1.
Boryspil International Airport
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Boryspil International Airport is an international airport in Boryspil,29 km east of Kiev, the capital of Ukraine. It is the countrys largest airport, serving 65% of its air traffic, including all its intercontinental flights. It is one of two airports that serve Kiev along with the smaller Zhulyany Airport. Boryspil International Airport is a member of Airports Council International, on 22 June 1959, the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR ordered the establishment of regular civil air traffic to the then military airfield near Boryspil. On 7 July 1959, the new airport received its first scheduled flight and it was Aeroflots Tupolev Tu-104 en route from Moscow, carrying 100 passengers and about 1,600 kg of cargo. The first routes served were Moscow–Kiev-Moscow and Leningrad–Kiev–Leningrad, in November 1960, the first permanent air group, consisting of Tu-104 and Antonov An-10 planes, was assigned to the airport. Until then it had served only by aircraft based in Moscow. A new passenger terminal was opened in 1965, later that year, an automatic landing assistance system was installed. In 1963, the Ukrainian Territorial Administration of Civil Aviation formed its Boryspil subdivision consisting of the airport, the air group grew significantly in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1974 it consisted of four fleets of aircraft, turbofan aircraft. Toward the final decades of the Cold War, the Soviet Air Force maintained a presence at Boryspil Airport with 1 VTAP flying Ilyushin Il-76 cargo jets, by the 1980s, Boryspil had begun receiving limited international flights. Additional passenger services and customs/border control groups were established for that purpose, however, ordinary Soviet citizens were not allowed to depart abroad from Kiev, being restricted to fly only from Moscow airports. The airport was opened for any passengers and flights, the number of air and passenger traffic has been growing ever since. Early in the 2000s, Boryspil became a hub airport serving destined and its development strategy stresses the hub role since domestic passenger demand is growing insufficiently compared to the possible transit traffic. In 2001, a new runway was completed, and the airport carried 1.5 million passengers and it is certified for Category III A ILS approaches. In 2002 Boryspil airport was certified under the ISO9001 quality management system and it is one of Eastern Europes largest airports with over 6 million passengers travelling in 2008. It consistently accounted for between 60% and 70% of Ukraine’s air travel demand and, despite a drop of 13% in 2009, it handled 5.8 million passengers, the airport survived the 2012 European cold wave without major flight delays or cancellations. According to the media and industry experts, in 2013 once underdog in-city Zhulyany Airport has rapidly grown into a major, Boryspil International Airport handles most of Ukraines international traffic
2.
ICAO airport code
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The ICAO airport code or location indicator is a four-character alphanumeric code designating aerodromes around the world. ICAO codes are used to identify other aviation facilities such as weather stations, International Flight Service Stations or Area Control Centers. Flight information regions are identified by a unique ICAO-code. Code selections in North America were based on existing radio station identifiers, for example, radio stations in Canada were already starting with C, so it seemed logical to begin Canadian airport identifiers with Cxxx. The United States had many pre-existing airports with established mnemonic codes and their ICAO codes were formed simply by prepending a K to the existing codes, as half the radio station identifiers in the US began with K. Most ICAO codes outside the US and Canada have a geographical structure. Most of the rest of the world was classified in a more planned top-down manner, thus Uxxx referred to the Soviet Union with the second letter denoting the specific region within it, and so forth. Europe had too many locations for one starting letter, so it was split into Exxx for northern Europe. The second letter was more specific, EGxx was the United Kingdom, EDxx was West Germany, ETxx was East Germany, LExx was Spain, LAxx was Albania, France was designated LFxx, as the counterpart EFxx was the unambiguously northern Finland. ICAO codes are separate and different from IATA codes, which are used for airline timetables, reservations. For example, the IATA code for Londons Heathrow Airport is LHR, in general IATA codes are usually derived from the name of the airport or the city it serves, while ICAO codes are distributed by region and country. Far more aerodromes have ICAO codes than IATA codes, and to add to the confusion IATA codes are assigned to railway stations. Unlike the IATA codes, the ICAO codes generally have a structure and are comprehensive. In general, the first letter is allocated by continent and represents a country or group of countries within that continent, the second letter generally represents a country within that region, and the remaining two are used to identify each airport. The exception to rule is larger countries that have single-letter country codes. In either case, ICAO codes generally provide geographical context unlike IATA codes, for example, if one knows that the ICAO code for Heathrow is EGLL, then one can deduce that the airport EGGP is somewhere in the UK. On the other hand, knowing that the IATA code for Heathrow is LHR does not enable one to deduce the location of the airport LHV with any greater certainty, there are a few exceptions to the regional structure of the ICAO code made for political or administrative reasons. Similarly Saint Pierre and Miquelon is controlled by France, and airports there are assigned LFxx as though they were in Europe, further, in region L, all available 2-letter prefixes have been exhausted and thus no additional countries can be added
3.
Kiev
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Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population in July 2015 was 2,887,974, Kiev is an important industrial, scientific, educational, and cultural centre of Eastern Europe. It is home to many industries, higher education institutions. The city has an infrastructure and highly developed system of public transport. The citys name is said to derive from the name of Kyi, during its history, Kiev, one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, passed through several stages of great prominence and relative obscurity. The city probably existed as a centre as early as the 5th century. A Slavic settlement on the trade route between Scandinavia and Constantinople, Kiev was a tributary of the Khazars, until seized by the Varangians in the mid-9th century. Under Varangian rule, the city became a capital of the Kievan Rus, completely destroyed during the Mongol invasion in 1240, the city lost most of its influence for the centuries to come. It was a capital of marginal importance in the outskirts of the territories controlled by its powerful neighbours, first the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, followed by Poland. The city prospered again during the Russian Empires Industrial Revolution in the late 19th century, in 1917, after the Ukrainian National Republic declared independence from the Russian Empire, Kiev became its capital. From 1919 Kiev was an important center of the Armed Forces of South Russia and was controlled by the White Army. From 1921 onwards Kiev was a city of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was proclaimed by the Red Army, during World War II, the city again suffered significant damage, but quickly recovered in the post-war years, remaining the third largest city of the Soviet Union. During the countrys transformation to an economy and electoral democracy. Kievs armament-dependent industrial output fell after the Soviet collapse, adversely affecting science, Kiev emerged as the most pro-Western region of Ukraine where parties advocating tighter integration with the European Union dominate during elections. As a prominent city with a history, its English name was subject to gradual evolution. The early English spelling was derived from Old East Slavic form Kyjev, the name is associated with that of Kyi, the legendary eponymous founder of the city. Early English sources use various names, including Kiou, Kiow, Kiew, on one of the oldest English maps of the region, Russiae, Moscoviae et Tartariae published by Ortelius the name of the city is spelled Kiou. On the 1650 map by Guillaume de Beauplan, the name of the city is Kiiow, in the book Travels, by Joseph Marshall, the city is referred to as Kiovia
4.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
5.
Focus city
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In the airline industry, a focus city is a destination from which an airline operates several point-to-point routes. Thus, a city primarily caters to the local market rather than to connecting passengers. However, with the terms expanded usage, a city may also function as a small-scale hub. Allegiant Air, JetBlue and Frontier Airlines are examples of airlines that consider some of their destinations to be focus cities
6.
Wizz Air
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Wizz Air Hungary Ltd. is a Hungarian low-cost airline with its head office in Budapest. The airline typically uses secondary airports serving many cities across Europe, Israel and it has the largest fleet of any Hungarian airline, although it is not a flag carrier, and currently serves 35 countries. Its Jersey based parent company, Wizz Air Holdings Plc, is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index, the airline was established in September 2003. The lead investor is Indigo Partners, an American private equity firm specializing in transportation investments, the first flight was made from Katowice International Airport on 19 May 2004. The airlines CEO is József Váradi, former CEO of Malév Hungarian Airlines, the company is registered in Pest County. In 2011, Wizz Air carried 11 million passengers, including 4.2 million passengers on Polish routes, recently Wizz opened new bases in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Ukraine. However, Poland is still the largest market for Wizz Air, on 4 October 2012, Wizz Air launched a new cabin bag policy to encourage customers to bring smaller baggage on-board following a successful month-long trial on the London Luton and Katowice route. This means that a smaller cabin bag can be taken on board for free, on 25 February 2015 Wizz Air started trading on London Stock Exchange. The current Head office can be found in Laurus offices, Budapest since March 2016, the new building has 5 floors, which gives the company more space than any of the former headquarters. Previously, its office was at Budapest Liszt Ferenc International Airport. While attempting to hasten SkyEuropes demise in June 2009, Wizz Air claimed it had been profitable for several years, however, as a private company it is not required to publish its financial accounts - annual reports are still available. In November 2009, it emerged that Wizz Air was significantly loss-making and had never made a profit while delaying the pay-back of €32 million of debt by five years. Losses since commencing operations total €78 million, which, in 2009, since then Wizz Air reported profits in 2012, in 2013, in 2014 and in 2015. Wizz Air has the second lowest CASK among European airlines, as result of the 2014 situation in Ukraine, Wizz Air Ukraine was terminated on 20 April 2015. Some routes to and from Kyiv were taken over by Wizz Air itself while all others ceased, Wizz Air Bulgaria was Wizz Airs Bulgarian subsidiary based at Sofia Airport. However, Wizz Air itself still maintains base operations there, Wizz Air Romania was a planned subsidiary to be based at Timișoara Traian Vuia International Airport. However, this never started operations and Wizz Air itself inaugurated a base there instead. Wizz Air prefers to land at smaller or secondary airports to reduce costs, the airline also has a buy on board service called Wizz Café and a shopping service called Wizz Boutique
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Runway
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
9.
Concrete
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Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
10.
Igor Sikorsky
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Igor Ivanovich Sikorsky, was a Russian-American aviation pioneer in both helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft. First success came with the S-2, the second fixedwing plane of his design and his fifth airplane, the S-5, won him national recognition as well as F. A. I. After immigrating to the United States in 1919, Sikorsky founded the Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation in 1923, in 1939 Sikorsky designed and flew the Vought-Sikorsky VS-300, the first viable American helicopter, which pioneered the rotor configuration used by most helicopters today. Sikorsky modified the design into the Sikorsky R-4, which became the worlds first mass-produced helicopter in 1942, Igor Sikorsky was born in Kiev, Russian Empire, the youngest of five children. His father, Ivan Alexeevich Sikorsky, was a professor of psychology of Kiev St. Vladimir University, a psychiatrist with a reputation. Igor Sikorsky was an Orthodox Christian, according to the Sikorsky Archives News his ancestors were priests of the Russian Orthodox Church originated sometime during the reign of Peter the Great. When questioned regarding his roots, he would answer, My family is of Russian origin and my grandfather and other ancestors from the time of Peter the Great were Russian Orthodox priests. Consequently, the Russian nationality of the family must be considered as well established, by the start of World War I in 1914, Sikorskys airplane research and production business in Kiev was flourishing, and his factory made bombers during the war. After the Bolshevik revolution began in 1917, Igor Sikorsky fled his homeland and he moved to France where he was offered a contract for the design of a new, more powerful Muromets-type plane. But in November 1918 the war ended and the French government stopped subsidizing military orders, Sikorskys mother, Mariya Stefanovna Sikorskaya, was a physician who did not work professionally. She is sometimes called Zinaida Sikorsky, while homeschooling young Igor, she gave him a great love for art, especially in the life and work of Leonardo da Vinci, and the stories of Jules Verne. In 1900, at age 11, he accompanied his father to Germany and through conversations with his father, after returning home, Sikorsky began to experiment with model flying machines, and by age 12, he had made a small rubber band-powered helicopter. Sikorsky began studying at the Saint Petersburg Maritime Cadet Corps, in 1903, in 1906, he determined that his future lay in engineering, so he resigned from the academy, despite his satisfactory standing, and left the Russian Empire to study in Paris. He returned to the Russian Empire in 1907, enrolling at the Mechanical College of the Kiev Polytechnic Institute, Sikorsky later said about this event, Within twenty-four hours, I decided to change my lifes work. With financial backing from his sister Olga, Sikorsky returned to Paris, Sikorsky met with aviation pioneers, to ask them questions about aircraft and flying. In May 1909, he returned to Russia and began designing his first helicopter, despite his progress in solving technical problems of control, Sikorsky realized that the aircraft would never fly. He finally disassembled the aircraft in October 1909, after he determined that he could learn nothing more from the design. I had learned enough to recognize that with the state of the art, engines, materials
11.
Ukrainian language
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Ukrainian /juːˈkreɪniən/ is an East Slavic language. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script, historical linguists trace the origin of the Ukrainian language to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. After the fall of the Kievan Rus as well as the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, the Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. From 1804 until the Russian Revolution, the Ukrainian language was banned from schools in the Russian Empire and it has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine, where the language was never banned, in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors. The Ukrainian language retains a degree of intelligibility with Belarusian and Russian. The first theory of the origin of Ukrainian language was suggested in Imperial Russia in the middle of the 18th century by Mikhail Lomonosov and this theory posits the existence of a common language spoken by all East Slavic people in the time of the Rus. Another point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia, like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics worldwide, the supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed. Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at time periods. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and this point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes, White Croats, Tiverians, notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented. In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century, Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko, according to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to a migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was supported by George Shevelovs phonological studies. During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia and their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts, examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh, rura, rynok, kushnir, and majster
12.
Business jet
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A business jet, private jet, or bizjet, or simply B. J. is a jet aircraft designed for transporting small groups of people. Business jets may be adapted for other roles, such as the evacuation of casualties or express parcel deliveries, the Lockheed JetStar, seating ten passengers and two crew, first flew on 4 September 1957. The smaller,17,760 pounds MTOW North American Sabreliner first flew on 16 September 1958, powered by two Pratt & Whitney JT12 turbojet engines then Garrett TFE731, more than 800 were produced from 1959 to 1982. The 25,000 pounds MTOW British Aerospace 125 first flew on 13 August 1962 and its engine were replaced by Garrett TFE731, then Pratt & Whitney Canada PW300 turbofans. Almost 1,700 aircraft were produced between 1962 and 2013 after being marketed as the Hawker 800, the 23,500 pounds MTOW IAI Westwind, developed by Aero Commander, first flew on 27 January 1963, powered by two General Electric CJ610 turbojets, then Garrett TFE731. 442 were built from 1965 to 1987 and it was developed in the IAI Astra, the 29,000 pounds MOTW Dassault Falcon 20 first flew on 4 May 1963, powered by two General Electric CF700, then Garrett ATF3 turbofans and Garrett TFE731. From 1963 to 1988,508 were built and it is the basis of the Dassault Falcon family, the first light jet first flew on 7 October 1963, the Learjet 23. Powered by two 2,850 pounds-force General Electric CJ610, its 12,500 pounds MTOW complies with FAR Part 23 regulations,104 were built between 1962 and 1966 and it is the first member of the Learjet Family. On 2 October 1966 the first large business jet first flew, from 1967 to the late 70s,258 were built and it led to the ongoing Gulfstream Aerospace long range family. The 11,850 pounds MTOW Cessna Citation I first flew on 15 September 1969, produced between 1969 and 1985 at 689 samples, it is the first of the Cessna Citation family. The trijet Dassault Falcon 50 made its first flight the 7 November 1976, the 40,000 pounds MTOW airplane is powered by three 3,700 pounds-force TFE731. With the cross-section of the Falcon 20, it is the basis of the larger Falcon 900, on 8 November 1978, the prototype Canadair Challenger took off. The 43, 000–48,000 pounds MTOW craft, usually powered by two 9,200 pounds-force General Electric CF34, the basis of the long range Global Express family, the 1000th Challenger has entered service in 2015. On May 30,1979 took off the clean-sheet 22,000 pounds MTOW Cessna Citation III powered by two 3,650 pounds-force TFE731, basis of the larger Citation X, the Mitsubishi MU-300 Diamond made its first flight on 29 August 1978. The 16,100 pounds MTOW jet was powered by two 2,900 pounds-force JT15D,950 has been produced, it was renamed Beechjet 400 then Hawker 400. The 1980s only saw the introduction of derivatives and no new design. The clean-sheet Learjet 45 took off on 7 October 1995, the 21,500 pounds is powered by two 3,500 pounds-force TFE731. Powered by two 2,300 pounds-force Williams FJ44, the 12,500 pounds Beechcraft Premier I light jet made its first flight on December 22,1998, nearly 300 has been made before the production stopped in 2013
13.
Aeroflot
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OJSC Aeroflot – Russian Airlines, commonly known as Aeroflot, is the flag carrier and largest airline of the Russian Federation. The carrier operates domestic and international passenger and services, mainly from its hub at Sheremetyevo International Airport, Aeroflot is one of the oldest airlines in the world, tracing its history back to 1923. During the Soviet era, Aeroflot was the Soviet national airline, following the dissolution of the USSR, the carrier has been transformed from a state-run enterprise into a semi-privatised company which ranked 19th most profitable airline in the world in 2007. Aeroflot is still considered the de facto national airline of Russia and it is 51%-owned by the Russian Government. As of September 2013, the Aeroflot Group had 30,328 employees, the company has embarked on a fleet modernisation programme, extensive route restructuring, and an image overhaul. The airline joined SkyTeam in April 2006, becoming the 10th member of the alliance, on 17 January 1921, the Sovnarkom of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic published About Air Transportation. The document signed by Lenin set out the regulations on air transport over the territory of the RSFSR. The document was significant as it was the first time that a Russian state had declared sovereignty over its airspace, in addition, the document defined rules for the operation of foreign aircraft over the Soviet Unions airspace and territory. After Lenin issued an order, a State Commission was formed on 31 January 1921 for the purpose of civil aviation planning in the Soviet Union. This was followed by the formation of Deruluft-Deutsch Russische Luftverkehrs A. G. in Berlin on 11 November 1921, as a joint venture between the Soviet Union and Germany. The company, whose aircraft were registered in both Germany and the Soviet Union, began operations on 1 May 1922 with a Fokker F. III flying between Königsberg and Moscow, the service was initially operated twice a week and restricted to the carriage of mail. On 3 February 1923 Sovnarkom approved plans for the expansion of the Red Air Fleet, the artist Alexander Rodchenko became involved in the ODVF at this time. He designed posters encouraging citizens to buy stock in Dobrolet and the famous Winged Hammer, regular flights by Dobrolet from Moscow to Nizhniy Novgorod commenced on 15 July 1923. During the same period, an additional two airlines were established, Zakavia being based in Tiflis, and Ukrvozdukhput based in Kharkov, during 1923 an agreement was signed establishing a subdivision of Dobrolet to be based in Tashkent, which would operate to points in Soviet Central Asia. Services between Tashkent and Alma Ata began on 27 April 1924, and by the end of 1924 the subdivision had carried 480 passengers and 500 kilograms of mail and freight, in March 1924, Dobrolet began operating flights from Sevastopol to Yalta and Yevpatoriya in the Crimea. Dobrolets route network was extended during the 1925–1927 period to include Kazan, plans were made for Dobrolet flights to Kharkov to connect with Ukrvozdukhput services to Kiev, Odessa and Rostov-on-Don. Expansion of air routes which had taken shape in the late 1920s, the agreement between the Soviet Union and Germany relating to Deruluft expired on 1 January 1937 and wasnt renewed, which saw the joint venture carrier ceasing operations on 1 April 1937. On that date Aeroflot began operations on the Moscow to Stockholm route, under the third Five-Year Plan, which began in 1938, civil aviation development continued, with improvements to airport installations being made and construction of airports being commenced
14.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
15.
Boryspil
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Boryspil is a city of regional significance located in the Kiev Oblast in northern Ukraine. Administratively, it is incorporated as a city of regional significance and it also serves as the administrative center of Boryspil Raion, though it administratively does not belong to the raion. It population was estimated in 2013 at 59,545, the name of the city is of the Greek origin. It consists of two parts Borys from Borysthenes and Pil from Polis, the city also has a sister city, Hopkins, Minnesota, US. The settlement is first mentioned in 1154 as part of the Kievan Rus, sometime after the Mongol invasion, most of the Ruthenian territory belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The site of the settlement belonged to the Kings translator Soltan Albiyevich who in 1508 sold it to the Kiev Saint Nicholas Hermitage and it is believed that it was then when the settlement received its modern name. In 1596 the Polish King Sigismund III Vasa transformed the town into a royal estate, later the same year it was granted the Magdeburg rights and in the town was built a ratusz. The Boryspil towns coat of arms contained an image of Saint Stanislav, with extinguishing the Nalyvaiko Uprising, the Boryspil starostwo was passed to Stanisław Żółkiewski and stayed as the Żółkiewskis family estate until the 1648 Khmelnytsky Uprising. On 14 January 1752 the Hetman of Little Russia Kyrylo Rozumovsky has given the town in possession to his brother-in-law Kiev Colonel Yukhym Darahan. On 2 June 1920 at the Battle of Boryspil Polish-Ukrainian Army defeated the Red Army, later in 1920 in the town was established the Soviet regime. There were created four collective farms, Shevchenko Memorial, Kirov Memorial, Sickle and Mallet, the town suffered greatly during the Soviet organized Holodomor when between 1 January 1933 to 1 January 1934 only by official data perished 5,739 among which 266 were infants. During World War II, Boryspil was occupied by the German Army from September 23,1941 to September 23,1943, fierce battles were fought around the city during its capture and liberation. During the Nazi occupation, the airfield of the modern Boryspil International Airport was used as a camp for prisoners of war, in 1956 Boryspil was officially granted the city status. Currently the city is home to the main and biggest airport, Boryspil International Airport. Aerosvit Airlines had its office on the grounds of Boryspil International Airport. Around the city detours the main European route, particularly the Kiev–Kharkiv highway, along between Kiev and Boryspil International Airport stretches a modernized motorway. In the city also starts another national highway H08 which connects Boryspil with Zaporizhia and it also hosts Ukrainian Premier League team Arsenal Kyiv at the Kolos Stadium. Trudova Slava newspaper Visti newspaper People born in Boryspil Pavlo Chubynsky, author of the Ukrainian National Anthem Battle of Boryspil Visti newspaper website
16.
Former Soviet Union
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On March 11,1990, Lithuania was the first to declare its independence, with Estonia and Latvia following suit in August 1991. All three Baltic states claimed continuity from the states that existed prior to their annexation by the Soviet Union in 1944 and were admitted to the United Nations on 17 September 1991. The remaining 12 republics all subsequently seceded,12 of the 15 states, excluding the Baltic states, initially formed the CIS and most joined CSTO, while the Baltic states focused on European Union and NATO membership. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided into the following five groupings. Each of these regions has its own set of traits, owing not only to geographic and cultural factors. In addition, there are a number of de facto independent, the dissolution of the Soviet Union took place as a result and against the backdrop of general economic stagnation, even regression. In all, the process triggered severe economic declines, with Gross Domestic Product dropping by more than 40% overall between 1990 and 1995. This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the United States suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934. The economic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in the deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s, by 2007,10 of the 15 post-Soviet states had recovered and reached GDP greater than what they had in 1991. Only Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan had GDP significantly below the 1991 level, the recovery in Russia was marginal, with GDP in 2006-2007 just nudging above the 1991 level. Combined with the aftershocks of the 1998 economic crisis it led to a return of more interventionist economic policies by Vladimir Putins administration. Change in Gross Domestic Product in constant prices, 1991-2015 *Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989-1990, **The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth. List of the present Gross domestic product, The post-Soviet states listed according to their Human Development Index scores, only organizations that are mainly composed of post-Soviet states are listed in this section, organizations with wider memberships are not discussed. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided in their participation to the blocs, Belarus, Russia. It was conceived as an organization to the USSR. It currently consists of nine of the 15 former Soviet republics, with one participating state, Georgia withdrew from the CIS in August 2008. The sole exception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of Democratic Choice, the Central Asian states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are members of the CIS and participate in several regional organizations that have Russia as a primary mover. Such organizations are the Eurasian Economic Community, Collective Security Treaty Organization, the last two groups only became distinct once Uzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership in EurAsEc and CSTO
17.
Low-cost carrier
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A low-cost carrier or low-cost airline is an airline that generally has lower fares and fewer comforts. To make up for revenue lost in decreased ticket prices, the airline may charge for extras like food, priority boarding, seat allocating, as of July 2014, the worlds largest low-cost carrier is Southwest Airlines, which operates in the United States and some surrounding areas. The term originated within the airline industry referring to airlines with an operating cost structure than their competitors. Low-cost carrier business model practices vary widely, some practices are more common in certain regions, while others are generally universal. The common theme among all low-cost carriers is the reduction of cost, traditional airlines have also reduced their cost using several of these practices. Most low-cost carriers operate aircraft configured with a single passenger class and these airlines tend to operate short-haul flights that suit the range of narrow-body planes. Long-range wide-body aircraft are too expensive for low cost carriers. In the past, low-cost carriers tended to operate older aircraft purchased second-hand, such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9, since 2000, fleets generally consist of the newest aircraft, commonly the Airbus A320 and Boeing 737. In 2013, ch-aviation published a study about the strategy of low-cost carriers. They summarized that major LCCs that order aircraft in large numbers get huge discounts and that saves a lot in operative costs. Aircraft often operate with a set of optional equipment, further reducing costs of acquisition and maintenance, as well as keeping the weight of the aircraft lower. Ryanair seats do not recline and do not have pockets, to reduce cleaning. Pilot conveniences, such as ACARS, may be excluded, often, no in-flight entertainment systems are made available, though many US low-cost carriers do offer satellite television or radio in-flight. It is also becoming a popular approach to install LCD monitors onto the aircraft and broadcast advertisements on them, most do not offer reserved seating, hoping to encourage passengers to board early and quickly, thus decreasing turnaround times. Some allow priority boarding for an extra fee instead of reserved seating, like the major carriers, many low-cost carriers develop one or more bases to maximize destination coverage and defend their market. Many do not operate traditional hubs, but rather focus cities, Airlines often offer a simpler fare scheme, such as charging one-way tickets half that of round-trips. Typically fares increase as the plane fills up, which rewards early reservations, in Europe luggage is not transferred from one flight to another, even if both flights are with the same airline. This saves costs and is thought to encourage passengers to take direct flights, tickets are not sold with transfers, so the airline wont need to take responsibility for a delay
18.
Early 2012 European cold wave
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The Early 2012 European cold wave was a deadly cold wave that started on January 27,2012 and brought snow and freezing temperatures to much of the European continent. There were more than 824 reported deaths, particularly low temperatures hit several Eastern and Northern European countries, reaching as low as −42.7 °C in Finland. The heaviest snow was recorded in the Balkan region, the cold weather was a result of an extensive area of very high pressure located in over the north east of the continent in northern Russia, which circulated cold air from the east. The northern half of Europe was affected primarily by greater cold, the snowfall of the third week of January was up to 1 m of snow in a few days, particularly affecting Slovakia and Bulgaria. On Sunday, January 22, heavy snowfall in northern Námestovo caused an ice rink to collapse under the weight of the snow, in Inari, Finland, temperatures of −42.7 °C were recorded on February 6, the lowest temperatures in Europe. The village Kvilda in Sumava recorded temperatures of −38.1 °C on February 3, the Ukrainian government announced that many of the public safety issues it was encountering were related to alcohol abuse in the context of the dangerously cold weather. The Baltic states also recorded temperatures down to −30 °C, moscow announced that, since the beginning of the last week of January, night temperatures ranged down to −25 °C. The Mediterranean coast of southern France was covered in snow by the end of January. Corsica was buried under 40 cm of snow, and at times there were as many as 14,000 homes without electricity, in early February, heavy snow pile-ups hit the Helsinki region. Belgium also was surprised by the snowfall, at the same time, the snow reached the British Isles, causing interruptions at London Heathrow Airport where up to 10 cm of snow impeded many scheduled flights. In Germany, the Elbe downstream of Magdeburg became impassable due to ice, as well as the entire Elbe–Havel Canal and parts of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal. On Lake Constance, the catamaran speed-boat traffic between Friedrichshafen and Konstanz had to be canceled due to the icing over of the port in Konstanz on February 7 until further notice and this port hadnt been frozen to such an extent since the winter of 1962–1963. The cold wave covered the Maghreb in the western Mediterranean, as well as the Aegean, the Turkey, even Turkey, Spain and Portugal fell to low temperatures in early February, the temperature sometimes considerably below the freezing point. Snow fell in Mallorca for the first time since 1956, and even in Algiers, Algeria, until the second week of February reigned throughout northern and central Italy tiefwinterliche conditions, particularly in Marche, in Umbria, the Abruzzi and Emilia-Romagna. In Rome, after the snowfalls of February 11–12,2,000 passengers had to spend the night in Fiumicino airport, Bosnia and Herzegovina - In Bosnia and Herzegovina, this years winter was one of the coldest and snowiest in the last 100 years. The snow depth in the capital Sarajevo reached 111 cm and in Mostar 86 cm, on the fifth of February in Sarajevo,5 people died because of cold weather in 3 hours. Snow and low temperatures stayed persistent until the month of March when drought hit the country, in March, not even 1 liter of precipitation fell throughout the whole country. In Sarajevo snow cover stayed until April, the cold wave killed anywhere from 15 to 50 people
19.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
20.
Highway
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A highway is any public road or other public way on land. It is used for roads, but also includes other public roads and public tracks, It is not an equivalent term to controlled-access highway, or a translation for autobahn, autoroute. In North American and Australian English, major such as controlled-access highways or arterial roads are often state highways. Other roads may be designated county highways in the US and Ontario and these classifications refer to the level of government that maintains the roadway. In British English, highway is primarily a legal term, everyday use normally implies roads, while the legal use covers any route or path with a public right of access, including footpaths etc. The term has led to several related derived terms, including highway system, highway code, highway patrol, the term highway exists in distinction to waterway. Major highways are named and numbered by the governments that typically develop. Australias Highway 1 is the longest national highway in the world at over 14,500 km or 9,000 mi, China has the worlds largest network of highways followed closely by the United States of America. Some highways, like the Pan-American Highway or the European routes, some major highway routes include ferry services, such as U. S. Route 10, which crosses Lake Michigan. Traditionally highways were used by people on foot or on horses, later they also accommodated carriages, bicycles and eventually motor cars, facilitated by advancements in road construction. In the 1920s and 1930s, many nations began investing heavily in progressively more modern highway systems to spur commerce and these features are typically present on highways built as motorways. The general legal definition deals with right of use not the form of construction, the status of highway on most older roads has been gained by established public use while newer roads are typically dedicated as highways from the time they are adopted. In England and Wales, a highway is also known as The Queens Highway. The core definition of a highway is modified in various legislation for a number of purposes, scots law is similar to English law with regard to highways but with differing terminology and legislation. What is defined in England as a highway will often in Scotland be what is defined by s, Highways generally have a route number designated by the state and federal departments of transportation. Smaller roads may be termed byways, modern highway systems developed in the 20th century as the automobile gained popularity. The worlds first limited access road was constructed on Long Island New York in the United States known as the Long Island Motor Parkway or the Vanderbilt Motor Parkway, construction of the Bonn–Cologne autobahn began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by the mayor of Cologne, Konrad Adenauer. In the USA, the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 enacted a fund to create a highway system
21.
Maximum takeoff weight
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The analogous term for rockets is gross lift-off mass, or GLOW. MTOW is usually specified in units of kilograms or pounds, MTOW is the heaviest weight at which the aircraft has been shown to meet all the airworthiness requirements applicable to it. MTOW of an aircraft is fixed, and does not vary with altitude or air temperature or the length of the runway to be used for takeoff or landing. A different weight the maximum takeoff weight, or regulated takeoff weight, varies according to flap setting, altitude, air temperature, length of runway. It is different from one takeoff to the next, but can never be higher than the MTOW, certification standards applicable to the airworthiness of an aircraft contain many requirements. Performance requirements – to ensure the aircraft is capable of climbing at a gradient with all its engines operating. At the MTOW, all aircraft of a type and model must be capable of complying with all these certification requirements, with several of the manufacturers of large aircraft, the same model of aircraft can have more than one MTOW. An operator can choose to have the aircraft certified for a weight, often for a reduced cost with an option to later increase the MTOW for a fee. Some airlines which do not require a high MTOW choose to have a lower MTOW for that aircraft to reduce costs. In other examples an increased MTOW option is achieved by reinforcement due to additional or stronger materials, for example, the Airbus A330242 tonnes MTOW variant / A330neo uses Scandium–aluminium to avoid an empty weight increase. Smaller aircraft like the Cessna 208 Caravan may have an option for a reinforced undercarriage to permit an increase in MTOW, in many circumstances an aircraft may not be permitted to take off at its MTOW. In these circumstances the maximum permitted for takeoff will be determined taking account of the following, Wing flap setting. See the Spanair Flight 5022 crash Airfield altitude – This affects air pressure which affects maximum engine power or thrust, air temperature – This affects air density which affects maximum engine power or thrust. Length of runway – A short runway means the aircraft has less distance to accelerate to takeoff speed, the length for computation of maximum permitted takeoff weight may be adjusted if the runway has clearways and/or stopways. Runway wind component – The best condition is a strong headwind straight along the runway, the worst condition is a tailwind. If there is a crosswind it is the component along the runway which must be taken into account. Condition of runway – The best runway for taking off is a dry, an unpaved runway or one with traces of snow will provide more rolling friction which will cause the airplane to accelerate more slowly. See the Munich air disaster Obstacles – An airplane must be able to take off and gain height to clear all obstacles
22.
Boeing 737
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The Boeing 737 is an American short- to medium-range twinjet narrow-body airliner. The 737 is Boeings only narrow-body airliner in production, with the 737 Next Generation variants currently being built, production has also begun on the re-engined and redesigned 737 MAX, which is set to enter service in 2017. Originally envisioned in 1964, the initial 737-100 made its first flight in April 1967, Next, the lengthened 737-200 entered service in April 1968. In the 1980s Boeing launched the -300, -400, and -500 models, the 737 Classics added capacity and incorporated CFM56 turbofan engines along with wing improvements. In the 1990s, Boeing introduced the 737 Next Generation, with changes including a redesigned, increased span laminar flow wing, upgraded glass cockpit. The 737 Next Generation comprises the four -600, -700, -800, Boeing Business Jet versions of the 737 Next Generation are also produced. The 737 series is the best-selling jet commercial airliner in history, the 737 has been continuously manufactured by Boeing since 1967 with 9,401 aircraft delivered and 4,423 orders yet to be fulfilled as of February 2017. Assembly of the 737 is performed at the Boeing Renton Factory in Renton, Washington, many 737s serve markets previously filled by 707,727,757, DC-9, and MD-80/MD-90 airliners, and the aircraft currently competes primarily with the Airbus A320 family. As of 2006, there were an average of 1,250 Boeing 737s airborne at any given time, Boeing had been studying short-haul jet aircraft designs and wanted to produce another aircraft to supplement the 727 on short and thin routes. Preliminary design work began on May 11,1964, and Boeings intense market research yielded plans for a 50- to 60-passenger airliner for routes 50 to 1,000 mi long, consultation with Lufthansa over the previous winter resulted in an increase in capacity to 100 seats. On April 5,1965, Boeing announced an order by United Airlines for 40 737s, United wanted a slightly larger airplane than the original 737. So Boeing stretched the fuselage 91 centimeters ahead of, and 102 cm behind the wing, the longer version was designated 737-200, with the original short-body aircraft becoming the 737-100. Detailed design work continued on both variants at the same time, Boeing was far behind its competitors when the 737 was launched, as rival aircraft BAC-111, Douglas DC-9, and Fokker F28 were already into flight certification. To expedite development, Boeing used 60% of the structure and systems of the existing 727 and this fuselage permitted six-abreast seating compared to the rival BAC-111 and DC-9s five-abreast layout. Design engineers decided to mount the nacelles directly to the underside of the wings to reduce the landing gear length and kept the low to the ground for easy ramp inspection. Originally, the arrangement of the airfoil sections of the 737 wing was planned to be very similar to that of the 707 and 727. However, an improvement in drag at high Mach numbers was achieved by altering these sections near the nacelle. The engine chosen was the Pratt & Whitney JT8D-1 low-bypass ratio turbofan engine, with the wing-mounted engines, Boeing decided to mount the horizontal stabilizer on the fuselage rather than the T-tail style of the Boeing 727
23.
Airbus A320 family
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The Airbus A320 family consists of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The family includes the A318, A319, A320 and A321, the A320s are also named A320ceo after the introduction of the A320neo. Final assembly of the takes place in Toulouse, France. A plant in Tianjin, China, has also been producing aircraft for Chinese airlines since 2009, while a final facility in Mobile, Alabama, United States. The aircraft family can accommodate up to 220 passengers and has a range of 3,100 to 12,000 km, the first member of the A320 family—the A320—was launched in March 1984, first flew on 22 February 1987, and was first delivered in March 1988. The family was extended to include the A321, the A319, the A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side-stick controls, in commercial aircraft. There has been a continuous improvement process since introduction, as of 28 February 2017, a total of 7,481 Airbus A320-family aircraft have been delivered, of which 7,157 are in service. In addition, another 5,580 airliners are on firm order and it ranked as the worlds fastest-selling jet airliner family according to records from 2005 to 2007, and as the best-selling single-generation aircraft programme. The A320 family has proved popular with airlines including low-cost carriers such as EasyJet, as of 28 February 2017, American Airlines was the largest operator of the Airbus A320 family aircraft, operating 384 aircraft. The aircraft family competes directly with the 737 and has competed with the 717,757, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The A320neo offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. As of February 2017, a total of 5,063 A320neo family aircraft had been ordered by more than 70 airlines, the first A320neo was delivered to Lufthansa on 20 January 2016 and it entered service on 25 January 2016. From the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal, prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, engineers within Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10 and it was a smaller aircraft which would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the market, which was dominated by the 737. Plans from a number of European aircraft manufacturers called for a successor to the relatively successful BAC One-Eleven, germanys MBB, British Aircraft Corporation, Swedens Saab and Spains CASA worked on the EUROPLANE, a 180- to 200-seat aircraft. It was abandoned after intruding on A310 specifications, vFW-Fokker, Dornier and Hawker Siddeley worked on a number of 150-seat designs. Alongside BAe were MBB, Fokker-VFW and Aérospatiale, the design within the JET study that was carried forward was the JET2, which then became the Airbus S. A1/2/3 series, before settling on the A320 name for its launch in 1984
24.
Airport terminal
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An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft. Within the terminal, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, the buildings that provide access to the airplanes are typically called concourses. However, the terminal and concourse are sometimes used interchangeably. Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports have several terminals and/or concourses, at small airports, the single terminal building typically serves all of the functions of a terminal and a concourse. Some larger airports have one terminal that is connected to multiple concourses via walkways, sky-bridges, some larger airports have more than one terminal, each with one or more concourses. Still other larger airports have multiple terminals each of which incorporate the functions of a concourse, due to the rapid rise in popularity of passenger flight, many early terminals were built in the 1930s–1940s and reflected the popular art deco style architecture of the time. One such surviving example from 1940 is the Houston Municipal Airport Terminal, early airport terminals opened directly onto the tarmac, passengers would walk or take a bus to their aircraft. This design is common among smaller airports, and even many larger airports have bus gates to accommodate aircraft beyond the main terminal. A pier design uses a small, narrow building with aircraft parked on both sides, one end connects to a ticketing and baggage claim area. Piers offer high capacity and simplicity of design, but often result in a long distance from the check-in counter to the gate. A satellite terminal is a building detached from other airport buildings, the first airport to use a satellite terminal was London Gatwick Airport. It used a pedestrian tunnel to connect the satellite to the main terminal. This was also the first setup at Los Angeles International Airport, the first airport to use an automatic people mover to connect the main terminal with a satellite was Tampa International Airport, which is the standard today. Other examples include the following, Pariss Charles de Gaulle Airport, Geneva International Airport and London Gatwick Airport have circular satellite terminals, lisbon Internacional Airport has a small rectangular satellite terminal, connect by a free shuttle service. Orlando International Airport and Pittsburgh International Airport have multi-pier satellite terminals, brussels Airports Pier A is connected to the main building via underground tunnels and walkways. Zurich Airports Midfield Terminal is connected to the terminal via an underground Skymetro. At Logan International Airport in Boston, Terminal A has two sections of gates, one of which is a terminal connected by an underground walkway. Denver International Airport, Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport, and Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport have linear satellite terminals connected by central passages, the linear satellite terminals are connected by automatic people movers
25.
Taxiway
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A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a surface such as asphalt or concrete. Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways to allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds and this allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land or take off in a shorter interval of time. Most airports do not have a speed limit for taxiing. There is a rule on safe speed based on obstacles. Operators and aircraft manufacturers might have limits, typical taxi speeds are 20-30 knots. Normal Centerline A single continuous line,15 centimetres to 30 centimetres in width. Enhanced Centerline The enhanced taxiway center line marking consists of a line of yellow dashes on either side of the taxiway centerline. Taxiway centerlines are enhanced for 150 feet before a runway holding position marking, the enhanced taxiway centerline is standard at all FAR Part 139 certified airports in the USA. Taxiway Edge Markings Used to define the edge of the taxiway when the edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement, continuous markings consist of a continuous double yellow line, with each line being at least 15 centimetres in width, spaced 15 centimetres apart. They divide the taxiway edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved surface not intended for use by aircraft. Dashed markings define the edge of a taxiway on a surface where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is intended for use by aircraft. These markings consist of a double yellow line, with each line being at least 15 centimetres in width. These lines are 15 feet in length with 25 foot gaps, taxi Shoulder Markings Taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion. Shoulders are not intended for use by aircraft, and may be unable to carry the aircraft load, Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow lines perpendicular to the taxiway edge, from taxiway edge to pavement edge, about 3 metres. These markings are located on side of the taxiway. Surface Painted Location Signs Black background with an inscription and yellow. Where necessary, these markings supplement location signs located alongside the taxiway and these markings are located on the right side of the centerline
26.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
27.
Treviso
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Treviso is a city and comune in Veneto, northern Italy. The city is home to the headquarters of clothing retailer Benetton, Sisley, Stefanel, Geox, Diadora and Lotto Sport Italia, appliance maker DeLonghi, and bicycle maker Pinarello. Treviso is also known for being the production area of Prosecco wine. For some scholars, the ancient city of Tarvisium derived its name from a settlement of the Celtic tribe of the Taurusci, others have attributed the name instead to the Greek root tarvos, meaning bull. Tarvisium, then a city of the Veneti, became a municipium in 89 BCE after the Romans added Cisalpine Gaul to their dominions, citizens were ascribed to the Roman tribe of Claudia. The city lay in proximity of the Via Postumia, which connected Opitergium to Aquileia, Treviso is rarely mentioned by ancient writers, although Pliny writes of the Silis, that is the Sile River, as flowing ex montibus Tarvisanis. During the Roman Period, Christianity spread to Treviso, tradition records that St. Prosdocimus, a Greek who had been ordained bishop by St. Peter, brought the Catholic faith to Treviso and surrounding areas. By the 4th century, the Christian population grew sufficient to merit a resident bishop, the first documented bishop was John the Pius who began his epsicopacy in 396 AD. According to tradition, Treviso was the birthplace of Totila, the leader of Ostrogoths during the Gothic Wars, the latter was especially important during the reign of the last Lombard king, Desiderius, and continued to churn out coins when northern Italy was annexed to the Frankish Empire. People from the city played a role in the founding of Venice. Charlemagne made it the capital of a march, i. e. the Marca Trevigiana. Treviso joined the Lombard League, and gained independence after the Peace of Constance and this lasted until the rise of seignories in northern Italy. Among the various families who ruled over Treviso, the Da Romano reigned from 1237 to 1260, Treviso and its satellite cities, including Castelfranco Veneto, had become attractive to neighbouring powers, including the da Carrara and Scaligeri. After the fall of the last Caminesi lord, Rizzardo IV, Treviso notary and physician, Oliviero Forzetta, was an avid collector of antiquities and drawings, the collection was published in a catalog in 1369, the earliest such catalog to exist to this day. After a Scaliger domination in 1329–1339, the city itself to the Republic of Venice. From 1318 it was also, for a time, the seat of a university. Venetian rule brought innumerable benefits, however, Treviso necessarily became involved in the wars of Venice, from 1381–1384, the city was captured and ruled by the duke of Austria, and then by the Carraresi until 1388. The many waterways were exploited with several waterwheels which powered mills for milling grain produced locally
28.
Dortmund
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Dortmund is an independent city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is in the part of the state and is considered to be the administrative. Its population of 581,612 makes it the 8th largest city in Germany, moreover, Dortmund is the largest city by area and population in the Ruhr Area, an urban area with some 5.1 million inhabitants which is the largest urban agglomeration in Germany. Founded around 882, Dortmund became an Imperial Free City, throughout the 13th to 14th centuries, it was the chief city of the Rhine, Westphalia, the Netherlands Circle of the Hanseatic League. After the Thirty Years War the city was destroyed and decreased in significance until the onset of industrialization, the city then became one of Germanys most important coal, steel and beer centres. Thereby Dortmund was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II, the devastating bombing raids of the 12th March 1945 destroyed 98% of buildings in the inner city center. This bombing raids with more than 1,110 aircraft was a record to a target in World war II. The region has adapted since the collapse of its century long steel and coal industries and shifted to high technology biomedical technology, micro systems technology and also services. In 2009, Dortmund was classified as a Node city in the Innovation Cities Index published by 2thinknow and is the most sustainable city in Germany, the city is known as Westphalias green metropolis. Nearly half the territory consists of waterways, woodland, agriculture. This stands in a stark contrast with nearly a years of extensive coal mining. Dortmund is home to Ballspielverein Borussia 09 e. V, Dortmund, commonly known as Borussia Dortmund, a successful club in German football. The first time Dortmund was mentioned in documents was around 882. as Throtmanni. After it was destroyed by a fire, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I had the town rebuilt in 1152 and it became an Imperial Free City. Throughout the 13th to 14th centuries, it was the city of the Rhine, Westphalia. After 1320, the city appeared in writing as Dorpmunde, in the years leading up to 1344, the English King even borrowed money from well-heeled Dortmund merchant families Berswordt and Klepping, offering the regal crown as security. In 1388, Count von Mark joined forces with Archbishop of Cologne, following a major siege lasting 18 months, peace negotiations took place and Dortmund emerged victorious. After Cologne was excluded after the Anglo-Hanseatic War, Dortmund was made capital of the Rhine-Westphalian, the 1661 earthquake made the Reinoldikirche collapse
29.
Simferopol
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Simferopol is a city on the Crimean peninsula, the status of which is disputed between Ukraine and Russia. Archaeological evidence in Simferopol indicates the existence of an ancient Scythian city, the location was also home to a Crimean Tatar town, Aqmescit. After the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire, the name comes from the Greek Sympheropolis, meaning city of common good. It is spelled Simferopol or Symferopil, in Crimean Tatar, the name of the city is Aqmescit, which means The white mosque. In English, the name was given as Akmechet or Ak-Mechet, a transliteration from Russian Акмечет, Ак-Мечеть. Archaeological evidence in the Chokurcha cave shows the presence of ancient people living in the territory of modern Simferopol, later, the Crimean Tatars founded the town of Aqmescit. For some time, Aqmescit served as the residence of the Qalğa-Sultan, the city was renamed Simferopol in 1784 after the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire by Catherine II of Russia. The name Simferopol is in Greek, Συμφερόπολις, and literally means the city of usefulness, the tradition to give Greek names to places in newly acquired southern territories was carried out by Empress Catherine the Great as part of her Greek Plan. In 1802, Simferopol became the centre of the Taurida Governorate. During the Crimean War of 1854–1856, the Russian Imperial Army reserves, after the war, more than 30,000 Russian soldiers were buried in the citys vicinity. In the 20th century, Simferopol was once affected by wars. At the end of the Russian Civil War, the headquarters of General Pyotr Wrangel, on 13 November 1920, the Red Army captured the city and on 18 October 1921, Simferopol became the capital of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. During World War II, Simferopol was occupied by Nazi Germany from 1 November 1941 to 13 April 1944, retreating NKVD police shot a number of prisoners on 31 October 1941 in the NKVD building and the citys prison. Germans perpetrated one of the largest war-time massacres in Simferopol, killing in total over 22,000 locals—mostly Jews, Russians, Krymchaks, and Gypsies. On one occasion, starting 9 December 1941, the Einsatzgruppen D under Otto Ohlendorfs command killed an estimated 14,300 Simferopol residents, in April 1944, the Red Army liberated Simferopol. On 18 May 1944 the Crimean Tatar population of the city along with the whole Crimean Tatar nation of Crimea was forcibly deported to Central Asia in a form of collective punishment, an asteroid 2141 Simferopol discovered in 1970 by Soviet astronomer Tamara Mikhailovna Smirnova is named after the city. Following a referendum on 20 January 1991, the Crimean Oblast was upgraded an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic on 12 February 1991 by the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR, Simferopol became the capital of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Simferopol became the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea within newly independent Ukraine
30.
Donetsk
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Donetsk is an industrial city in Ukraine on the Kalmius River. The population was estimated at 929, 063 in the city, according to the 2001 Ukrainian Census, Donetsk was the fifth-largest city in Ukraine. Since April 2014, the city is controlled by separatists from self-proclaimed Donetsk Peoples Republic. Administratively, it has been the centre of Donetsk Oblast, while historically, it is the capital and largest city of the larger economic. Donetsk is adjacent to major city of Makiivka and along with other surrounding cities forms a major urban sprawl. Donetsk has been an economic, industrial and scientific centre of Ukraine with a high concentration of companies. The original settlement in the south of the European part of the Russian Empire was first mentioned as Aleksandrovka in 1779, under the Russian Empress Catherine the Great. In 1869, Welsh businessman, John Hughes, built a plant and several coal mines in the region. During Soviet times, the steel industry was expanded. In 1924, it was renamed Stalino, and in 1932 the city became the centre of the Donetsk region, renamed Donetsk in 1961, the city today remains the centre for coal mining and steel industry. Since April 2014, Donetsk and its surrounding areas have one of the major sites of fighting in the War in Donbass. The city was founded in 1869 when the Welsh businessman John Hughes built a plant and several coal mines at Aleksandrovka. In its early period, it received immigrants from Wales, especially the town of Merthyr Tydfil, by the beginning of the 20th century, Yuzivka had approximately 50,000 inhabitants, and had attained the status of a city in 1917. The main district of Hughezovka is named English Colony, and the British origin of the city is reflected in its layout, when the Russian Civil War broke out, on 12 February 1918 Yuzovka was part of the Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic. The Republic was disbanded at the 2nd All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets on 20 March 1918 when the independence of the Soviet Ukraine was announced and it failed to achieve recognition, either internationally or by the Russian SFSR, and, in accordance with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, was abolished. In 1924, under the Soviet rule, the name was changed to Stalin. In that year, the population totaled 63,708. In 1929–31 the citys name was changed to Stalino, the city did not have a drinking water system until 1931, when a 55.3 km system was laid underground
31.
Odessa
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Odessa or Odesa is the third most populous city of Ukraine and a major seaport and transportation hub located on the northwestern shore of the Black Sea. Odessa is also a center of the Odessa Oblast and a multiethnic cultural center. Odessa is sometimes called the pearl of the Black Sea, the South Capital, the predecessor of Odessa, a small Tatar settlement, was founded by Hacı I Giray, the Khan of Crimea, in 1440 and originally named after him as Hacıbey. After a period of Lithuanian control, it passed into the domain of the Ottoman Sultan in 1529, in 1794, the city of Odessa was founded by a decree of the Empress Catherine the Great. From 1819 to 1858, Odessa was a free port, during the Soviet period it was the most important port of trade in the Soviet Union and a Soviet naval base. On 1 January 2000, the Quarantine Pier at Odessa Commercial Sea Port was declared a free port, during the 19th century, it was the fourth largest city of Imperial Russia, after Moscow, Saint Petersburg and Warsaw. Its historical architecture has a style more Mediterranean than Russian, having heavily influenced by French. Some buildings are built in a mixture of different styles, including Art Nouveau, Renaissance, the city of Odessa hosts both the Port of Odessa and Port Yuzhne, a significant oil terminal situated in the citys suburbs. Another notable port, Chornomorsk, is located in the same oblast, together they represent a major transport hub integrating with railways. Odessas oil and chemical processing facilities are connected to Russian and European networks by strategic pipelines, the city was named in compliance with the Greek Plan of Catherine the Great. It was named after the ancient Greek city of Odessos, which was believed to have been located here. Although Odessa is located in between the ancient Greek cities of Tyras and Olbia, Odessos is believed to be the predecessor of the present day city of Varna, Catherines secretary of state Adrian Gribovsky claimed in his memoirs that the name was his suggestion. Some expressed doubts about this claim, while others noted the reputation of Gribovsky as an honest and modest man, Odessa was the site of a large Greek settlement not later than the middle of the 6th century BC. Some scholars believe it to be a settlement established by Histria. Whether the Bay of Odessa is the ancient Port of the Histrians cannot yet be considered a settled question based on the available evidence, archaeological artifacts confirm extensive links between the Odessa area and the eastern Mediterranean. In the Middle Ages successive rulers of the Odessa region included various nomadic tribes, the Golden Horde, the Crimean Khanate, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Yedisan Crimean Tatars traded there in the 14th century. During the reign of Khan Hacı I Giray of Crimea, the Khanate was endangered by the Golden Horde and the Ottoman Turks and, in search of allies, the site of present-day Odessa was then a fortress known as Khadjibey. It was part of the Dykra region, however, most of the rest of the area remained largely uninhabited in this period
32.
Wizz Air Ukraine
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Wizz Air Ukraine was the Ukrainian division of the Hungarian low-cost airline Wizz Air based at Kyiv International Airport with additional minor operations out of Lviv International Airport. It ceased operations by 20 April 2015, Wizz Air Ukraine commenced domestic operations in Ukraine on 11 July 2008 and later added international flights. In October 2013, the airline opened its base at Donetsk International Airport by deploying one aircraft. However, the Donetsk base was closed by April 2014 due to the Ukrainian crisis, on 26 March 2015, it was announced that Wizz Air Ukraine would shut down by 20 April 2015 due to the crisis in Ukraine. Both of Wizz Air Ukraines Airbus A320-200s were taken over by Wizz Air, one remains in Kyiv, prior to its shutdown, Wizz Air Ukraine operated 18 routes from Kyiv and Lviv to international destinations in several countries, focusing on Germany and Italy. The Wizz Air Ukraine fleet consisted of the aircraft as of April 2015
33.
Kiev City Council
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Kyiv City Council, better known as Kyivrada, is the city council of Kyiv municipality, the highest representative body of the city community. The members of city council are elected by Kyivans and the council is chaired by the Mayor of Kyiv or the City Council Secretary. The deputies are elected for five-year terms, the council meets in a 1950s City Council building constructed in neo-classical Stalinist architectural style on Khreschatyk, the citys main street. The most recent Kiev local election took place on 25 October 2015, empress of Russia Catherine the Greats municipal reform created Kievs city council in 1870. In its 1871 first municipal elections just under 6,000 of Kievs 70,500 inhabitants were qualified to vote, the first post-Soviet democratic elections of the Kiev City Council took place on 4 March 1990. July 24 was later marked as National Flag Day in Kiev, beginning with 2004,23 August is celebrated as the Day of the National Flag
34.
Tivat Airport
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Tivat Airport is an international airport serving the Montenegrin coastal town of Tivat and the surrounding region. The airport is situated 3 km south of the centre of Tivat and it is the busier one of two international airports in Montenegro, the other being Podgorica Airport. Traffic at the airport follows the highly seasonal nature of the industry in coastal Montenegro. It has been one of the fastest growing airports in the region, doubling the passenger flow in 2006 -2016 period. Tivat airport is located next to the city of Tivat,8 km from the center of Kotor. The sole runway of the airport ends just 88 m from the coastline of the Bay of Kotor, Tivat Airport is assigned 4D classification by ICAO, airspace class D, and is noted for its challenging approach and landing procedures. Landing at Tivat is considered demanding due to hilly terrain surrounding the valley in which the airport is situated, runway 32 approach implies descent into the valley of Tivatsko polje, and a 20° turn for runway alignment just before landing. Runway 14 approach is more challenging, because of the circle to land maneuver executed in the dramatic scenery surrounding the Bay of Kotor. It is known among pilots as the European Kai Tak because of its tricky approach, passengers are awarded spectacular views of the bay, the surrounding mountains and a low flyby over Porto Montenegro luxury yacht marina. The airport is popular among plane spotters, as end of the runway is easily accessible and offers unobstructed views of takeoffs and landings. Year-round services from the airport include Belgrade and Moscow, however, more than 80% of the traffic is concentrated in the period, with the introduction of seasonal. With the opening of Porto Montenegro and introduction of high end tourist services. Adriatic Highway passes right by the terminal, making the airport easily accessible from the entire northern part of Montenegrin coast. The airport in Tivat was opened on May 30,1957, as an airport with a single grass runway a small apron. From 1957 to 1968, activity at the airport consisted mostly of domestic traffic to Belgrade, Zagreb and Skopje, with JAT Douglas DC-3. From 1968 to 1971, the airport underwent expansion and modernization and it was reopened on September 25,1971 with an asphalt runway, larger apron, extended taxiways, and completely new passenger terminal and control tower. After the 1979 earthquake, the airport was again refurbished. Notably, the apron was expanded and taxiways widened, so the airport could handle wide body aircraft, on April 23,2003, the ownership of the airport was transferred from Jat Airways to Airports of Montenegro Public Company, owned by Government of Montenegro
35.
Alitalia
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Alitalia – Società Aerea Italiana, operating as Alitalia, is the flag carrier of Italy. The company has its office in Fiumicino, Rome, Italy. Its main hub is Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport, in Rome, other focus airports are Catania-Fontanarossa Airport, Milan-Malpensa Airport, Palermo Airport, Turin Airport and Venice Marco Polo Airport. On 30 September 2014, Alitalias budget subsidiary Air One ceased flight operations, in 2014, it was the eleventh-largest airline in Europe. The name Alitalia is an Italian portmanteau of the words ali, on 1 August 2014, the Abu Dhabi-based UAE national airline Etihad Airways confirmed it had agreed to buy a 49% stake in Alitalia. This deal was signed on 8 August 2014 and became effective on 1 January 2015, in 2008, a group of investors made the Compagnia Aerea Italiana consortium aimed to buy the bankrupt Alitalia – Linee Aeree Italiane and to merge these with Air One, another bankrupt Italian carrier. On 30 October 2008, CAI offered €1 billion to acquire parts of the airline, amidst pilots. On 19 November 2008, CAIs offer was accepted by the administrator of Alitalia with the permission of the Italian government. The rules of bankruptcy were changed in the middle of the game to meet the governments needs, berlusconi pulled this one off, but his involvement probably cost the Italian taxpayers a lot of money. On 13 January 2009, the new Alitalia launched operations, the owners of Compagnia Aerea Italiana sold 25% of the companys shares to Air France-KLM for €322 million. Air France-KLM also obtained an option, subject to certain conditions, the new Alitalia has not claimed the old Alitalias history as its own, as can be seen in official documents regarding the new Alitalia Group. Instead, they stressed they are a different company, as it can be seen in different occasions. For example, they not to recognize benefits such as discounted tickets to former Alitalia-LAI workers. They also refused to honour passengers claims against the old Alitalia on this basis, the new Alitalia doesnt own many of its operating airplanes. Almost every plane that CAI had acquired from the old Alitalia was sold or decommissioned, in January 2010, Alitalia celebrated its first anniversary since the relaunch. It carried 22 million passengers in its first year of operations, in 2011,25 million passengers were carried. On 1 February 2010, it was announced that Alitalia crew would go on a strike over wages. This was the first strike action for Alitalia since the relaunch and it was predicted that the subsidiary would handle 2.4 million passengers by 2012
36.
Burgas Airport
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Burgas Airport, is an international airport in southeast Bulgaria and the second largest airport in the country. The airport is located near to the neighbourhood of Burgas. The airport serves Burgas and seaside resorts of Bulgarian south coast and is a destination during the European summer leisure season. In 2016, the airport handled 2,878,883 passengers, on 27 June 1937 the French company CIDNA, chose the area of Burgas Airport to build a radio station and signed a contract with the Bulgarian government for its use. The contract expressly stated that the staff of Burgas Airport would be Bulgarian, on 29 June 1947, Balkan Bulgarian Airlines began domestic flights between Burgas, Plovdiv and Sofia, using Junkers Ju 52/3m aircraft. In the 1950s and 1960s the airport was expanded and modernized by building a concrete runway, in 1970, the airport became an international airport serving 45 destinations. Burgas airport has been subject to traffic following the growing tourism industry in Bulgaria and was in need of major investments to expand. Fraport entered into partnership with Varna-based company BM Star, the concessionaire has vowed to inject 403 million Euro in the two airports during the lifespan of the arrangement. Fraport will pay 60% of an investment of EUR403 million over the 35-year concession, the explosion killed seven people and injured thirty-two. In December 2011 construction work began on the new Terminal 2, the new terminal was planned to have a capacity of 2,700,000 passengers and an area of 20,000 square metres. The new terminal building was designed so that it can be upgraded to further increase capacity. Construction of the new terminal was completed in 2013, and has been operational since December 2013, Terminal 2 replaced the older Terminal 1, which was built in the 1950s and expanded in the early 1990s, and now handles all of the airports passenger traffic. The terminal is equipped with 31 check-in counters, three boarding-card checkpoints, nine security lanes and eight departure gates, the arrivals area has 12 immigration stations and four baggage carousels. Passenger amenities include 800 square metres of space dedicated to shopping and 1,220 square metres for food, there is also a 550 square metres outdoor courtyard. At 3,200 metres, Burgas Airport has the fourth longest runway in the Balkans, after Athens Airport, Sofia Airport, in 31 October 2016 begins reconstruction and rehabilitation of taxiways at Burgas airport. The project includes a complete rehabilitation of 3,500 square meters of taxiway H, complete rehabilitation of taxiway A, during this period also the replacement of the control and monitoring system for airfield lighting and approach light equipment will be completed. The total investment of Fraport Twin Star Airport Management in these projects is over BGN12 million, there are domestic and international flights to about 126 destinations in 31 countries, by more than 69 Bulgarian and foreign airlines. The busiest season for the airport is from the end of April to the beginning of October, the Taxi Piazza is located in front of the Arrivals Terminal at Burgas Airport
37.
Varna Airport
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Varna Airport is the airport of Varna, the historical maritime capital of Bulgaria. Varna Airport is the third largest airport in Bulgaria and an important destination during the summer leisure seasons, the airport is located 10 kilometers from the center of Varna near the town of Aksakovo. The airport serves Varna and northeastern Bulgaria, there are domestic and international flights to about 71 destinations in 29 countries by more than 53 Bulgarian and foreign airlines. The busiest season for the airport is from the end of May to the beginning of October, the history of the airport dates back to 1916 when two sheds for the first hydro-port in Bulgaria were built in the Peinerdzhik area. Irregular mail-plane service from Sofia to Varna was held between 1919 and 1920 and it was not until 1947 that a permanent airline between the two cities was established. What had grown into Tihina Airport was situated west of the present-day Asparuhov bridge and was indeed quite primitive for the demands of a modern city, construction and improvement continued throughout the years, with a new terminal built in 1972 and a new runway in 1974. In 2013 a new terminal opened and the one constructed in the 20th century was closed down. There are domestic and international flights form Varna to about 70 destinations in 25 countries, with Bulgarian, the airport is close to the Port of Varna and the railway system. The airport has one asphalt-covered runway 09/27 with ILS CAT I system on 09 edge, currently Varna Airport is subject to heavy traffic with the growing tourism industry in Bulgaria and is in need of major investments to modernize, expand and handle projected passenger traffic. From 15 October 2011 until 28 February 2012, Varna airport was closed for a reconstruction of the runway, all flights were operated to/from Burgas Airport. In 2016 the airport handled 1,689,595 passengers - a 20. 8% increase compared to 2015. The airport has three terminals, Terminal 1, built in 1972, and Terminal 3, which was used during the summer season, Terminal 1 /closed/ has been extended several times over the years. The departures area had 21 check-in counters and six security checkpoints, in the terminal there were various outlets, cafes, fast food restaurants, currency exchange, and duty-free shops. The arrivals area had two belts, as well as currency exchange and a tax-free shop. Terminal 1 still has a VIP room and business lounge, in 2010 the VIP room at Varna Airport was renovated. As of 2014, all flights, including no-frills, are managed by Terminal 2, hence, the old terminal is closed except the VIP area. Terminal 2 started operations as of 18 August 2013, in December 2011 the construction work on new Terminal 2 began. T2 has a capacity of 1,800,000 passengers per year and 25 check-in desks and it covers an area of 18,000 m2
38.
Belavia
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Belavia Belarusian Airlines, legally Joint Stock Company Belavia Belarusian Airlines, is the flag carrier and national airline of Belarus, headquartered in Minsk. The state-owned company has 1,017 employees, Belavia serves a network of routes between European cities and the Commonwealth of Independent States, as well as some Middle East destinations from its base at Minsk National Airport. On 7 November 1933, the first Belarusian air terminal opened in Minsk, in the next spring 3 Po-2 aircraft landed in Minsk. They became the first aircraft of the Belarusian air fleet, in 1936 the first regular air route between Minsk and Moscow was established. In the summer of 1940 the Belarusian civil aviation group was officially founded, in 1964, the Tupolev Tu-124 aircraft received Belarusian registration. In 1973, the then new Tupolev Tu-134A began operating in Belarus, in 1983 Belarusian aviation started flying the new Tupolev Tu-154 planes. Between then and 1998 Belavia opened regular routes to Beijing, Istanbul, Larnaca, London, Prague, in 1998, Belavia merged with MinskAvia, acquiring several Antonov An-24, Antonov An-26 and Yakovlev Yak-40 aircraft in addition to existing fleet of Tupolev Tu-134 and Tupolev Tu-154 airplanes. On 18 May 2001, Belavia commenced a Minsk-Paris scheduled service with Tu-134s and Tu-154s, in 2003 Belavia started publishing an in-flight magazine Horizons in English, Russian and Belarusian. On 16 October 2003, Belavia signed an agreement for its first Boeing 737-500 aircraft. In 2004, Belavia further extended operations and acquired one more Boeing 737, on 26 June 2004 Belavia opened a new route to Hanover, Germany. 2011 saw the introduction of a new route between Minsk and Helsinki, Finland, between 2003 and 2009, the airline has seen its passenger numbers double and in 2009 handled just under 700,000 customers. Three leased Bombardier CRJ100 aircraft were introduced on services from Minsk. The first one was delivered in February 2007, with the two later in 2007. They directly replaced the aging Antonov An-24 and Tupolev Tu-134 aircraft and it was looking to lease two Bombardier CRJ-700s in 2010. Belavia had also planned to retire its remaining Tupolev Tu-154Ms by 2011 following the retirement of its last Tupolev Tu-134 in summer 2009 which was replaced by an ex-FlyLAL Boeing 737-500, on 27 June 2014 an order was announced for three Boeing 737-800 aircraft to be acquired directly by Belavia. The first of these was delivered in August 2016, Belavia is considering adding longhaul aircraft to its fleet to introduce new routes to China and North America. The government is also considering merging regional carrier Gomelavia and cargo operator TransAVIAexport Airlines into Belavia. In August 2016, Belavia received their first aircraft with their new livery and this is the first re-branding since the companys founding in 1996
39.
Minsk National Airport
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The airport serves as hub of the national Belarusian airline Belavia and the cargo carriers TransAVIAexport Airlines and Genex. In 1977 in the environs of the Belarusian capital the building of the new airport Minsk-2 was begun, in 1979 the new runway 3, 640-m-long and 60-m-wide was put into operation. In 1981 the airdrome Minsk-2 was already able to handle aircraft in 1982 the airport was opened, the first passenger flight was operated on the plane Tupolev Tu-134. 11 years later the airport was completely built, the terminal of the unique architectural project with the carrying capacity –5,8 million passengers a year was put into operation. The regular flights began from 1983, in 1990 the passenger traffic reached 2,2 million passengers, but from 1991 the unexpected decrease of the flights began. That took place because of the Soviet Union collapse and other changes caused by this historical event, in 1997 the number of the passengers was 516,000, in 1998 –480,000, in 2000 – only 400,000 passengers. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union the first million passengers was handled by Minsk National Airport in 2008, due to the substantial growth in passenger traffic 2008 became a significant mark for the airport. The following airlines operate scheduled and charter flights to and from Minsk. However, Air China does not have fifth freedom rights to transport passengers between Minsk and Budapest, Minsk international airport is linked to the capital by the M2 motorway. Bus, train, taxi and parking services are provided, the airport is served by bus 300Э departing from Centralny bus station every 45 minutes, and takes about one hour. From November 2014 the airport can also be reached by train departing from Minsk Passazhirsky or Smolevichi railway stations, the airport is located 42 km east of Minsk, and is linked with the city with a toll-free highway. Free short term parking is available in front of the terminal, on 6 September 2003 an aircraft Tu-154 operated by an Iranian airline Kish Air hit trees in heavy fog as it was on approach en route from Tehran to Copenhagen. None of the 38 passengers and 4 crew members on board were injured, on 26 October 2009, S-Air Flight 9607, operated by BAe 125 RA-02807 crashed on approach to Minsk National Airport. All three crew and both passengers died, list of the busiest airports in the former USSR Media related to Minsk National Airport at Wikimedia Commons Official website Airport information for UMMS at World Aero Data. Data current as of October 2006. Source, DAFIF, Airport information for UMMS at Great Circle Mapper. Current weather for UMMS at NOAA/NWS Accident history for MSQ at Aviation Safety Network
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Syretsko-Pecherska Line)
Obolonsko–Teremkivska line),
Podilsko-Vyhurivska Line, which is planned for construction elsewhere in the city, includes the Airport transfer station from the 'Zhulyany' Airport. The station is expected to be constructed by 2030.[citation needed]
Media related to Kyiv International Airport (Zhuliany) at Wikimedia Commons
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Weather Service.
