1.
Kyoto
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Kyoto is a city located in the central part of the island of Honshu, Japan. It has a close to 1.5 million. Kyoto is also known as the thousand-year capital, in Japanese, the city has been called Kyō, Miyako, or Kyō no Miyako. In the 11th century, the city was renamed Kyoto, after the Chinese word for capital city, after the city of Edo was renamed Tokyo in 1868, and the seat of the Emperor was transferred there, Kyoto was known for a short time as Saikyō. Obsolete spellings for the name include Kioto, Miaco and Meaco. Another term commonly used to refer to the city in the period was Keishi. His last choice for the site was the village of Uda, the new city, Heian-kyō, a scaled replica of the then Tang capital Changan, became the seat of Japans imperial court in 794, beginning the Heian period of Japanese history. The city suffered destruction in the Ōnin War of 1467–1477. Battles between samurai factions spilled into the streets, and came to involve the court nobility and religious factions as well, nobles mansions were transformed into fortresses, deep trenches dug throughout the city for defense and as firebreaks, and numerous buildings burned. The city has not seen such widespread destruction since, Hideyoshi also built earthwork walls called odoi encircling the city. Teramachi Street in central Kyoto is a Buddhist temple quarter where Hideyoshi gathered temples in the city, throughout the Edo period, the economy of the city flourished as one of three major cities in Japan, the others being Osaka and Edo. The Hamaguri rebellion of 1864 burnt down 28,000 houses in the city, the modern city of Kyoto was formed on April 1,1889. The construction of Lake Biwa Canal in 1890 is one taken to revive the city. The population of the city exceeded one million in 1932, stimson, Secretary of War in the Roosevelt and Truman administrations, the city was removed from the list of targets and replaced by Nagasaki. The city was spared from conventional bombing as well, although small-scale air raids did result in casualties. As a result, the Imperial City of Kyoto is one of the few Japanese cities that still have an abundance of prewar buildings, however, modernization is continually breaking down the traditional Kyoto in favor of newer architecture, such as the Kyōto Station complex. Kyoto became a city designated by government ordinance on September 1,1956, in 1997, Kyoto hosted the conference that resulted in the protocol on greenhouse gas emissions that bears the citys name. Kyoto is located in a valley, part of the Yamashiro Basin, in the part of the mountainous region known as the Tamba highlands
2.
Emperor of Japan
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The Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and is the ceremonial head of state of Japans system of constitutional monarchy. According to the 1947 constitution, he is the symbol of the State, in Japanese, the Emperor is called Tennō, which means heavenly sovereign. In English, the use of the term Mikado for the Emperor was once common, currently, the Emperor of Japan is the only remaining monarch in the world reigning under the title of Emperor. The Imperial House of Japan is the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world, in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, it is said that Japan was founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu. He acceded the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the death of his father, Emperor Shōwa, the role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler. Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1192, the Emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, Japanese Emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees. In fact, between 1192 and 1867, the shoguns, or their shikken regents in Kamakura, were the de facto rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the Emperor. After the Meiji Restoration in 1867, the Emperor was the embodiment of all power in the realm. His current status as a figurehead dates from the 1947 Constitution, since the mid-nineteenth century, the Imperial Palace has been called Kyūjō, later Kōkyo, and is located on the former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier, Emperors resided in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries, the Emperors Birthday is a national holiday. Unlike most constitutional monarchies, the Emperor is not the nominal Chief Executive, article 65 of the Constitution explicitly vests executive power in the Cabinet, of which the Prime Minister is the leader. The Emperor is also not the commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces, the Japan Self-Defense Forces Act of 1954 also explicitly vests this role with the Prime Minister. The Emperors powers are limited only to important ceremonial functions, article 4 of the Constitution stipulates that the Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in the Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government. It also stipulates that the advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state, article 4 also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law. Article 6 of the Constitution delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles, Appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet. Dissolution of the House of Representatives, proclamation of general election of members of the Diet. Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights. Attestation of instruments of ratification and other documents as provided for by law
3.
Tokyo Imperial Palace
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The Tokyo Imperial Palace is the primary residence of the Emperor of Japan. It is built on the site of the old Edo Castle, the total area including the gardens is 3.41 square kilometres. During the height of the 1980s Japanese property bubble, the grounds were valued by some to be more than the value of all of the real estate in the state of California. After the capitulation of the shogunate and the Meiji Restoration, the inhabitants, leaving the Kyoto Imperial Palace on 26 November 1868, the Emperor arrived at the Edo Castle, made it to his new residence and renamed it to Tōkei Castle. At this time Tōkyō had also been called Tōkei and he left for Kyōto again, and after coming back on 9 May 1869, it was renamed to Imperial Castle. Previous fires had destroyed the Honmaru area containing the old donjon, on the night of 5 May 1873, a fire consumed the Nishinomaru Palace, and the new imperial Palace Castle was constructed on the site in 1888. A non-profit Rebuilding Edo-jo Association was founded in 2004 with the aim of a historically correct reconstruction of at least the main donjon, a reconstruction blueprint had been made based on old documents. The Imperial Household Agency at the time had not indicated whether it would support the project, in the Meiji era, most structures from the Edo Castle disappeared. Some were cleared to make way for other buildings while others were destroyed by earthquakes, for example, the wooden double bridges over the moat were replaced with stone and iron bridges. The buildings of the Imperial Palace constructed in the Meiji era were constructed of wood and their design employed traditional Japanese architecture in their exterior appearance while the interiors were an eclectic mixture of then-fashionable Japanese and European elements. The ceilings of the chambers were coffered with Japanese elements, however, Western chairs, tables. The floors of the rooms had parquets or carpets while the residential spaces used traditional tatami mats. The main audience hall was the part of the palace. It was the largest building in the compound, guests were received there for public events. The floor space was more than 223 tsubo or approximately 737.25 m2, in the interior, the coffered ceiling was traditional Japanese-style, while the floor was parquetry. The roof was styled similarly to the Kyoto Imperial Palace, but was covered with copper plates rather than Japanese cypress shingles, in the late Taishō and early Shōwa period, more concrete buildings were added, such as the headquarters of the Imperial Household Ministry and the Privy Council. These structures exhibited only token Japanese elements, from 1888 to 1948, the compound was called Palace Castle. On the night of 25 May 1945, most structures of the Imperial Palace were destroyed in the Allied firebombing raid on Tokyo
4.
Meiji Restoration
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The Meiji Restoration, also known as the Meiji Ishin, Renovation, Revolution, Reform, or Renewal, was an event of change that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were Emperors before the Meiji Restoration, the events restored practical abilities, Meiji government also made education compulsory for both boys and girls at minimal fees. The goals of the government were expressed by the new emperor in the Charter Oath. The Restoration led to changes in Japans political and social structure. In Japan however, unlike China, foreign ideas were not associated with opium addiction. Figures like Shimazu Nariakira concluded that if we take the initiative, we can dominate, if we do not, we will be dominated, leading Japan to throw open its doors to foreign technology. Observing Japans response to the powers, Li Hongzhang considered Japan Chinas principal security threat as early as 1863. The word Meiji means enlightened rule and the goal was to modern advances with traditional eastern values. The main leaders of this were Itō Hirobumi, Matsukata Masayoshi, Kido Takayoshi, Itagaki Taisuke, Yamagata Aritomo, Mori Arinori, Ōkubo Toshimichi, and Yamaguchi Naoyoshi. The foundation of the Meiji restoration was the 1866 Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance between Saigō Takamori and Kido Takayoshi, leaders of the reformist elements in the Satsuma Domain and Chōshū Domain. These two leaders supported the Emperor Kōmei and were brought together by Sakamoto Ryōma for the purpose of challenging the ruling Tokugawa shogunate, after Emperor Kōmeis death on January 30,1867, Emperor Meiji ascended the throne on February 3. This period also saw Japan change from being a society to having a market economy. The Tokugawa Shogunate came to its end on November 9,1867, when Tokugawa Yoshinobu. Shortly thereafter in January 1868, the Boshin War started with the Battle of Toba–Fushimi in which Chōshū and this forced the Emperor to strip Yoshinobu of all power, setting the stage for official restoration. We shall henceforward exercise supreme authority in all the internal and external affairs of the country, consequently the title of Emperor must be substituted for that of Taikun, in which the treaties have been made. Officers are being appointed by us to the conduct of foreign affairs and it is desirable that the representatives of the treaty powers recognize this announcement. All Tokugawa lands were seized and placed under control, thus placing them under the prerogative of the new Meiji government. With Fuhanken sanchisei, the areas were split into three types, urban prefectures, rural prefectures and the already existing domains
5.
Imperial Household Agency
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The Imperial Household Agency is an agency of the government of Japan in charge of state matters concerning the Imperial Family and also keeping of the Privy Seal and State Seal of Japan. From around the 8th century AD up to the Second World War, the Agency is headed by the Grand Steward and he is assisted by the Vice-Grand Steward. The agencys headquarters is located within the grounds of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo, visitors who wish to tour the Tokyo Imperial Palace, the Kyoto Imperial Palace, the Katsura Detached Palace, and other sites, should register for guided tours with the agency first. The Agency has responsibility for the health, security and travel arrangements of the Imperial family, the Board of the Chamberlains, headed by the Grand Chamberlain, manages the daily life of the Emperor and the Empress. It also keeps the Privy Seal and State Seal of Japan, a Grand Master of the Crown Princes Household helps manage the schedules, dining menus, and household maintenance of the Crown Prince and his family. The Imperial Household Agency can trace its origins back to the established by the Taihō Code promulgated in 701–702 AD. The Ritsuryō system established the namesake Ministry of the Imperial Household which is a precursor to the present agency, the basic structures remained in place until the Meiji Restoration. The early Meiji government officially installed Imperial Household Ministry on 15 August 1869, meanwhile, the Meiji government created the Board of Ceremonies in 1871, which was soon renamed Bureau of Ceremonies in 1872. The Bureau of the Ceremonies was initially under the sway of the Great Council of State but was transferred to the control of the Imperial Household Ministry in September 1877, the Bureau underwent yet another name change to Board of Ceremonies in October 1884. Since then, the name remained unchanged and is, today, the ministry also oversaw the official appointments of Imperial Household Artists and commissioned their work. The Imperial Household Office was a version of the ministry. Its staff size was downscaled from 6,200 to less than 1,500, in 1949, Imperial Household Office became the Imperial Household Agency, and placed under the fold of the newly created Prime Ministers Office, as an external agency attached to it. In 2001, the Imperial Household Agency was organizationally re-positioned under the Cabinet Office and these criticisms have become more muted in recent years, Emperor Akihito has himself done much to make the Japanese monarchy less aloof. Prince Naruhito, in May 2004, criticised the then-Grand Steward of the Imperial Household, Toshio Yuasa, for putting pressure on Princess Masako, Naruhitos wife, to bear a male child. Such research, particularly on the ancient tombs in the Kansai region of western Japan, has the potential to yield a great bounty of information on the origins of Japanese civilization. The Imperial Household Agency is headed by the Grand Steward, whose appointment or dismissal is subject to the Emperors approval, the Grand Steward is vested with comprehensive control over administrate activities within the agency, and supervisory authority over the service performance of the staff. Imperial Household Law Chamberlain of Japan Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan Imperial Household Department, China Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters Shigeru, Yoshida, ISBN 978-0-7425-3932-7/ISBN 978-0-7425-3933-4, OCLC238440967 Kokusai Kyōiku Jōhō Sentā. Tokyo, International Society for Educational Information, OCLC24145536 The Imperial Household Agency Website
6.
Heian Palace
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The Heian Palace or Daidairi was the original imperial palace of Heian-kyō, the capital of Japan, from 794 to 1227. The palace consisted of a rectangular walled enclosure, which contained several ceremonial. Inside this enclosure was the walled residential compound of the emperor or the Inner Palace. The original role of the palace was to manifest the centralised government model adopted by Japan from China in the 7th century—the Daijō-kan, the palace was designed to provide an appropriate setting for the emperors residence, the conduct of great affairs of state, and the accompanying ceremonies. While the residential function of the palace continued until the 12th century and this was due to both the abandonment of several statutory ceremonies and procedures and the transfer of several remaining ceremonies into the smaller-scale setting of the Inner Palace. From the mid-Heian period, the palace suffered several fires and other disasters, during reconstructions, emperors and some of the office functions resided outside the palace. This, along with the loss of political power of the court. Finally in 1227 the palace burned down and was never rebuilt, the site was built over so that almost no trace of it remains. Knowledge of the palace is based on contemporary literary sources, surviving diagrams and paintings. The palace was located at the centre of the rectangular Heian-kyō, following the Chinese model adopted already for the Heijō Palace in the earlier capital Heijō-kyō. The south-eastern corner of the Greater Palace was located in the middle of the present-day Nijō Castle, the main entrance to the palace was the gate Suzakumon, which formed the northern terminus of the great Suzaku Avenue that ran through the centre of the city from the gate Rashōmon. The palace thus faced south and presided over the urban plan of Heian-kyō. In addition to the Suzakumon, the palace had 13 other gates located symmetrically along the side walls. A major avenue led to each of the gates, except for the three along the side of the palace, which was coterminous with the northern boundary of the city itself. The palace was the first and most important structure to be erected at the new capital of Heian-kyō, where the court moved in 794 following Emperor Kanmus order. The palace was not completely ready by the time of the move, however—the Daigokuden was completed only in 795, in parallel with the concentration of activity within the Dairi, the Greater Palace began to be regarded as increasingly unsafe, especially by night. One reason may be the prevalent superstition of the period, uninhabited buildings were avoided for fear of spirits and ghosts, and even the great Buraku-in compound was thought to be haunted. In addition, the level of actual security maintained at the palace went into decline, and by the early 11th century only one palace gate, hence burglary and even violent crime became a problem within the palace by the first half of 11th century
7.
Heian period
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The Heian period is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. The period is named after the city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism, the Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court and noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. Although the Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan. Many emperors actually had mothers from the Fujiwara family, the Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in 794 A. D. after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō, by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu. Kanmu first tried to move the capital to Nagaoka-kyō, but a series of disasters befell the city, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital a second time, a rebellion occurred in China in the last years of the 9th century, making the political situation unstable. The Japanese missions to Tang China was suspended and the influx of Chinese exports halted, therefore the Heian Period is considered a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is noted for the rise of the samurai class. Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara and other noble families required guards, police, the warrior class made steady political gains throughout the Heian period. Still, a military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away. The entry of the class into court influence was a result of the Hōgen Rebellion. At this time Taira no Kiyomori revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency and their clan, the Taira, would not be overthrown until after the Genpei War, which marked the start of the shogunate. The Kamakura period began in 1185 when Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the emperors, Nara was abandoned after only 70 years in part due to the ascendancy of Dōkyō and the encroaching secular power of the Buddhist institutions there. Kyōto had good access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period continued Nara culture, the Heian capital was patterned on the Chinese Tang capital at Changan, as was Nara, Kanmu endeavoured to improve the Tang-style administrative system which was in use. Known as the ritsuryō, this attempted to recreate the Tang imperium in Japan. Despite the decline of the Taika–Taihō reforms, imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period, Kanmus avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japans most forceful emperors
8.
Tokyo
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Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
9.
Hirohito
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Emperor Shōwa was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from December 25,1926, until his death on January 7,1989. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Akihito, upon his death, although better known outside Japan by his personal name Hirohito, in Japan, he is now referred to primarily by his posthumous name Emperor Shōwa. The word Shōwa is the name of the era that corresponded with the Emperors reign, the name Hirohito means abundant benevolence. He was the head of state under the Constitution of the Empire of Japan during Japans imperial expansion, militarization, born in Tokyos Aoyama Palace, Hirohito was the first son of Crown Prince Yoshihito and Crown Princess Sadako. He was the grandson of Emperor Meiji and Yanagihara Naruko and his childhood title was Prince Michi. At the age of 3, Hirohito and his brother Chichibu were returned to court when Kawamura died – first to the mansion in Numazu, Shizuoka. In 1908, he began studies at the Gakushūin. When his grandfather, Emperor Meiji, died on July 30,1912, Hirohitos father, Yoshihito, assumed the throne, in 1914, he was promoted to the ranks of lieutenant in the army and sub-lieutenant in the navy, then to captain and lieutenant in 1916. He was formally proclaimed Crown Prince and heir apparent on November 2,1916, Hirohito attended Gakushūin Peers School from 1908 to 1914 and then a special institute for the crown prince from 1914 to 1921. In 1920, Hirohito was promoted to the rank of Major in the army, in 1921, Hirohito took a six-month tour of Western Europe, including the United Kingdom, France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium. After his return to Japan, he became Regent of Japan on November 29,1921, in 1923, he was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the army and Commander in the navy, and to army Colonel and Navy Captain in 1925. The Washington Naval Treaty was signed on February 6,1922, Japan withdrew troops from the Siberian Intervention on August 28,1922. The Great Kantō earthquake devastated Tokyo on September 1,1923, on December 27,1923, Daisuke Namba attempted to assassinate Hirohito in the Toranomon Incident but his attempt failed. During interrogation, he claimed to be a communist and was executed, the General Election Law was passed on May 5,1925, giving all men above age 25 the right to vote. Prince Hirohito married his distant cousin Princess Nagako Kuni, the eldest daughter of Prince Kuniyoshi Kuni and they had two sons and five daughters. On December 25,1926, Hirohito assumed the throne upon his father, Yoshihitos, the Crown Prince was said to have received the succession. The Taishō eras end and the Shōwa eras beginning were proclaimed, the deceased Emperor was posthumously renamed Emperor Taishō within days. Following Japanese custom, the new Emperor was never referred to by his name, but rather was referred to simply as His Majesty the Emperor
10.
Enthronement of the Japanese Emperor
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The Enthronement of the Emperor of Japan is an ancient ceremony which marks the accession of a new ruler to the Chrysanthemum Throne, in the worlds oldest continuous hereditary monarchy. Various ancient imperial regalia are given to the new sovereign during the course of the rite, the Japanese enthronement ceremony consists of three main parts. The first is the simplest, and takes place immediately after the death of the preceding sovereign, unlike other monarchies, Japan has no crown in its regalia. These three objects were originally said to have given by the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu-ōmikami, to her grandson when he first descended to earth. The most important of these three treasures is the mirror Yata no Kagami, which is enshrined in the Ise Shrine as the go-shintai and it is permanently housed in the shrine, and is not presented to the Emperor for the enthronement ceremony. Imperial messengers and priests are sent to this shrine, as well as to the tomb-shrines of the four Emperors whose reigns immediately preceded his, to inform them of the new Emperors accession. The second part of the ceremony, called the Sokui-Rei, is the enthronement ritual itself and this ancient rite was traditionally held in Kyoto, the former capital of Japan, but in 1990, Emperor Akihito was enthroned in Tokyo. The 1990 enthronement was the first to be covered on television and it was done indoors, with the elevated stand placed inside the Imperial Palace complex. Only part of the ritual is public, and the regalia itself is seen only by the Emperor. This was followed by the enthronement itself, which place in an enclosure called the Takamikura. This was surrounded by a pavilion with curtains, surmounted by a great golden Phoenix. At the same time, the Empress of Japan, in full dress regalia, traditional drums were, at this point of the ceremony, beaten to start the proceddings. The new Emperor proceeded to the chair, where after being seated, a simple wooden sceptre was presented to the Emperor, who faced his Prime Minister standing in an adjacent courtyard, representing the Japanese people. The Emperor offered an address announcing his accession to the throne and his Prime Minister replied with an address promising fidelity and devotion, followed by a three cheers of Banzai from all of those present. The timing of this last event was synchronized, so that Japanese around the world could join in the Banzai shout at precisely the moment that it was being offered in Kyoto or in Tokyo. This moment of the ends with the firing of a 21-gun salute by the Japan Self-Defense Force. First, two special rice paddies are chosen and purified by elaborate Shinto purification rites, the families of the farmers who are to cultivate the rice in these paddies must be in perfect health. Once the rice is grown and harvested, it is stored in a special Shinto shrine as its goshintai, each kernel must be whole and unbroken, and is individually polished before it is boiled
11.
Edo period
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The Edo period or Tokugawa period is the period between 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when Japanese society was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the countrys 300 regional daimyō. The period was characterized by growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies. The shogunate was established in Edo on March 24,1603. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3,1868, instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area, after Hideyoshis death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family. Ieyasus victory over the western daimyōs at the Battle of Sekigahara gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyō houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyōs, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada as shogun. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication, in 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka. The Tokugawa period brought 250 years of stability to Japan, the political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyōs had regional authority and this represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The feudal hierarchy was completed by the classes of daimyō. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or related houses and they were twenty-three daimyōs on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu, the second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or house daimyōs, rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century,145 fudai controlled such smaller han, members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the group, the tozama, former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago, because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyō, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions. The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyōs and the religious orders
12.
Fujiwara clan
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Fujiwara clan, descending from the Nakatomi clan and through them Ame-no-Koyane-no-Mikoto, was a powerful family of regents in Japan. The clan originated when the founder, Nakatomi no Kamatari, was rewarded by Emperor Tenji with the honorific Fujiwara, in time, Fujiwara became known as a clan name. The Fujiwara dominated the Japanese politics of Heian period through the monopoly of regent positions, sesshō, the familys primary strategy for central influence was through the marrying of Fujiwara daughters to emperors. As abdicated Emperors took over power by exercising insei at the end of 11th century, then followed by the rise of warrior class, the Fujiwara gradually lost its control over mainstream politics. Beyond the 12th century, they continued to monopolize the titles of sesshō, though their influence declined, the clan remained close advisors to the succeeding Emperors. The Fujiwara clans political influence was initiated during the Asuka period, Nakatomi no Kamatari, a member of the lower-nobility Nakatomi family led a coup against the Soga in 645 and initiated a series of sweeping government reforms that would be known as the Taika Reform. In 668 Emperor Tenji, bestowed the kabane Fujiwara no Ason on Kamatari, the surname passed to the descendants of Fujiwara no Fuhito, the second son and heir of Kamatari, who was prominent at the court of several emperors and empresses during the early Nara period. He made his daughter Miyako a concubine of Emperor Monmu and her son, Prince Obito became Emperor Shōmu. Fuhito succeeded in making another of his daughters, Kōmyōshi, the consort of Emperor Shōmu. She was the first empress consort of Japan who was not a daughter of the family itself. During the Heian period of Japanese history, the Hokke managed to establish a claim to the position of regent. Some prominent Fujiwaras occupied these positions more than once, and for more than one emperor, lesser members of the Fujiwara were court nobles, provincial governors and vice governors, members of the provincial aristocracy, and samurai. The Fujiwara was one of the four families that dominated Japanese politics during the Heian Period. The others were the Tachibana, the Taira and the Minamoto, the Fujiwara exercised tremendous power, especially during the period of regency governments in 10th and 11th centuries, having many emperors as practically puppet monarchs. The Fujiwara dominated the government of Japan 794–1160, there is no clear starting point of their dominance. However, their domination of civil administration was lost by the establishment of the first shogunate under Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1192, Fujiwara princes initially served as highest ministers of the imperial Court and regents for underage monarchs. The Fujiwara were the power behind the throne for centuries. Apparently they never aspired to supplant the imperial dynasty, instead, the clans influence stemmed from its matrimonial alliances with the imperial family
13.
Doshisha University
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Doshisha University, also referred to as Dodai, is a private university in Kyoto City, Japan. Established in 1875, it is one of Japans oldest private institutions of higher learning and it is one of the Japanese Global 30 universities and one of the Kankandoritsu, a group of the four leading private universities in western Japans Kansai region. Doshisha was founded by Joseph Hardy Neesima as Doshisha English School, the university now encompasses 14 faculties and 16 graduate schools with numerous affiliated institutions including Doshisha Womens College of Liberal Arts. Doshisha University was founded in 1875 as Doshisha English School by Protestant educator Niijima Jō, as a young man, Niijima left Japan for the United States in 1864, despite the ban on overseas travel then imposed on Japanese nationals. He studied at Phillips Academy and Amherst College, and returned to Japan in 1874, the next year, Niijima established the Doshisha School with the assistance of Canadian Methodist missionary G. G. Cochran. Niijima served as president of the university from 1875 to 1890, by 1920, Doshisha was granted university status and developed into a full-fledged university in the Anglo-American academic tradition. During World War II, its buildings were given Japanese names, the prewar conditions were restored after the surrender of Japan. The first graduate programs were instituted in 1953. Doshisha also houses the Kyoto Consortium for Japanese Studies, another program affiliated with American universities, Doshisha University is one of the most prestigious universities in Japan today, with particularly strong influence in the Kansai region. The university has been ranked 12th and 14th in 2009 and 2010 respectively in the ranking Truly Strong Universities by Toyo Keizai, the university is considered one of the most selective private universities in Japan. The acceptance rate for the 40,924 applicants for the 2014 academic year was 35. 6%, the libraries at the Imadegawa and Kyotanabe campuses hold more than 2.5 million volumes. As of 2013, Doshisha University employs 777 full-time and 1,411 part-time faculty members across its Kyoto campuses, in terms of research, Doshisha has filed the 36th-highest number of patents in the nation. Doshisha University has two campuses at Imadegawa in central Kyoto and at Kyotanabe in southern Kyoto. Imadegawa is the campus, located in the former residence of Satsuma Domain. It has been in use since the school was founded, located in the center of Kyoto City, the campus is situated next to Shōkoku-ji, overlooking Kyoto Imperial Palace. Five buildings in the Imadegawa campus have been designated as Important Cultural Properties of Japan, including Doshisha Chapel and this campus is primarily for the liberal arts, business, theology, and law faculties. The Kyotanabe Campus was opened in 1986, in Kyōtanabe, Kyoto and is part of Kansai Science City, over 195 acres in area, it serves primarily as the campus for the science and engineering faculties. In 2012, a new Karasuma Campus was established approximately 300 meters from the Imadegawa Campus, the Karasuma Campus houses the International Education Institute, the Graduate School of Global Studies, and the Faculty of Global and Regional Studies
14.
Kemari
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Kemari is a ball game that was popular in Japan during the Heian Period. Kemari has been revived in modern times, the first evidence of kemari is from 644 AD. The rules were standardized from the 13th century and it was the first Japanese sport to become highly developed. The game was influenced by the Chinese sport of Cuju, the characters for Kemari are the same as Cuju in Chinese. The sport was introduced to Japan about 600, during the Asuka period, nowadays, it is played in Shinto shrines for festivals. George H. W. Bush played the game on one of his visits to Japan. The object of Kemari is to one ball in the air. Players may use any part with the exception of arms and hands – their head, feet, knees, back. The ball, known as a Mari, is made of deerskin with the hair facing inside, the ball is stuffed with barley grains to give it shape. When the hide has set in shape, the grains are removed from the ball. The one who kicks the ball is called a mariashi, a good mariashi makes it easy for the receiver to control the mari, and serves it with a soft touch to make it easy to keep the mari in the air. Kemari is played on a ground, about 6–7 meters squared. The uniforms that the wear are reminiscent of the clothes of the Asuka age. This type of clothing was called kariginu and it was fashionable at that time
15.
Chrysanthemum Throne
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The Chrysanthemum Throne is the term used to identify the throne of the Emperor of Japan. The term also can refer to very specific seating, such as the throne in the Shishin-den at Kyoto Imperial Palace. In a metonymic sense, the Chrysanthemum Throne also refers rhetorically to the head of state, Japan is the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world. In much the same sense as the British Crown, the Chrysanthemum Throne is an abstract concept that represents the monarch. According to legend, the Japanese monarchy is said to have founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu. The extant historical records only reach back to Emperor Ōjin, who is considered to have reigned into the early 4th century, in the 1920s, then-Crown Prince Hirohito served as regent during several years of his fathers reign, when Emperor Taishō was physically unable to fulfill his duties. However, the Prince Regent lacked the powers of the throne which he could only attain after his fathers death. The current Constitution of Japan considers the Emperor as the symbol of the State, the modern Emperor is a constitutional monarch. The metonymic meanings of Chrysanthemum Throne encompass the modern monarchy and the chronological list of legendary, the throne Takamikura is located in the Kyoto Imperial Palace. It is the oldest surviving throne used by the monarchy and it sits on an octagonal dais,5 metres above the floor. It is separated from the rest of the room by a curtain, the throne is used mainly for the enthronement ceremony, along with the twin throne michodai. This flexible English term is also a rhetorical trope, the Chrysanthemum throne is also understood as a synecdoche, which is related to metonymy and metaphor in suggesting a play on words by identifying a closely related conceptualization, e. g. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōzei is said to have acceded to the throne. Referring to the specific with the general, such as Chrysanthemum Throne for the reign of Emperor Yōzei or equally as well for the ambit of the Imperial system. Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697, brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. The Chrysanthemum Throne, A History of the Emperors of Japan, a Political History of Japan During the Meiji Era, 1867-1912. OCLC194887 Post, Jerrold and Robert S. Robins, nihon Odai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain, a Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns, Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa
16.
Empress Genmei
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Empress Genmei, also known as Empress Genmyō, was the 43rd monarch of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Genmeis reign spanned the years 707 through 715 CE, in the history of Japan, Genmei was the fourth of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant. The three female monarchs before Genmei were Suiko, Kōgyoku/Saimei, and Jitō, the four women sovereigns reigning after Genmei were Genshō, Kōken/Shōtoku, Meishō, and Go-Sakuramachi. Before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her name was Abe-hime. Empress Genmei was the daughter of Emperor Tenji, and she was a younger sister of Empress Jitō by a different mother. Her mother, Mei-no-Iratsume, was a daughter of Udaijin Soga-no-Kura-no-Yamada-no-Ishikawa-no-Maro, Genmei became the consort of Crown Prince Kusakabe no Miko, who was the son of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. After the death of their son Emperor Monmu in 707, she acceded to the throne. July 18,707, In the 11th year of Mommu-tennō s reign, the emperor died, and the succession was received by the emperors mother, shortly thereafter, Empress Genmei is said to have acceded to the throne. The Japanese word for copper is dō, and since this was indigenous copper, may 5,708, A sample of the newly discovered Musashi copper from was presented in Genmeis Court where it was formally acknowledged as Japanese copper, and a mint was established in Ōmi Province. 708, Fuijwara no Fuhito was named Minister of the Right, isonokami no Maro was Minister of the Left. 709, There was an uprising against governmental authority in Mutsu Province, troops were promptly dispatched to subdue the revolt. 709, Ambassadors arrived from Silla, bringing an offer of tribute and he visited Fujiwara no Fuhito to prepare the way for further visits. 710, Empress Genmei established her residence in Nara. In the last years of the Mommus reign, the preparations for this projected move had begun. Shortly after the nengō was changed to Wadō, an Imperial Rescript was issued concerning the establishment of a new capital at the Heijō-kyō at Nara in Yamato Province and it had been customary since ancient times for the capital to be moved with the beginning of each new reign. However, Emperor Mommu decided not to move the capital, preferring instead to stay at the Fujiwara Palace which had established by Empress Jitō. Empress Genmeis palace was named Nara-no-miya,711, The Kojiki was published in three volumes. This work presented a history of Japan from a period of god-rulers up through the 28th day of the 1st month of the fifth year of Empress Suikos reign
17.
Fenghuang
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Fenghuang are mythological birds of East Asia that reign over all other birds. The fenghuang is also called the August Rooster since it takes the place of the Rooster in the Chinese zodiac. In the West, it is called the Chinese phoenix or simply Phoenix. A common depiction of fenghuang was of it attacking snakes with its talons and its wings spread. The fenghuangs body symbolizes the celestial bodies, the head is the sky, the eyes are the sun, the back is the moon, the wings are the wind, the feet are the earth, the fenghuang is said to have originated in the sun. Its body contain the five colors, black, white, red, yellow. It sometimes carries scrolls or a box with sacred books and it is sometimes depicted with a fireball. It is sometimes depicted as having three legs and it is believed that the bird only appears in areas or places that are blessed with utmost peace and prosperity or happiness. Chinese tradition cites it as living atop the Kunlun Mountains in northern China, some believe they may have been a good-luck totem among eastern tribes of ancient China. During the Han dynasty two phoenixes, one a male and the other a female were often shown together facing one other. Later, during the Yuan dynasty the two terms were merged to become fenghuang, but the King of Birds came to symbolize the empress when paired with a dragon as a dragon represented the emperor. Also during this period, the fenghuang was used as a representing the direction south. This was portrayed through a male and female facing each other and their feathers were of the five fundamental colors, black, white, red, green, and yellow. The phoenix represented power sent from the heavens to the Empress, if a phoenix was used to decorate a house it symbolized that loyalty and honesty were in the people that lived there. Or alternatively, a phoenix only stays when the ruler is without darkness, the fenghuang has very positive connotations. It is a symbol of virtue and grace. The fenghuang also symbolizes the union of yin and yang, in ancient and modern Chinese culture, they can often be found in the decorations for weddings or royalty, along with dragons. This is because the Chinese considered the dragon and phoenix symbolic of blissful relations between husband and wife, another common yang and yin metaphor
18.
Sudare
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They are sometimes called misu as well, particularly if they have a green fabric hem. Sudare are made of horizontal slats of wood, bamboo, or other natural material woven together with simple string, colored yarn. They could be rolled or folded up out of the way. Yoshizu, non-hanging type sudare, are made of vertical slats of Common reed and used as screen, sudare are used in many Japanese homes to shield the verandah and other openings of the building from sunlight, rain, and insects. They are normally put up in spring and taken again in autumn. Their light structure allows breezes to pass through, a benefit in the hot Japanese summers, since the building materials are easy to find, sudare can be made cheaply. Elaborate sudare for palaces and villas used high-quality bamboo, with expensive silk, sometimes they featured paintings, most often on the inside, some Chinese screens had symbols painted on the outside as well. Sudare protect the inhabitants of the not only from the elements. They are featured prominently in The Tale of Genji, during the Heian Era, a court lady would conceal herself behind a screen when speaking with a man outside her immediate family. She could peep through it and see her interlocutor, but because he had to remain at a distance from it, only with her permission might he step closer and only she would ever raise the screen. Any unwarranted moves on the part were seen as a grave breach of etiquette. Sudare were also used in imperial audiences, since looking directly at the tennō was forbidden, he would sit hidden behind a screen in the throne hall, with only his shoes showing. This practice fell out of use as imperial power declined, with the dawn of modernity, the production of sudare went into decline and became a traditional handicraft, but they still are sold and shipped abroad by various companies. A museum in Amano-cho, Kawachinagano, Osaka traces the history of sudare, tools and machines used to manufacture them, as well as sudare from other countries, are on display
19.
Tosa school
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However, by the 17th century both Tosa and Kanō artists broadened their range, and the distinction between these and other schools became less clear. Mitsunobu served as the painter at the imperial court, specializing in courtly subjects painted in the yamato-e style. The Tosa school under Mitsunobu retained the position of for three generations, until 1569, and regained the post 1634 under Mitsunroi, in general, the Tosa style is characterized by rather flat, decorative compositions, fine linework, great attention to detail, and brilliant color. It is starting with Tosa Mitsunobu that an art school. But Mitsunobu purports that the origins of the school can be traced further to Fujiwara Tsunetaka who held the post of edokoro azukari in 1355–1371. Yukihiros activity as a painter is known primarily from an inscription on illustrated handscrolls of the Stories of the Origin of Yūzū Nembutsu,1414, Seiryōji, a bloodline descent from Yukimitsu to Mitsunobu is speculated, but the family document Tosa Monjo lacks records covering that period. Mitsunobus daughter married Kanō Motonobu, head of the Kanō school, the surviving paintings that can be attributed to Mitsunobu show less quality than his reputation in historical sources would suggest, but many fine works remain from Mitsunobus hand. The headship of the passed to Tosa Mitsuyoshi, whose relationship with his predecessors is uncertain. Mitsuyoshi eventually left the capital and his post and settled in the city of Sakai, a city near Osaka. Mitsumochi also moved away from the traditional Tosa themes to specialize in bird-and-flower paintings, during this period, the stewardship of the imperial painting bureau passed from the Tosa school into the hands of Kanō school painters. Twenty years later, in 1654, Mitsuoki won back the position of edokoro-azukari for the family, Mitsuoki rejuvenated the traditional Tosa style by introducing elements from Chinese painting. He is particularly noted for his elegant paintings of quail, as for example, however, Mitsusada, a dedicated practitioner of the Tosa traditions, managed to effect a temporary Tosa revival
20.
Tanabata
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Tanabata, also known as the Star Festival, is a Japanese festival originating from the Chinese Qixi Festival. It celebrates the meeting of the deities Orihime and Hikoboshi, according to legend, the Milky Way separates these lovers, and they are allowed to meet only once a year on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month of the lunisolar calendar. The date of Tanabata varies by region of the country, the celebration is held at various days between July and August. The festival was introduced to Japan by the Empress Kōken in 755 and it originated from The Festival to Plead for Skills, an alternative name for Qixi, which was celebrated in China and also was adopted in the Kyoto Imperial Palace from the Heian period. At this time, the custom was to use dew left on taro leaves to create the ink used to write wishes. Incidentally, Bon is now held on 15 August on the calendar, close to its original date on the lunar calendar, making Tanabata. The name Tanabata is remotely related to the Japanese reading of the Chinese characters 七夕, gradually this ceremony merged with Kikkōden to become Tanabata. The Chinese characters 七夕 and the Japanese reading Tanabata joined to mean the same festival, like Qixi and Chilseok, Tanabata was inspired by the famous Chinese folklore story, The Weaver Girl and the Cowherd. Some versions were included in the Manyōshū, the oldest extant collection of Japanese poetry, the most popular version is as follows, Orihime, daughter of the Tentei, wove beautiful clothes by the bank of the Amanogawa. Her father loved the cloth that she wove and so she worked hard every day to weave it. However, Orihime was sad that because of her work she could never meet. Concerned about his daughter, Tentei arranged for her to meet Hikoboshi who lived and worked on the side of the Amanogawa. When the two met, they fell instantly in love each other and married shortly thereafter. However, once married, Orihime no longer would weave cloth for Tentei, in anger, Tentei separated the two lovers across the Amanogawa and forbade them to meet. Orihime became despondent at the loss of her husband and asked her father to let them meet again, Tentei was moved by his daughter’s tears and allowed the two to meet on the 7th day of the 7th month if she worked hard and finished her weaving. The first time tried to meet, however, they found that they could not cross the river because there was no bridge. Orihime cried so much that a flock of magpies came and promised to make a bridge with their wings so that she could cross the river. It is said if it rains on Tanabata, the magpies cannot come
21.
Bon Festival
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Obon or just Bon is a Japanese Buddhist custom to honor the spirits of ones ancestors. It has been celebrated in Japan for more than 500 years and traditionally includes a dance, the festival of Obon lasts for three days, however its starting date varies within different regions of Japan. When the lunar calendar was changed to the Gregorian calendar at the beginning of the Meiji era, the localities in Japan reacted differently, shichigatsu Bon is based on the solar calendar and is celebrated around 15 July in eastern Japan, coinciding with Chūgen. Hachigatsu Bon is based on the calendar, is celebrated around the 15th of August and is the most commonly celebrated time. Kyū Bon is celebrated on the 15th day of the month of the lunar calendar. Kyū Bon is celebrated in areas like the part of the Kantō region, Chūgoku region, Shikoku. These three days are not listed as public holidays but it is customary that people are given leave, Obon is a shortened form of Ullambana. It is Sanskrit for hanging upside down and implies great suffering, the Japanese believe they should ameliorate the suffering of the Urabanna. Bon Odori originates from the story of Maha Maudgalyayana, a disciple of the Buddha and he discovered she had fallen into the Realm of Hungry Ghosts and was suffering. Greatly disturbed, he went to the Buddha and asked how he could release his mother from this realm, Buddha instructed him to make offerings to the many Buddhist monks who had just completed their summer retreat, on the fifteenth day of the seventh month. The disciple did this and, thus, saw his mothers release and he also began to see the true nature of her past selflessness and the many sacrifices that she had made for him. The disciple, happy because of his mothers release and grateful for his mothers kindness, from this dance of joy comes Bon Odori or Bon Dance, a time in which ancestors and their sacrifices are remembered and appreciated. As Obon occurs in the heat of the summer, participants traditionally wear yukata, many Obon celebrations include a huge carnival with rides, games, and summer festival food like watermelon. Families sent their ancestors back to their permanent dwelling place under the guidance of fire. Fire, which marked the commencement as well as the closing of the festival, Bon Odori, meaning simply Bon dance, is a style of dancing performed during Obon. Originally a Nenbutsu folk dance to welcome the spirits of the dead, each region has a local dance, as well as different music. The music can be songs specifically pertinent to the message of Obon. Consequently, the Bon dance will look and sound different from region to region, hokkaidō is known for a folk-song known as Sōran Bushi
22.
Suzakumon
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The Suzakumon was the main gate built in the center of the south end of the imperial palaces in the Japanese ancient capitals of Fujiwara-kyō, Heijō-kyō, and later Heian-kyō. The placement followed the ancient Chinese palace model requirements at the time, where Suzaku and it was said to be the site where foreign dignitaries were received by the Emperor. All of them were destroyed centuries ago along with the old imperial residences, in 1993, it was decided that the gate of Nara would be reconstructed. It proved extremely difficult to work out what Suzakumon had looked like, the reconstructed gate was opened in 1998. Most of the gate was constructed by the Takenaka Corporation, rashōmon in Kyoto Nara Palace Site Museum
23.
Japan Railways Group
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Most of the liability of the JNR was assumed by the JNR Settlement Corporation. The JR Group lies at the heart of Japans railway network, operating a large proportion of intercity rail service, maps almost always denoted JR and private railways differently, as does JR itself. The group consists of seven operating companies and two companies that do not provide rail service. The operating companies are organized into six passenger operators and a freight operator. Unlike some other groups of companies, the JR Group is made up of independent companies, the six passenger railways of the JR Group are separated by region. Nearly all their services are within the geographic area. However, some long-distance operations extend beyond the boundaries, Japan Freight Railway Company operates all freight service on the network previously owned by JNR. In addition, the group includes two non-operating companies and these are the Railway Technical Research Institute and Railway Information Systems Co. Ltd. To cover various non-railway business areas, each operator in the JR Group has its own group of subsidiary companies with names like JR East Group. JR maintains a railway network as well as common ticketing rules that it inherited from JNR. Passengers may travel across several JR companies without changing trains and without purchasing separate tickets, however, trains running across the boundaries of JR companies have been reduced. JR maintains the same ticketing rules based on the JNR rules and has a reservation system known as MARS. Some types of tickets, such as Japan Rail Pass and Seishun 18 Ticket, are issued as valid for all JR lines, in 1987, the government of Japan took steps to divide and privatize JNR. While division of operations began in April of that year, privatization was not immediate, initially, privatization of some of the companies began in the early 1990s. By 2006, all of the shares of JR East, JR Central and JR West had been offered to the market, the demise of the government-owned system came after charges of serious management inefficiencies, profit losses, and fraud. By the early 1980s, passenger and freight business had declined, what remained of the debt-ridden Japanese National Railways after its 1987 breakup was named the Japanese National Railways Settlement Corporation. Its purpose was to dispose of assets and debts not absorbed by the companies and to execute other activities relating to the breakup. The new companies introduced competition, cut their staffing, and made reform efforts, demand for rail transport improved, although it still accounted for only 28% of passenger transportation and only 5% of cargo transportation in 1990
24.
Wikimapia
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Created by Alexandre Koriakine and Evgeniy Saveliev on May 2006, since then it has become a popular mapping website. Although the projects name is reminiscent to that of Wikipedia and that the share the wiki philosophy. According to the website, Wikimapia is an open-content collaborative mapping project, aimed at marking all geographical objects in the world and it aims to create and maintain a free, complete, multilingual and up-to-date map of the whole world. Wikimapia intends to contain detailed information about every place on Earth, the Wikimapia website provides a Google Maps API-based interactive web map that consists of user-generated information layered on top of Google Maps satellite imagery and other resources. The navigation interface provides scroll and zoom functionality similar to that of Google Maps, the Wikimapia layer is a collection of objects with a polygonal outline and linear features. Streets are connected by intersection points to form a street grid, both kinds of items may have textual descriptions and photos attached to them. Viewers are able to click on any marked object or street segment to see its description, descriptions can be searched by a built-in search tool. Tools for refining existing places according to category as well as measuring distances between objects are also available, the interface is available in many languages, and the textual description of each item may have multiple versions in different languages. Wikimapia maps can also be embedded on other websites, the data in Wikimapia is derived from voluntary crowdsourcing. All users, registered or unregistered, are allowed to add a place on the Wikimapia layer, using a simple graphical editing tool, users are able to draw an outline or polygon that matches the satellite image layer underneath. Each object or tag has specific information fields which include categories, a description, street address. Users are likewise capable of uploading several relevant photos, fewer restrictions in map editing are given to registered users, who are able to edit and/or delete existing places as well as draw linear features. A watchlist could be set up to monitor all activity or object changes made in one or more of the assigned rectangular areas on the map. The website is maintained and developed by a team of administrators. Improvements are largely based on a system from registered users through public forum discussions, bug reports. The registered user community is largely self-organized, with users communicating through an internal message system, map editing rewards the user experience points and milestone awards assigned by the system. Registered users are automatically ranked in levels according to accumulated experience points, with higher levels gaining access to advanced tools, a registered user may be promoted to an Advanced User status as other existing AUs deem it fit. Additional editing and moderation tools, which includes the authority to ban users are given to an Advanced User, special roles of maintaining the website forum, place categories, and the Wikimapia Documentation are also given by the Wikimapia Team to some users
25.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
26.
Katsura Imperial Villa
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The Katsura Imperial Villa, or Katsura Detached Palace, is a villa with associated gardens and outbuildings in the western suburbs of Kyoto, Japan. It is one of Japans most important large-scale cultural treasures and its gardens are considered a masterpiece of Japanese gardening, and the buildings are regarded among the greatest achievements of Japanese architecture. The palace includes a shoin, tea houses, and a strolling garden, the palace belonged to the princes of the Hachijō-no-miya family. The Imperial Household Agency administers it, and accepts visitors by appointment, the Katsura district of Kyoto has long been favored for villas, and in the Heian period, Fujiwara no Michinaga had a villa there. The members of the Heian court found it an elegant location for viewing the moon, Prince Hachijō Toshihito, the founder of the Katsura Imperial Villa, was born on 13 February 1579. He was the son of Prince Sanehito, and a descendent of Emperor Ogimachi. In 1586, Toshihito was adopted by Hideyoshi Toyotomi, but they separated in 1589 when Hideyoshi had his own son and he presented Toshihito with land that yielded 3000 koku and allowed him to establish a new house in the imperial line, which became the Hachijo family line. From an early age, Prince Toshihito was very familiar with the Tales of Genji, the Poems of Past and Present, and he was incredibly fond of these works, and was said to copy passages from the works for leisure. One such passage, from the Tales of Genji, had written, Far away, in the village of Katsura. When Toshihito obtained land along the bank of the Katsura River. However, because he lacked wealth and resources, the first constructed villa was similar to “a teahouse in the melon patch”, however, after the marriage of Tokugawa Kazuko to Emperor Go-Mizunoo, which Toshihito had been active in creating, construction of the villa began. As Prince Toshihito became a figure in public life, more guests came to visit the Katsura Imperial Villa. By 1624, he had devoted more of his resources to the expansion of the villa, and it was recorded that hills had been formed, a priest that visited Katsura in 1624 wrote that it had the “finest view in Japan”. By 1631, the villa was called a “palace”, Prince Toshihito died in 1629, when his son Toshitada was ten years old. Because he was only a child, Toshitada made little use of the garden, however, he shared the same interests as his father, and visited the villa by 1641. After marrying the daughter of Lord Kaga, which increased his income. After these renovations, the fame of the Katsura villa grew, in 1654, Toshitada adopted Prince Sachi, one of the ex-Emperor Go-Mizunoo’s many sons, and a few years afterwards, Go-Mizunoo decided to visit. It is said that the New Palace, also called the “Imperial-Visit Palace”, was built to accommodate the ex-Emperor while he was visiting, Prince Toshitada died in 1662, and his heir died a few years later
27.
Shugakuin Imperial Villa
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The Shugaku-in Imperial Villa, or Shugaku-in Detached Palace, is a set of gardens and outbuildings in the hills of the eastern suburbs of Kyoto, Japan. It is one of Japans most important large-scale cultural treasures, its gardens are one of the masterpieces of Japanese gardening. Although styled as a palace, often translated as imperial villa, there were never any large-scale buildings there. The 53-hectare grounds actually include three separate gardens, the Lower Garden, Middle Garden, and Upper Garden, of which the latter is the most important, the Imperial Household Agency administers it, and accepts visitors by appointment. The Shugaku-in was originally constructed by the retired Emperor Go-Mizunoo, starting in 1655, the site had been previously occupied by the Enshō-ji nunnery, founded by his oldest daughter, Princess Ume-no-miya, it was moved to Nara to make room for Go-Mizunoos creation. The Upper Garden contained an artificial pond, created by building an earthen dam across a ravine. Unlike the typical Japanese garden, it is a very large stroll garden, the Lower Garden was originally much more informal than what is now there, originally it was more of a simple arrival station for visiting guests. After Go-Mizunoos death, his daughter Princess Mitsuko became a nun, and established another temple there, the gardens and buildings then fell into disrepair, with some of the buildings either being destroyed or removed. During the rule of Tokugawa Ienari, the 11th Tokugawa shogun, in 1883, the Shugaku-in came under the control of the Imperial Household Department, and the large building which is currently in the Middle Garden was moved there. Other changes, such as the building of fences around the Lower and Middle Gardens, and the enclosure of the paths between them, soon followed, giving the Shūgaku-in the character it has today. The Lower Garden consists of an outer, landscaped area with walking paths, the garden features a small brook and pond divided by a walkway embankment, and is set off from the villa by a region of coarse, white sand with white stepping-stones. The Middle Garden contains a garden area with two principal buildings, again set within an outer and then inner fence. It features a fine pond predating the garden, with cascade, rakushi-ken contains two principal rooms of 6 and 8 mats in size, and features two paintings by Kano Tanshin. Kyaku-den, the hall, contains two principal rooms and an altar room added after the building was moved to this site in 1678 from the palace at Tofuku-monin. It contains a celebrated shelf of zelkova wood, known as the Shelf of Mist, paintings by Kano Hidenobu, the spectacular Upper Garden is reached through a simple gate and short climb through clipped shrubbery, at which point the entire garden vista is revealed. A simple pavilion of several rooms and wooden porch provides an excellent vantage point, with views of the pond, its islands. The nearby waterfall is about 10 meters in height, built of rough-hewn stones, the pond also features two smaller bridges, a stone boat-landing, and a second, smaller waterfall. The ponds west bank is long and remarkably monotonous, with lawn, trees, walkway, and clipped hedge running atop the large, earthen-work dam that created the pond
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Nasu Imperial Villa
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Nasu Imperial Villa, located in the town of Nasu, Nasu District in Tochigi Prefecture, is a retreat used by the Japanese Imperial Family. The structure dates to 1926, a further addition came in 1935, the Imperial Family normally uses the villa during the months of August and September. On May 22,2011 approximately half of the grounds of the villa were opened to the public as the Nasu Heisei no Mori Park
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Hayama Imperial Villa
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Hayama Imperial Villa, located in the town of Hayama, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan is a residence owned by the Japanese Imperial Family, and used on infrequent intervals as an informal winter retreat. It was abolished in 1930, and the site was back to the city for the reconstruction of the castle. Kamakura Imperial Villa, located in Kamakura was built by Emperor Meiji in 1899 as a residence for his 8th daughter, Princess Fumi-no-miya Nobuko and 9th daughter. It was destroyed in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, and the site was turned over to the Kamakura city government in 1931, and is now the location of a school. Miyanoshita Imperial Villa, located in Hakone was built by Emperor Meiji in 1895, and was a residence of Prince Takamatsu Nobuhito. It is now an annex of the Hakone Fujiya Hotel, the Hayama Imperial Villa was acquired by the Imperial Household Agency in 1894. It is located on the east bank of Sagami Bay in central Miura Peninsula, the villa was a favorite of Emperor Taishō and he often visited to convalesce from his illnesses and to escape from the stresses of his official duties in Tokyo. Emperor Taishō died at the Hayama Imperial Villa in December 1926, the villa was subsequently used by Emperor Shōwa, who also built a marine biology laboratory on its grounds. Research from the laboratory has resulted in a number of technical monographs, the Imperial Family traditionally uses the Hayama residence in February–March, the season when few tourists visit the area. The villa was burned down in 1971 in an act of arson and was rebuilt as a building of western architectural design. Imperial Household Agency | Hayama Imperial Villa Corner, E. J. H and his Majesty Emperor Hirohito of Japan, K. G.29 April 1901-7 January 1989, Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol.36, pp. 243–272
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Suzaki Imperial Villa
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The Imperial Family of Japan previously had residences in several locations within Shizuoka Prefecture, Atami Imperial Villa, located in the city of Atami was built in 1888 by Emperor Meiji. The modern-day Atami city hall is located n its former site, Shizuoka Imperial Villa, located in Aoi-ku, Shizuoka was built by Emperor Meiji in 1900 and turned over to the Shizuoka city government in 1930. It was destroyed in the bombing of Shizuoka in World War II, Numazu Imperial Villa, located in Numazu was built by Emperor Meiji in 1893, and was a favorite residence of his son, Crown Prince Yoshihito, the future Emperor Taishō. It burned down during the bombing of Numazu in World War II and it was turned over to the Numazu city government in 1969 and the site has been a public park since 1970. The Suzaki Imperial Villa was acquired by the Imperial Household Agency after the Numazu Imperial Villa was given to the local government. It is located on the west bank of Sagami Bay at the tip of Izu Peninsula near where the waters of the bay mix with the Kuroshio Current offshore. Research from the laboratory has resulted in a number of technical monographs, the villa building itself is a one-story building of western architectural design, and dates to 1971. The adjacent private beach is known as Tenno Beach, or Emperor Beach. The bay is not deep, providing safety for the Emperors family, the beach is surrounded by beautiful rock formations, which further limits public access. His Majesty Emperor Hirohito of Japan, K. G.29 April 1901-7 January 1989, Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol.36, pp. 243–272 Kitayama Taiju
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Akasaka Palace
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Akasaka Palace, or the State Guest House, is one of the two State Guesthouses of the Government of Japan. The palace was built as the Imperial Palace for the Crown Prince in 1909. Today the palace is designated by the government of Japan as an accommodation for visiting state dignitaries. Located in the Moto Akasaka, Minato, Tokyo, the took on its present function in 1974. In 2009 the palace was designated as a National Treasure of Japan, the building has 15,000 m² of floor space, and together with a smaller structure in the Japanese style, occupies a 117,000 m² site. The main building is the sole Neo-Baroque style Western building in Japan, resembling in particular Buckingham Palace, outside and around the palace area is a footpath unobstructed by road crossings. The footpath is about 3.25 km long, the nearest station to the Palace is Yotsuya Station. The territory that Akasaka Palace now occupies was part of the residence of Kishū Domain, after the Meiji restoration, the Owari presented the land to the Imperial Household. Designed by the architect Katayama Tōkuma, the Neo-Baroque structure was constructed between 1899 and 1909 as a residence for the Crown Prince, originally it was named Tōgū Palace but was later renamed Akasaka Palace when the Crown Princes residence was moved. Regent Crown Prince Hirohito resided at Akasaka Palace from September 1923 until September 1928, the move was intended to be temporary, but lasted five years. During the renovation of his residence, Hirohito intended to lodge temporarily at Akasaka Palace. Four days later, Japan was hit by the Great Kantō earthquake on September 1, during his residence in Akasaka Palace, Prince Hirohito married and fathered two daughters, Princess Sachiko and Princess Shigeko. After World War II the government of Japan relieved the Imperial household of Akasaka Palace, several governmental offices were installed in the palace, including the National Diet Library which was founded in 1948, Cabinet Legislation Bureau and Organizing Committee of Tokyo Olympics 1964. Through the economic revival of the country after World War II, the former residence of Prince Asaka, currently Tokyo Metropolitan Teien Art Museum, had been used as the state guest house, though it was too small for the purpose. It was decided in 1967 to renovate the former Akasaka Palace as the new state guest house, the renovation was led by the architect Togo Murano with more than five years and 10.8 billion yen, which completed in 1974. The first official state guest who stayed in the palace was Gerald Ford in 1974. Since then, the palace has provided accommodations for state and official guests and a venue for international conferences, the venue had been closed from 2006 to 2009 for renovation, and it was reopened in April 2009. In December 2009, the building, the main gate
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Asuka, Yamato
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Asuka was the Imperial capital of Japan during the Asuka period, which takes its name from this place. It is located in the village of Asuka, Nara Prefecture. Some of the theories of what the place was named after include the bird common crossbill, or isuka in Japanese, or local geological features. Archaeology projects continue to uncover relics from these ruins, recent discoveries in the area include Wado coins, believed to be some of the oldest coins in Japan, and paintings in the Kitora and Takamatsuzuka Kofun, or tombs. The Ishibutai Kofun is also located in Asuka, on March 12,2004, the discovery of the remains of a residences main building adjacent to the kofun was announced. It is likely that the residence belonged to Soga no Umako, Asuka can be reached from either Okadera Station or Asuka Station on the Kintetsu train line, or by car on Route 169. In the Asuka period, various palaces were constructed for each monarch, as soon as one emperor died, the whole court moved to a newly constructed palace, since it was considered dangerous to remain in a place where a deceased monarchs spirit might reside. Sometimes even during an emperors reign, palaces were changed multiple times due to destruction by fire or ill omens. Since these palaces were constructed from wood, none of them have survived. Sakurai was briefly the capital of Japan during the reign of Emperor Ingyō, the life of the Imperial court was centered at the Palace of Tohotsu where the emperor lived in 457–479. Then the court moved again to the Ōmi Palace or Ōtsu Palace in Ōmi-kyō, the 100 Views of Nature in Kansai Asuka Historical Museum, exterior view
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Daikaku-ji
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Daikaku-ji is a Shingon Buddhist temple in Ukyō-ku, a western ward in the city of Kyoto, Japan. The site was originally a residence of Emperor Saga, and later various emperor conducted their cloistered rule from here, the Saga Goryū school of ikebana has its headquarters in the temple. The artificial lake of the temple, Ōsawa Pond, is one of the oldest Japanese garden ponds to survive from the Heian period. The origins of the dates back to the Heian period in the year 814 CE. The palace later became his seat of retirement, known as Saga Rikyu imperial villa, the emperor made a handwritten copy, and the epidemic is said to have ended. The handwritten sutra is kept at the Shingyōden hall of the temple, and is displayed to the public once every sixty years, pilgrims still come to the temple to make copies of the sutra, which are kept in the temple with the original. In 876, thirty-four years after the death of Emperor Saga, his daughter Princess Masako and it was a monzeki temple, which means by tradition that only imperial princes were appointed abbot of the temple. Over the years, it became the retirement home of several emperors, in 1336, during the upheaval between the Kamakura period and the Muromachi period, the temple burned down, but was later rebuilt. During the Edo Period, Emperor Go-Mizunoo brought in Momoyama period buildings from the Kyoto Imperial Palace, the temple was placed in a graveled courtyard next to the pond. The hondō, or main hall, and the Founders Hall were also moved from the Kyoto Imperial Palace, the main images are of the Five Wisdom Kings, centered on Fudō. The sliding door painting in the Okanmuri-no-ma room of the Shōshinden were painted by Kanō Sanraku and they feature peony trees and red and white plum blossoms. The hawk painted with Indian ink is a unique motif, the wooden beam above the doors has a painting of a hare. All these works of art are designated as Important Cultural Properties, the Ōsawa Pond is older than the temple itself. It is a lake of 2.4 hectares that was created by Emperor Saga. The pond is supposed to reflect the outlines of Dongting Lake in China and it was an imperial garden of the style known as chisen-shuyu, a garden meant to be seen from a boat, similar to the Imperial Chinese garden of the period. The lake was created by damming a stream came from the Nakoso waterfall. At the north end of the pond are two islands, one large and one small - the small island being known as Chrysanthmum Island, between the two islands are several small rocky islets, meant to resemble Chinese junks at anchor. On a hillside north of the lake is what appears to be a dry cascade, a kind of Japanese rock garden or zen garden, the garden was celebrated in the poetry of the period
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Tokyo Metropolitan Teien Art Museum
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The Tokyo Metropolitan Teien Art Museum is an art museum in Tokyo, Japan. The museum is located in Minato ward, just east of Meguro Station, the Art Deco building, completed in 1933, has interiors designed by Henri Rapin and features decorative glass work by René Lalique. The Tokyo Metropolitan Teien Art Museum building was previously the residence of Prince Asaka Yasuhiko, the prince, who studied at the École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr in France, and travelled to the United States in 1925, was greatly enamoured of the Art Deco movement. On his return to Japan he commissioned the construction of his own residence in this style. After World War II the building served as the residence of the Prime Minister. The residence was first opened to the public as a museum in 1983 and it is one of Japans many museums which are supported by a prefectural government. Teien means Japanese garden, and the museum is so named because the building is surrounded by a garden, after undergoing extensive renovation in 2013, the museum was re-opened in November 2014. The new museum annex, designed in collaboration with Hiroshi Sugimoto includes modern exhibition spaces, prefectural museum Tokyo Metropolitan Teien Art Museum, General information, English website
