dh, n, p, ph, b, bh, m, j, r, l, w, sh, s, h, tr 1. Sleep, imma, kiratism or Kirat Dharma Limbus practice many of their own life cycle rituals and they believe that lineage is not transmitted patrilineally. Rather, a woman inherits her mothers gods, and when she marries and lives with her husband she brings with her the deities that will then be recognized as the household deities, Limbu bury their dead and observe for two-to-three days through practiced death rituals. The length of the period varies depending on the gender of the deceased. Dancing parties are arranged for visitors to the village and these affairs give the young Limbu girls and boys a chance to meet and enjoy dancing and drinking. The traditional dress of the Limbus are mekhli and taga, while performing mangsewa IPA, Yakthung IPA, people wear mekhli and taga in white colour as it symbolizes purity. Dhaka is the fabric of the Limbus which are made by weaving it in geometric patterns in a handloom. The art of making dhaka is taught by one generation to another and you will always see a Limbu man clad in dhaka topi and scarf, and a Limbu lady in dhaka saree, mekhli, blouse and shawl. In the olden days, the Limbus were skilled in silk farming, the Kiratis were also known as silk traders. According to JB Subba and Iman Xin Chemjong, the Kirat is a form of kereta. Mekhli- Long dress worn with a strip of cloth with collars crossing over or in a Vneck style. Chunglokek/sunghamba- Blouse Chaubandi Cholo- Blouse with collars overlapping each other Sim- gunyo in Nepali, a long strip of cloth wrapped around like a skirt
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Gurung people
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The Gurung people, also called Tamu, are an ethnic group from different parts of Nepal. Priestly practitioners of Gurung Dharma include Ghyabri, Pachyu, and Bon Lamas, shamanistic elements among the Gurungs remain strong and most Gurungs often embrace Buddhist and Bön rituals in all communal activities. Nepal, the Living Heritage, Environment and Culture, university of Michigan, Kathmandu Environmental Education Project. The Land of the Gurkhas, Or, The Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal, the Gurungs, Thunder of Himal, A Cross Cultural Study of a Nepalese Ethnic Group
