1.
Greek government-debt crisis
–
The Greek government-debt crisis is the sovereign debt crisis faced by Greece in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–08. The government enacted 12 rounds of tax increases, spending cuts, and reforms from 2010 to 2016, at that time, debt levels had reached €323bn or some €30,000 per capita. The 2001 introduction of the euro reduced trade costs among Eurozone countries, labour costs increased more in peripheral countries such as Greece relative to core countries such as Germany, eroding Greeces competitive edge. As a result, Greeces current account deficit rose significantly, a trade deficit means that a country is consuming more than it produces, which requires borrowing/direct investment from other countries. Both the Greek trade deficit and budget deficit rose from below 5% of GDP in 1999 to peak around 15% of GDP in the 2008–2009 periods, one driver of the investment inflow was Greeces membership in the EU and the Eurozone. As the Great Recession spread to Europe, the amount funds lent from the European core countries to the countries such as Greece began to decline. A country facing a “sudden stop” in private investment and a debt load typically allows its currency to depreciate to encourage investment. This was not possible while Greece remained on the Euro, instead, to become more competitive, Greek wages fell nearly 20% from mid-2010 to 2014, a form of deflation. This significantly reduced income and GDP, resulting in a recession, decline in tax receipts. Unemployment reached nearly 25%, from below 10% in 2003, significant government spending cuts helped the Greek government return to a primary budget surplus by 2014. In January 2010, the Greek Ministry of Finance published Stability, the report listed five main causes, poor GDP growth, government debt and deficits, budget compliance and data compatibility. Causes found by others included excess government spending, current account deficits, after 2008, GDP growth was lower than the Greek national statistical agency had anticipated. The global financial crisis had a large negative impact on GDP growth rates in Greece. Two of the countrys largest earners, tourism and shipping were badly affected by the downturn, the Ministry intended to implement real expenditure cuts that would allow expenditures to grow 3. 8% from 2009 to 2013, well below expected inflation at 6. 9%. Overall revenues were expected to grow 31. 5% from 2009 to 2013, secured by new, higher taxes, the deficit needed to decline to a level compatible with a declining debt-to-GDP ratio. The debt increased in 2009 due to the higher than expected government deficit, in addition to structural reforms, permanent and temporary austerity measures were needed. After 1993, the debt-to-GDP ratio remained above 94%, the crisis caused the debt level to exceed the maximum sustainable level. Budget compliance was acknowledged to need improvement, for 2009 it was found to be a lot worse than normal, due to economic control being more lax in a year with political elections
Greek government-debt crisis
–
10-year Greece government bonds
Greek government-debt crisis
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100,000 people protest against the austerity measures in front of parliament building in Athens (29 May 2011).
Greek government-debt crisis
–
Former Prime Minister
George Papandreou and former European Commission President
José Manuel Barroso after their meeting in Brussels on 20 June 2011.
Greek government-debt crisis
–
2008 riots in Athens
2.
Newspaper
–
A newspaper is a serial publication containing news about current events, other informative articles about politics, sports, arts, and so on, and advertising. A newspaper is usually, but not exclusively, printed on relatively inexpensive, the journalism organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers. As of 2017, most newspapers are now published online as well as in print, the online versions are called online newspapers or news websites. Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly, News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format. General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news, typically the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings. Papers also include articles which have no byline, these articles are written by staff writers, a wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. As of 2017, newspapers may also provide information about new movies, most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue. Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded, their reliance on advertising revenue, the editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high quality. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting from around the world, circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day. Worldwide annual revenue approached $100 billion in 2005-7, then plunged during the financial crisis of 2008-9. Revenue in 2016 fell to only $53 billion, hurting every major publisher as their efforts to gain online income fell far short of the goal. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet has also challenged the business models of the era by crowdsourcing both publishing in general and, more specifically, journalism. In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from online newspapers. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects, the oldest newspaper still published is the Gazzetta di Mantova, which was established in Mantua in 1664. While online newspapers have increased access to newspapers by people with Internet access, literacy is also a factor which prevents people who cannot read from being able to benefit from reading newspapers. Periodicity, They are published at intervals, typically daily or weekly. This ensures that newspapers can provide information on newly-emerging news stories or events, currency, Its information is as up to date as its publication schedule allows
Newspaper
–
Front page of
The New York Times on
Armistice Day, 11 November 1918.
Newspaper
–
Journalism
Newspaper
–
Title page of Carolus'
Relation from 1609, the earliest newspaper
Newspaper
–
Diario de Pernambuco, founded in November 1825 is the second oldest circulating newspaper in South America, after
El Peruano, founded in October of that same year.
3.
Berliner (format)
–
Berliner, or midi, is a newspaper format with pages normally measuring about 315 by 470 millimetres. The Berliner format is slightly taller and marginally wider than the tabloid/compact format, the Berliner format is an innovation in press and an alternative to the broadsheet format. The name refers to the city of Berlin, and was contrasted with North German. The French business newspaper Les Échos changed to this format in September 2003, a recent European newspaper to join this trend is Het Financieele Dagblad, the daily Dutch newspaper that is focused on business and financial matters on 26 March 2013. Student publication The University Observer became Irelands first Berliner-sized paper in September 2009, the Independent in London considered adopting this format, but could not afford to buy new presses, it ultimately became a tabloid size. The most recent European newspaper using the format is the UKs post-referendum pop-up The New European, although the daily Berliner Zeitung is occasionally called simply Berliner, it is not printed in Berliner format. The majority of the national quality dailies use the larger broadsheet format known as nordisch, the daily Journal and Courier in Lafayette, Indiana, began using Berliner format for its daily edition on 31 July 2006. It was the first newspaper in North America to be produced in this format, the Chronicle in Laurel, Mississippi, which began publication in April 2012 uses the Berliner layout. The Bucks County Herald in Lahaska, Pennsylvania, began using Berliner format in 2009, major papers such as the Chicago Tribune and The Cincinnati Enquirer have tested the format. Since then, numerous newspapers throughout the United States and Canada have adopted a page format similar to Berliner. In some instances, only the width has changed from the broadsheet page. For example, the New York Times used a 22-inch tall by 13. 5-inch wide page and it still refers to itself as a broadsheet, even though its size is closer to Berliner. In Nepal, the Nepali Times became the first and the newspaper using this format. In Pakistan, the English daily Pakistan Today is published in the Berliner format, the Israeli newspaper Haaretz has been published in this format since 18 February 2007. Though very rarely used in Metropolitan Manila, the Berliner is the most popular format in the Philippines, in the Ilocandia, some of the well-known names are the Zigzag Weekly, the Northern Dispatch—commonly called as Nordis—and the Northern Philippine Times. In the Visayas, the Panay News also uses this format, though not published for commercial purposes, the official publication of the Caritas Manila uses a slightly narrower Berliner format. In March 2009, South Koreas JoongAng Ilbo adopted the Berliner format, also in the same month, Turkeys Gazete Habertürk and Zaman adopted a variation of this format as 350 by 500 mm and become two of the first Turkish newspaper to do so. The format is called Ciner format in Turkey because it is unique, on 1 June 2012, the UAEs leading English language newspaper, Gulf News, adopted the Berliner format, the first ever in the Middle East
Berliner (format)
–
Comparison of some newspaper sizes with metric paper sizes. Approximate nominal dimensions are in millimetres.
4.
Communist
–
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
Communist
–
Vladimir Lenin after his return to
Petrograd
Communist
–
USSR postage stamp depicting the states ruled by self-proclaimed communist parties, launching the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik 1
Communist
–
A demonstration of the
Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Moscow, December 2011
5.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
6.
List of newspapers in France
–
Below is a list of newspapers in France. Paris Newspapers and the American Civil War, Press and politics in pre-revolutionary France Chalaby, Jean K. Twenty years of contrast, The French and British press during the inter-war period, european Journal of Sociology 37.01, 143-159. The government and the press in France, 1814-1881 Collins, Ross F. and E. M. Palmegiano. The Rise of Western Journalism 1815-1914, Essays on the Press in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, the Failings of Popular News Censorship in Nineteenth-Century France. La Feuille villageoise, the Revolutionary Press, and the Question of Rural Political Participation, columbia Journalism Review 18.1, 58-61 Freiberg, J. W. The French press, class, state, and ideology Goldstein, the newspaper press in the French Revolution (Taylor & Francis,19880 Isser, Natalie. The national daily press of France, 370pp Trinkle, Dennis A, the Napoleonic press, the public sphere and oppositionary journalism Weigle, Clifford. The Paris Press from 1920 to 1940 Journalism Quarterly 18, 376-84, the Rise and Fall of the Havas News Agency Journalism Quarterly 19, 277-86 Williams, Roger Lawrence. Henri Rochefort, prince of the gutter press Zerner, Elisabeth H
List of newspapers in France
–
This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (September 2012) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
7.
French Communist Party
–
The French Communist Party is a communist party in France. Although its electoral support has declined in recent decades, the PCF retains an influence in French politics. In 2012, the PCF claimed 138,000 members including 70,000 who have paid their membership fees and this would make it the third largest party in France in terms of membership after the Republicans and the Socialist Party. It was also once the largest French left-wing party in a number of elections, from 1945 to 1960. The PCF has lost further ground to the Socialists since that time, since 2009 the PCF has been a leading member of the Left Front, alongside Jean-Luc Mélenchons Left Party. The PCF is a member of the Party of the European Left, the new SFIC defined itself as revolutionary and democratic centralist. The 1920s saw a number of splits within the party over relations with other left-wing parties, the party entered the French parliament, but also promoted strike action and opposed colonialism. Pierre Sémard, leader from 1924 to 1928, sought party unity and alliances with other parties, with the rise of Fascism after 1934 the PCF supported the Popular Front, which came to power under Léon Blum in 1936. The party supported the Spanish Republicans, and opposed the 1938 Munich agreement with Hitler, PCFs Members of Parliament vote declaration of war against Germany in 1939. But the party was banned after German–Soviet Non-aggression Pact by the government of Édouard Daladier, the leadership, threatened with execution, fled abroad. After the German invasion of 1940 the party began to organise opposition to the occupation, at the same time the PCF began to work with de Gaulles Free France government in exile, and later took part in the National Council of the Resistance. By the time the German occupation ended in 1944, the party had become a force in many parts of France. It was among the parties in elections in 1945 and 1946, and entered into the governing Tripartite alliance. However, amid concerns within France and abroad over the extent of communist influence, under pressure from Moscow, the PCF thereafter distanced itself from other parties and focussed on agitation within its trade union base. For the rest of the Fourth Republic period the PCF, led by Thorez and Jacques Duclos, remained isolated, still taking a Stalinist line. Although the PCF opposed de Gaulles formation of the Fifth Republic in 1958, the years saw a rapprochement with other left-wing forces. With Waldeck Rochet as its new secretary-general, the party supported François Mitterrands unsuccessful presidential bid in 1965, during the student riots and strikes of May 1968, the party supported the strikes while denouncing the revolutionary student movements. Under the Common Programme, however, the PCF steadily lost ground to the PS, initially allotted a minor share in Mitterrands government, the PCF resigned in 1984 as the government turned towards fiscal orthodoxy
French Communist Party
–
PCF rallying for a 6th republic, 2012 in Paris
French Communist Party
–
French Communist Party Parti communiste français
8.
Le Bourget
–
Le Bourget is a commune in the northeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 10.6 km from the center of Paris, the commune features Le Bourget Airport, which in turn hosts the Musée de lAir et de lEspace. A very small part of Le Bourget Airport lies on the territory of the commune of Le Bourget, most of the airport lies on the territory of the communes of Dugny, Bonneuil-en-France, and Gonesse. The Bureau dEnquêtes et dAnalyses pour la Sécurité de lAviation civile is also headquartered on the airport grounds, Le Bourget has been twinned with Amityville, New York since 1979 and Zhukovsky in Russia. Le Bourget is served by Le Bourget station on Paris RER line B, there is also an extensive freight rail yard with international traffic to Belgium, among others. The town is served by two major Highways, A1 autoroute in the north of the town, and A86 autoroute in the south of the city. Those two highways ensure a connection to major Paris Region hubs like La Defense, Bobigny, Roissy Charles de Gaulle Airport. Paris–Le Bourget Airport is the first business flights airport in Europe and it connects with 800 destinations in Europe The world-renowned Gagosian Gallery is located in Le Bourget airport area. Le Bourget houses the Crèche intercommunale Maryse Bastié, an intercommunal daycare, École maternelle Saint-Exupéry is the sole maternelle public nursery school in Le Bourget, while École primaire Louis Blériot is the sole élémentaire- only public school in Le Bourget. Two municipal schools, Groupe scolaire Jean Jaurès and Groupe scolaire Jean Mermoz, collège Didier Daurat is the sole municipal collège. There is one high school, Lycée Germaine Tillion. Institution Privée Sainte-Marie, serving the maternelle, élémentaire and collège levels, is the private school in Le Bourget. The 350-square-metre Le Bourget Public Library has 45,000 books and it is located within the Urban Community of Le Bourget Airport. Communes of the Seine-Saint-Denis department Citations Bibliography INSEE Commune of Le Bourget
Le Bourget
–
The town hall of Le Bourget
Le Bourget
–
Le Bourget Airport
Le Bourget
–
Building 153, the head office of the
Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile (BEA) at Le Bourget Airport
9.
Aubervilliers
–
Aubervilliers is a French commune in the Seine-Saint-Denis department in the Île-de-France region in the north-eastern suburbs of Paris, France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Albertivillariens or Albertivillariennes, Aubervilliers is one of three communes in the Plaine Saint-Denis,7.2 km north-east of the centre of Paris. The Canal Saint-Denis traverses the commune on the side from north to south. The Paris ring road is just outside the border of the commune. These roads provide access to the network of roads and motorways around Paris as well as Le Bourget. The Canal Saint-Denis once had important river ports and there was the Paris-Hirson railway, the RER railway passes through the north of the commune and the station of Corneuve-Aubervilliers, located just north of the commune on the N301 road, serves Aubervilliers. Ligne 3b of the Île-de-France tramway since 15 December 2012 with the opening of the Porte dAubervilliers located in the Paris area near the commune, the town is mentioned in the Latinised form Albertivillare in 1059. It is from this that the inhabitants are known as Albertivillarien, the place name of -villiers is a characteristic appellative for agricultural domains in the Merovingian and Carolingian periods. The first part is the Germanic personal name Adalbertus from which are derived the names Albert and Aubert and it is homonymous with a hamlet in Seine-et-Marne, Aubervilliers, and Auberville in Normandy. As with many communes in the suburbs the town had long been a rural area. Formerly known as Notre-Dame-des-Vertus, the village was on a plain which produced the best vegetables around Paris, Aubervilliers first appears in the archives in 1059 as Albertivillare, meaning estate of Adalbert. In the following year Henry I donated it to the Priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs, in 1111 the serfs were freed in Aubervilliers. In 1182 the priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs, located in Paris, granted Paris butchers the right to graze their cattle in the fields after the harvest was over. In 1221, Guillaume Bateste, lord of Franconville, became the first Lord of Vivier les Aubervilliers. The church, which at the beginning of the 13th century depended on one of the parishes of Saint Denis, in 1338 King Philip VI of France and his queen went to Aubervilliers to visit the image. From 1340 to 1792 people went there in each year from Paris. In 1402 Michel de Laillier, Lord of Ermenonville, became Lord of Vivier les Aubervilliers, in 1429 the town was occupied by the English but was retaken by Michel de Laillier in 1436. Louis XI went there in November 1474 to the house of Pierre L’Orfèvre, the image of the Virgin in lead that the king wore on his hat was a representation of the one at Aubervilliers
Aubervilliers
–
The square was once served by numerous
tramways. The AR line (Aubervilliers -
République), the Compagnie des tramways de Paris et du département de la Seine (TPDS) line and many others once terminated here...
Aubervilliers
Aubervilliers
–
...as well as an electric Imperial tram from TPDS which circulated on the
Place de la République -
Gare de l'Est - Parisian cemetery - Quatre Chemins - Aubervilliers line.
Aubervilliers
–
The Canal Saint-Denis at Aubervilliers
10.
Louis Aragon
–
Louis Aragon was a French poet, who was one of the leading voices of the surrealist movement in France, who co-founded with André Breton and Philippe Soupault the surrealist review Littérature. He was also a novelist and editor, a member of the Communist Party. Louis Aragon was born in Paris and he was raised by his mother and maternal grandmother, believing them to be his sister and foster mother, respectively. His biological father, Louis Andrieux, a senator for Forcalquier, was married and thirty years older than Aragons mother. Aragons mother passed Andrieux off to her son as his godfather, Aragon was only told the truth at the age of 19, as he was leaving to serve in the First World War, from which neither he nor his parents believed he would return. Andrieuxs refusal or inability to recognize his son would influence Aragons poetry later on, having been involved in Dadaism from 1919 to 1924, he became a founding member of Surrealism in 1924, with André Breton and Philippe Soupault under the pen-name Aragon. In the 1920s, Aragon became a traveller of the French Communist Party along with several other surrealists. In 1933 he began to write for the newspaper, LHumanité. He would remain a member for the rest of his life, writing political poems including one to Maurice Thorez. Aragon became a member of the committee of the Commune journal in January 1937, along with André Gide, Romain Rolland. The journal then took the name of French literary review for the defence of culture, with Gides withdrawal in August 1937, Vaillant-Couturiers death in autumn 1937 and Romain Rollands old age, Aragon became its effective director. In December 1938, he called as chief editor the young writer Jacques Decour, the Commune journal was strongly involved in the mobilization of French intellectuals in favor of the Spanish Republic. In March 1937, Aragon was called on by the PCF to head the new evening daily, Ce soir, Ce soir attempted to compete with Paris-Soir. Outlawed in August 1939, Ce soir was re-opened after the Liberation, the newspaper, which counted Emile Danoën among its collaborators, closed in March 1953. In 1939 he married Russian-born author Elsa Triolet, the sister of Lilya Brik and he had met her in 1928, and she became his muse starting in the 1940s. Aragon and Triolet collaborated in the left-wing French media before and during World War II, Aragon was mobilized in 1939, and awarded the Croix de guerre and the military medal for acts of bravery. After the May 1940 defeat, he took refuge in the Southern Zone, Otto Abetz was the German governor, and produced a series of black lists of authors forbidden to be read, circulated or sold in Nazi Occupied France. These included anything written by a Jew, a communist, an Anglo-Saxon or anyone else who was anti-Germanic or anti-fascist, Aragon and André Malraux were both on these Otto Lists of forbidden authors
Louis Aragon
–
Louis Aragon
11.
Popular Front (France)
–
Blums government implemented various social reforms. All employees were assured a two-week paid vacation, and the rights of unions were strengthened, the socialist movements euphoria was apparent in SFIO member Marceau Piverts Tout est possible. However, the continued to stall, by 1938 production still had not recovered to 1929 levels. Blum was forced to stop his reforms and devalue the franc, with the French Senate controlled by conservatives, Blum, and thus the whole Popular Front, fell out of power in June 1937. Blum was then replaced by Camille Chautemps, a Radical, but Blum came back as President of the Council in March 1938, before being succeeded by Édouard Daladier, another Radical, the next month. After one year of activity, it lost its spirit by June 1937. The Socialists were forced out, only the Radicals were left and it failed to live up to the expectations of the left. The workers did gain new rights, but their 48 percent increase in wages was offset by a 46 percent rise in prices. Unemployment remained high, and overall production was stagnant. France joined other nations and refused to help the Spanish Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, the refusal bitterly disappointed the French Left. The idea of a Popular Front came from two directions, first, the view, following the 6 February 1934 riots, that the far-right had tried to organize a coup détat against the Republic. Thus, both the consequences of the 1934 riots, which had removed the second Cartel des gauches from power, the Radicals were at the time the largest party in the Chamber, governing throughout most of the Third Republic. The first Popular Front cabinet consisted of 20 Socialists,13 Radicals, through the 1936 Matignon Accords, the Popular Front government introduced new labor laws. Ensured that there would be no retaliation against strikers, the government sought to carry out its reforms as rapidly as possible. On 11 June, the Chamber of Deputies voted for the forty-hour workweek, the restoration of civil servants salaries, the Senate voted in favour of these laws within a week. The Blum administration democratised the Bank of France by enabling all shareholders to attend meetings, other measures carried out by the Popular Front government improved the pay, pensions, allowances and tax-obligations of public-sector workers and ex-servicemen. The 1920 Sales Tax, opposed by the Left as a tax on consumers, was abolished and replaced by a production tax, which was considered to be a tax on the producer instead of the consumer. The government also made some changes to the civil service, such as a new director-general for the Paris police
Popular Front (France)
–
general election of 3 May 1936
12.
Liberation of Paris
–
The Liberation of Paris was a military action that took place during World War II from 19 August 1944 until the German garrison surrendered the French capital on 25 August 1944. Paris had been ruled by Nazi Germany since the signing of the Second Compiègne Armistice on 22 June 1940, after which the Wehrmacht occupied northern and western France. On the night of 24 August, elements of General Philippe Leclercs 2nd French Armored Division, made its way into Paris, the next morning,25 August, the bulk of the 2nd Armored Division and US 4th Infantry Division entered the city. Although the Allied strategy emphasized destroying German forces retreating towards the Rhine, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Commander of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force, did not consider the liberation of Paris to be a primary objective. The goal of the U. S. and British Army was to destroy the German forces, and therefore end World War II in Europe, General Eisenhower stated that it was too early for an assault on Paris. He was aware that Adolf Hitler had ordered the German military to completely destroy Paris should the Allies attack, Paris was considered to have too great a value, culturally and historically, to risk its destruction. General Eisenhower was keen to avoid a battle of attrition. Basic utilities would have to be restored, and transportation systems rebuilt, all of these supplies were desperately needed in other areas of the war effort. General Charles de Gaulle of the French Army threatened to order the French 2nd Armored Division to attack Paris and that same day, employees of the Paris Métro, the Gendarmerie, and police went on strike, postal workers followed the next day. They were soon joined by workers across the city, causing a general strike to break out on 18 August, on 16 August,35 young FFI members were betrayed by an agent of the Gestapo. They had gone to a meeting near the grande cascade in the Bois de Boulogne. There, they were executed by German machine-guns and then finished off with hand grenades, when Choltitz told them that he intended to slow the Allied advance as much as possible, Taittinger and Raoul Nordling attempted to persuade Choltitz not to destroy Paris. All over France, from the BBC and the Radiodiffusion nationale, on 19 August, continuing their retreat eastwards, columns of German vehicles moved down the Champs Élysées. Posters calling citizens to arm had previously been pasted on walls by FFI members, other posters assured that victory is near and promised chastisement for the traitors, i. e. Vichy loyalists, and collaborators. Then, the first skirmishes between the French and the German occupiers began, during the fighting, small mobile units of the Red Cross moved into the city to assist the French and Germans who were wounded. That same day in Pantin, a filled with mines exploded and destroyed the Great Windmills. On 20 August, as began to appear, Resistance fighters organized themselves to sustain a siege. Trucks were positioned, trees cut down, and trenches were dug in the pavement to free paving stones for consolidating the barricades and these materials were transported by men, women, and children using wooden carts
Liberation of Paris
–
Parisians line the
Champs Élysées as
French 2e DB tanks and
half tracks roll down the avenue from the
Arc de Triomphe toward
Place de la Concorde on 26 August
Liberation of Paris
–
A truck painted with the marks of the
FFI and the V for Victory
Liberation of Paris
–
German high-ranking officers at the
Hôtel Majestic, headquarters for the Militärbefehlshaber in Frankreich, the German High Military Command in France. They requested to be made prisoners only by the military and surrendered to Battalion Chief
Jacques Massu of the 2e DB.
Liberation of Paris
–
American soldiers look at the
French tricolour flying from the Eiffel Tower
13.
Socialist Party (France)
–
The Socialist Party is a social-democratic political party in France, and the largest party of the French centre-left. The PS is one of the two major political parties in France, along with the Republicans. The Socialist Party replaced the earlier French Section of the Workers International in 1969, the PS is a member of the Party of European Socialists, the Socialist International and the Progressive Alliance. The PS first won power in 1981, when its candidate François Mitterrand was elected President of France in the 1981 presidential election, under Mitterrand, the party achieved a governing majority in the National Assembly from 1981 to 1986 and again from 1988 to 1993. In 2007, the candidate for the presidential election, Ségolène Royal, was defeated by conservative UMP candidate Nicolas Sarkozy. Then, the Socialist party won most of regional and local elections, in 2016, the party had 42,300 members. In 2014, the party had 60,000 members, in 2012 the party had 173,486 members. The defeat of the Paris commune greatly reduced the power and influence of socialist movements in France and its leaders were killed or exiled. Frances first socialist party, the Federation of the Socialist Workers of France, was founded in 1879 and it was characterised as possibilist because it promoted gradual reforms. Two parties split off from it, in 1882, the French Workers Party of Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, at the same time, the heirs of Louis Auguste Blanqui, a symbol of the French revolutionary tradition, created the Central Revolutionary Committee led by Édouard Vaillant. There were also some declared socialist deputies such as Alexandre Millerand, in 1899, the participation of Millerand in Pierre Waldeck-Rousseaus cabinet caused a debate about socialist participation in a bourgeois government. In 1905, during the Globe Congress, the two merged in the French Section of the Workers International. Leader of the group and director of the party paper LHumanité. The party was hemmed in between the liberals of the Radical Party and the revolutionary syndicalists who dominated the trade unions. Together with the Radicals, who wished to install laicism, the SFIO was a component of the Left Block without to sit in the government, in 1906, the General Confederation of Labour trade union claimed its independence from all political parties. The French socialists were strongly anti-war, but following the assassination of Jaurès in 1914 they were unable to resist the wave of militarism which followed the outbreak of World War I and they suffered a severe split over participation in the wartime government of national unity. In 1919 the anti-war socialists were heavily defeated in elections, the right wing, led by Léon Blum, kept the old house and remained in the SFIO. In 1924 and in 1932, the Socialists joined with the Radicals in the Coalition of the Left, the question of the possibility of a government participation with Radicals caused the split of neosocialists at the beginning of the 1930s
Socialist Party (France)
–
From left to right:
Dominique Strauss-Kahn,
Bertrand Delanoë and
Ségolène Royal sitting in the front row at a meeting held on 6 Feb 2007 by the French Socialist Party at the Carpentier Hall in Paris.
Socialist Party (France)
–
Socialist Party Parti socialiste
14.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
15.
TF1
–
TF1 is a private national French TV channel, controlled by TF1 Group, whose major share-holder is Bouygues. TF1s average market share of 24% makes it the most popular domestic network and its also considered to be the most viewed television channel in Europe. Flagship series include CSI, The Voice and House M. D, the channel is part of the TF1 Group of mass media companies, which also includes the news channel LCI and a 49% stake in pan-European sports network Eurosport. Together with France Télévisions, TF1 co-managed the international French news channel France 24 but has sold its share. TF1 had possessed the satellite-network TPS, which have sold to the Canal+ Group. Radio-PTT Vision began operations on 26 April 1935 as the first television station in France, using a 30-line mechanical television system based on the Nipkow disk. On 4 January 1937 the broadcasting hours were changed such that television programmes were aired from 5 pm until 10 pm Wednesdays to Fridays, however, broadcasts using the Nipkow disk system continued alongside the new electronic system until 10 April 1938. In July 1938, a decree of the French PTT agency fixed the French broadcast television standard as transmitting on 455 lines VHF, the adoption of the electronic standard marked the end of mechanical television in France, and the advent of electronic television to obtain much better image quality. RN Télévision abruptly stopped broadcasts on 3 September 1939 following the entry of France into the Second World War, television broadcasts resumed in occupied France on 7 May 1943 as Fernsehsender Paris, under the control of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht. It was on air in German and French four days a week from 10 am to noon, Fernsehsender Paris stopped broadcasts on 12 August 1944, one week before the liberation of Paris. On 20 November 1948, the Secretary of State for Information, François Mitterrand decreed the adoption of the 819-line high-definition VHF standard, radiodiffusion française was renamed as Radiodiffusion-télévision française on 9 February 1949, and thus began the growth of television as an accepted mass medium in France. On 29 May 1949 the first news programme aired on RTF TV and this period marked the introduction of commercial advertising on Première chaîne de lORTF which began on 1 October 1968. On 8 January 1969, the ORTF created a company called Régie française de publicité to handle all advertising on the ORTF channels. TF1, was created on 1 January 1975 when law no 74-6967 August 1974 came into effect, commissaire Cordier, R. I. S Police scientifique, Les Cordier, juge et flic, Extrême limite, La Vie devant nous, Joséphine, ange gardien. Some commentators accuse TF1 of being an excessively populist, commercialised channel, certainly, a large proportion of the schedule consists of gameshows, sensational documentaries and dubbed versions of TV series. The channels news service is perceived as consisting of more celebrity news, on 16 April 2009, the employee responsible for the Web innovation department was fired for criticizing the HADOPI law in a private email sent to a Member of Parliament. The management of TF1 was notified about the e-mail by the Ministry for Culture and Communication, what we sell to Coca-Cola is available human brain time. Nothing is more difficult than obtaining this availability and this is where permanent change is located
TF1
–
July 25, 1964 - January 5, 1975
16.
Bouygues
–
Bouygues S. A. is an industrial group headquartered in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, France. Bouygues is listed on Euronext Paris exchange and is a chip in the CAC40 stock market index. The company was founded in 1952 by Francis Bouygues and since 1989 has been led by his son Martin Bouygues, in 2015 it had over approximately 120,000 employees in 100 countries, generating €32.428 billion in revenue. The group specialises in construction, real development, media. The company was founded by Francis Bouygues in 1952, in 1970 Bouygues became listed on the Paris Stock Exchange. In 1985 and 1986 Bouygues acquired road construction groups Screg, Sacer and Colas, in 1987 the company started operating the television channel TF1 and in 1988 Bouygues moved into its new head office, the Challenger complex, in Saint-Quentin en Yvelines. In 1996 the company launched Bouygues Télécom and in 2006 the company acquired 23. 26% of Alstom, TF1 also owns 100% of Publications Metro France, a free-distribution press group. Construction of the Iqaluit Airport terminal with a completion date of 2017. The Kipchak Mosque completed in 2004, the Singapore Sports Hub completed in 2014 The Bouygues head office is located at 32 Avenue Hoche in the 8th arrondissement of Paris. The American architect Kevin Roche worked on building, as well as the previous head office location. This complex, situated in a 30 hectares tract in Guyancourt, is now occupied by Bouygues Construction, Bouygues focuses its patronage on education, social issues and medical research. Each subsidiary supports its own foundation, The Francis Bouygues Foundation sponsors deserving high school students with a scholarship, terre Plurielle, Bouygues Construction’s foundation, grants financial support to projects selected by employees. These projects concern access to health, education, and the insertion of people facing major difficulties. The Bouygues Immobilier Corporate Foundation created in 2009 aims at raising awareness about the need of sustainable construction, the Colas Foundation supports contemporary arts through the acquisition of paintings. The TF1 Foundation helps young talents from underprivileged neighbourhoods to succeed in the broadcasting sector, the Bouygues Telecom Foundation is committed to environmental protection, helping people in social or medical difficulty, and promoting the French language. Official website Bouygues Telecom Bouygues Construction Bouygues Immobilier Colas Offizieller TF1 Dominique Barjot, Bouygues, 1952-1989, From the building industry to the service sector, www. econ. upf
Bouygues
–
Bouygues head office, avenue Hoche
Bouygues
–
Bouygues S.A.
17.
Hachette (publishing)
–
Hachette, French pronunciation, , is a French publisher. It was founded in 1826 by Louis Hachette as Brédif, a bookshop and it became L. Hachette et Compagnie on 1 January 1846, Librairie Hachette in 1919, and Hachette SA in 1977. It was acquired by the Lagardère Group in 1981, in 1992 the publishing assets of Hachette SA were grouped into a subsidiary called Hachette Livre, the flagship imprint of Lagardère Publishing. Hachette has its headquarters in the 15th arrondissement of Paris, in 1996 it merged with the Hatier group. In 2004, Hachette acquired dictionary publisher Éditions Larousse, in 2006, it expanded into the United States when it purchased Time Warners book-publishing division, which was then renamed Hachette Book Group USA. In June 2013, Hachette announced that it would acquire Hyperion Books from Disney and it is one of the largest English-language publishers, known as the Big Five. In May 2014, Amazon. com stopped taking pre-order sales of Hachette books, citing a breakdown in negotiations over commission and ebook pricing. According to Hachette, Amazon had also stopped discounting its books, Hachette has its headquarters in the Beaugrenelle district in the 15th arrondissement of Paris. Hachettes head office previously occupied a building at the intersection of Saint-Germain and it later moved to its current location. Hachette planned to lease 9,900 square metres of space at a building in Malakoff, Hauts de Seine around 2011, in June 2014, the companys U. S. Financial details of the deal were not disclosed, however, in August 2014, the deal was called off because Hachette and the other parties involved decided the deal was too complicated
Hachette (publishing)
–
Hachette head office, 43 quai de Grenelle, Paris 15th arr.
18.
Right-wing politics
–
Hierarchy and inequality may be viewed as natural results of traditional social differences or the competition in market economies. The term right-wing can generally refer to the conservative or reactionary section of a party or system. The original Right in France was formed as a reaction against the Left, and comprised those politicians supporting hierarchy, tradition, the use of the expression la droite became prominent in France after the restoration of the monarchy in 1815, when it was applied to the Ultra-royalists. The people of English-speaking countries did not apply the terms right, from the 1830s to the 1880s, there was a shift in the Western world of social class structure and the economy, moving away from nobility and aristocracy towards capitalism. This general economic shift toward capitalism affected centre right movements such as the British Conservative Party, in the United States, the Right includes both economic and social conservatives. The nobility, members of the Second Estate, generally sat to the right, in the successive legislative assemblies, monarchists who supported the Ancien Régime were commonly referred to as rightists because they sat on the right side. A major figure on the right was Joseph de Maistre, who argued for a form of conservatism. Throughout the 19th century, the line dividing Left and Right in France was between supporters of the republic and supporters of the monarchy. In British politics, the right and left came into common use for the first time in the late 1930s in debates over the Spanish Civil War. The meaning of right-wing varies across societies, historical epochs, and political systems, according to The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, in liberal democracies, the political Right opposes socialism and social democracy. Right-wing parties include conservatives, Christian democrats, classical liberals, nationalists and, on the far Right, Roger Eatwell and Neal OSullivan divide the Right into five types, reactionary, moderate, radical, extreme, and new. Chip Berlet argues that each of these styles of thought are responses to the left, including liberalism and socialism, the reactionary right looks toward the past and is aristocratic, religious and authoritarian. Often the moderate right promotes nationalism and social welfare policies, radical right is a term developed after World War II to describe groups and ideologies such as McCarthyism, the John Birch Society, Thatcherism, and the Republikaner Party. Eatwell stresses that use has major typological problems and that the term has also been applied to clearly democratic developments. The radical right includes right-wing populism and various other subtypes, Eatwell argues that the extreme right has four traits, 1) anti-democracy, 2) nationalism, 3) racism, and 4) the strong state. The New Right consists of the conservatives, who stress small government, free markets. Other authors make a distinction between the centre-right and the far right, parties of the centre-right generally support liberal democracy, capitalism, the market economy, private property rights, and a limited welfare state. They support conservatism and economic liberalism, and oppose socialism and communism, typical examples of leaders to whom the far right label is often applied are Francisco Franco in Spain and Augusto Pinochet in Chile
Right-wing politics
–
5 May 1789: Opening of the Estates-General in Versailles in 1789; the conservatives sat on the right
19.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
20.
JSTOR
–
JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
JSTOR
–
The JSTOR front page
21.
Radio France Internationale
–
Radio France Internationale generally referred to by its acronym RFI, is a French public radio service that broadcasts in Paris and all over the world. With 35.6 million listeners in 2008, it is one of the most listened to radio stations in the world, along with BBC World Service, Voice of America. RFI broadcasts 24 hours per day across the world in French and in 12 other languages in FM, shortwave, medium wave, cable, on Worldspace and it is a channel of the state company, France Médias Monde. In 1986 the French Parliament changed the law to allow RFI to operate independently of Radio France, RFI operates under the auspices and primary budget of the French Minister of Foreign Affairs. It broadcasts primarily in French, but also in English, Swahili, Hausa, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Persian, Chinese, Vietnamese, Cambodian and as of 2015, Manding. It also owns Monte Carlo Doualiya, which produces Arabic programmes in Paris, one of the largest foreign language services is the English Service, aimed mainly at Africa, but can also be heard in Jamaica. RFI broadcasts for four hours every morning, all of RFIs English broadcasts are available online and for download on the English service website. On September 17,2002, Togolese President Gnassingbé Eyadéma tried to stop the broadcasting of an interview one of his opponents, Agbéyomé Kodjo. The interview was not censored by Jean-Paul Cluzel, RFIs CEO at the time, on 21 October 2003, Jean Hélène was reporting for RFI during the civil war in Ivory Coast when he was killed in Abidjan by police Sergeant Théodore Séry Dago. On 2 November 2013, RFI reporting team Ghislaine Dupont and Claude Verlon were murdered while covering the Mali elections, the United Nations set their death date to commemorate the International Day of Impunity each year. RFI offers a daily podcast in simple French, accessible via iTunes, there are also several other podcasts including the weekly Afrique Presse which is hosted by Assane Diop and discusses the most important news in Africa that week. RFI uses 2 domestic shortwave relay stations in France, and one shortwave station in French Guyana. All the stations are owned and operated by the French telecom entity TDF, all RFI transmitters are fairly universally 500 kW, but some 250 kW are used in French Guyana. The technology used by Frances domestic SW relay stations is ALLISS at Issoudun, the TDF relay station in French Guyana uses standard HRS type antennas. ALLISS is an antenna system for high power shortwave radio broadcasting
Radio France Internationale
–
Radio France internationale
22.
Gallica
–
The Bibliothèque nationale de France is the National Library of France, located in Paris. It is the repository of all that is published in France. The current president of the library is Laurence Engel, the National Library of France traces its origin to the royal library founded at the Louvre Palace by Charles V in 1368. Charles had received a collection of manuscripts from his predecessor, John II, the first librarian of record was Claude Mallet, the kings valet de chambre, who made a sort of catalogue, Inventoire des Livres du Roy nostre Seigneur estans au Chastel du Louvre. Jean Blanchet made another list in 1380 and Jean de Bégue one in 1411, Charles V was a patron of learning and encouraged the making and collection of books. It is known that he employed Nicholas Oresme, Raoul de Presle, at the death of Charles VI, this first collection was unilaterally bought by the English regent of France, the Duke of Bedford, who transferred it to England in 1424. It was apparently dispersed at his death in 1435, Charles VII did little to repair the loss of these books, but the invention of printing resulted in the starting of another collection in the Louvre inherited by Louis XI in 1461. Charles VIII seized a part of the collection of the kings of Aragon, Louis XII, who had inherited the library at Blois, incorporated the latter into the Bibliothèque du Roi and further enriched it with the Gruthuyse collection and with plunder from Milan. Francis I transferred the collection in 1534 to Fontainebleau and merged it with his private library, during his reign, fine bindings became the craze and many of the books added by him and Henry II are masterpieces of the binders art. Under librarianship of Amyot, the collection was transferred to Paris during which many treasures were lost. Henry IV again moved it to the Collège de Clermont and in 1604 it was housed in the Rue de la Harpe, the appointment of Jacques Auguste de Thou as librarian initiated a period of development that made it the largest and richest collection of books in the world. He was succeeded by his son who was replaced, when executed for treason, by Jérôme Bignon, under de Thou, the library was enriched by the collections of Queen Catherine de Medici. The library grew rapidly during the reigns of Louis XIII and Louis XIV, due in part to the interest of the Minister of Finance, Colbert. The quarters in the Rue de la Harpe becoming inadequate, the library was moved, in 1666. The minister Louvois took quite as much interest in the library as Colbert, the death of Louvois, however, prevented the realization of this plan. Louvois employed Mabillon, Thévenot and others to procure books from every source, in 1688 a catalogue in eight volumes was compiled. The library opened to the public in 1692, under the administration of Abbé Louvois, Abbé Louvois was succeeded by the Abbé Bignon, or Bignon II as he was termed, who instituted a complete reform of the librarys system. Catalogues were made which appeared from 1739–53 in 11 volumes, the librarys collections swelled to over 300,000 volumes during the radical phase of the French Revolution when the private libraries of aristocrats and clergy were seized
Gallica
–
Reading Room, Richelieu site
Gallica
–
Bibliothèque nationale de France (National Library of France)
23.
BnF
–
The Bibliothèque nationale de France is the National Library of France, located in Paris. It is the repository of all that is published in France. The current president of the library is Laurence Engel, the National Library of France traces its origin to the royal library founded at the Louvre Palace by Charles V in 1368. Charles had received a collection of manuscripts from his predecessor, John II, the first librarian of record was Claude Mallet, the kings valet de chambre, who made a sort of catalogue, Inventoire des Livres du Roy nostre Seigneur estans au Chastel du Louvre. Jean Blanchet made another list in 1380 and Jean de Bégue one in 1411, Charles V was a patron of learning and encouraged the making and collection of books. It is known that he employed Nicholas Oresme, Raoul de Presle, at the death of Charles VI, this first collection was unilaterally bought by the English regent of France, the Duke of Bedford, who transferred it to England in 1424. It was apparently dispersed at his death in 1435, Charles VII did little to repair the loss of these books, but the invention of printing resulted in the starting of another collection in the Louvre inherited by Louis XI in 1461. Charles VIII seized a part of the collection of the kings of Aragon, Louis XII, who had inherited the library at Blois, incorporated the latter into the Bibliothèque du Roi and further enriched it with the Gruthuyse collection and with plunder from Milan. Francis I transferred the collection in 1534 to Fontainebleau and merged it with his private library, during his reign, fine bindings became the craze and many of the books added by him and Henry II are masterpieces of the binders art. Under librarianship of Amyot, the collection was transferred to Paris during which many treasures were lost. Henry IV again moved it to the Collège de Clermont and in 1604 it was housed in the Rue de la Harpe, the appointment of Jacques Auguste de Thou as librarian initiated a period of development that made it the largest and richest collection of books in the world. He was succeeded by his son who was replaced, when executed for treason, by Jérôme Bignon, under de Thou, the library was enriched by the collections of Queen Catherine de Medici. The library grew rapidly during the reigns of Louis XIII and Louis XIV, due in part to the interest of the Minister of Finance, Colbert. The quarters in the Rue de la Harpe becoming inadequate, the library was moved, in 1666. The minister Louvois took quite as much interest in the library as Colbert, the death of Louvois, however, prevented the realization of this plan. Louvois employed Mabillon, Thévenot and others to procure books from every source, in 1688 a catalogue in eight volumes was compiled. The library opened to the public in 1692, under the administration of Abbé Louvois, Abbé Louvois was succeeded by the Abbé Bignon, or Bignon II as he was termed, who instituted a complete reform of the librarys system. Catalogues were made which appeared from 1739–53 in 11 volumes, the librarys collections swelled to over 300,000 volumes during the radical phase of the French Revolution when the private libraries of aristocrats and clergy were seized
BnF
–
Reading Room, Richelieu site
BnF
–
Bibliothèque nationale de France (National Library of France)
24.
Le Parisien
–
Le Parisien is a French daily newspaper covering both international and national news, and local news of Paris and its suburbs. The newspaper is owned by Éditions Philippe Amaury, the paper was established as Le Parisien libéré by Émilien Amaury in 1944, and was published for the first time on 22 August 1944. The paper was launched as the organ of the French underground during the German occupation of France in World War II. The name was changed to the current one in 1986, a national edition exists, called Aujourdhui en France. Le Parisien had a circulation near to one million copies in the early 1970s, the paper reached a circulation of 659,200 copies on 24 April 1995 the day after the first round of the presidential election. In the period of 1995-1996 the paper had a circulation of 451,159 copies, the combined circulation of Le Parisien was 485,000 copies in 2001. The paper had a circulation of 147,143 copies and a circulation of 360,505 copies in 2002. It was the second largest regional newspaper in France with a circulation of 530,000 copies in 2008, behind Ouest-France. The circulation of Le Parisien was 229,638 copies in 2014, official website Regular French Press Review – Radio France International
Le Parisien
–
Le Parisien
25.
La Croix
–
La Croix is a daily French general-interest Roman Catholic newspaper. It is published in Paris and distributed throughout France, with a circulation of just under 110,000 as of 2009 and it is not explicitly left or right on major political issues, rather adopting the Churchs position. However, La Croix ought not be confused with a religious newspaper—its topics are of general interest, world news and it vigorously advocated for traditional Catholicism while at the same time innovating with the most modern technology and distribution systems. Upon its appearance in 1880, the first version of la Croix was a news magazine. Accordingly, La Croix transitioned into a daily on 16 June 1883, Father Emmanuel dAlzon, the founder of the Assumptionists and the Oblates of the Assumption, started the paper, although its biggest early advocate was Father Vincent-de-Paul Bailly. The founding company was Bonne Presse, which would be called Bayard Presse in 1950, La Croix succeeded in bringing together certain groups of Roman Catholics who were seeking to position themselves outside of party politics and ideologies. At the end of the 19th century, it was the most widely read Roman Catholic publication in France and it gained more readers when it took the lead in attacking Dreyfus as a traitor and stirred up anti-Semitism. The Radical government, under Waldeck-Rousseau, forced the Assumptionists into exile from France, the newspapers publishing house, la Bonne Presse, was purchased by Paul Féron-Vrau, who oversaw operations until the Assumptionists returned to France under the amnesty laws of 1905. For many years, la Croix appeared in two formats, the first was a small-format periodical aimed at popular readership, the second a large-format newspaper aimed at a more intellectual audience. In 1927, Father Leon Merklen having become editor in chief and this was led to the initiative founding Catholic Action and also helped to create a formal link between the Catholic working youth and the French Roman Catholic Church. During the Second World War La Croix moved its editorial offices first to Bordeaux, the paper was shut down comparatively late in the occupation, on 21 June 1944. It would not reappear until February 1945, Father Gabel oversaw the relaunch of the paper. Editor in chief from 1949, he introduced new sections, such as sports, cinema, fashion, on 1 February 1956, La Croix began to appear for the first time without a crucifix as a part of its header. In March 1968, the adopted a tabloid format. In January 1972, the changed its name to la Croix-l’Événement. The choice of the new title was a reflection of the desire to show that the paper was not just a religious paper. The paper has a loyal readership, as expressed by the fact that 87% of its sales are by subscription. To celebrate its centennial in 1983, la Croix-l’Événement took on a newer, more attractive layout, added new sections, Bayard Press is reacting to this with a double strategy
La Croix
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La Croix
La Croix
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For the brand of sparkling water, see
La Croix Sparkling Water.
26.
Le Monde
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Le Monde is a French daily afternoon newspaper founded by Hubert Beuve-Méry and continuously published in Paris since its first edition on 19 December 1944. It is one of the most important and widely respected newspapers in the world and it is one of two French newspapers of record along with Le Figaro, and the main publication of La Vie-Le Monde Group. It reported a circulation of 323,039 copies per issue in 2009. It has had its own website since 19 December 1995, and is often the only French newspaper easily obtainable in non-French-speaking countries and it should not be confused with the monthly publication Le Monde diplomatique, of which Le Monde has 51% ownership, but which is editorially independent. In the 1990s and 2000s, La Vie-Le Monde Group expanded under editor Jean-Marie Colombani with a number of acquisitions. However, its profitability was not sufficient to cover the debt loads it took on to fund this expansion. In June 2010, investors Matthieu Pigasse, Pierre Bergé, in contrast to other world newspapers such as The New York Times, Le Monde was traditionally focused on offering analysis and opinion, as opposed to being a newspaper of record. Hence, it was considered important for the paper to offer maximum coverage of the news than to offer thoughtful interpretation of current events. For instance, on the 10th anniversary of the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, the newspaper directly implicated François Mitterrand, in recent years, however, the paper has established a greater distinction between fact and opinion. Beuve-Méry reportedly demanded total editorial independence as the condition for his taking on the project, in 1981 it backed the election of socialist François Mitterrand on the grounds that alternation of the political party in government would be beneficial to the state. The paper endorsed centre-right candidate Édouard Balladur in the 1995 presidential election and Ségolène Royal, according to the Mitrokhin Archive investigators, Le Monde was the KGBs key outlet for spreading anti-American and pro-Soviet disinformation to the French media. The archive identified two senior Le Monde journalists and several contributors who were used in the operations, michel Legris, a former journalist with the paper, wrote Le Monde tel quil est in 1976. According to him, the journal minimized the atrocities committed by the Cambodian Khmer Rouge and it also accused the paper of dangerously damaging the authority of the French state by having revealed various political scandals. This book remains controversial, but attracted attention and media coverage in France. Following a lawsuit, the authors and the publisher agreed in 2004 not to proceed to any reprinting, Le Monde has been found guilty of defamation for saying that Spanish football club FC Barcelona was connected to a doctor involved in steroid use. The Spanish court fined the newspaper nearly $450,000, in April 2016, a Le Monde reporter was denied visa to visit Algeria as part of the French Prime Minister press convoy to Algeria. Le Monde had previously published names of Algerian officials directly involved with the Panama papers corruption scandal, Le Monde is published around midday, and the date on the masthead is the following days. For instance, the issue released at midday on 15 March shows 16 March on the masthead and it is available on newsstands in France on the day of release, and received by mail subscribers on the masthead date
Le Monde
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First issue on 19 December 1944
27.
Le Figaro
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Le Figaro is a French daily morning newspaper founded in 1826 and published in Paris. The oldest national daily in France, Le Figaro is one of the two French newspapers of record, along with Le Monde, and is one of the most widely respected newspapers in the world. In 2012, the paper had a circulation of 330,952 copies per issue. The paper is published in the format, switching from a broadsheet in 2009. The newspaper is owned by Le Figaro Group, whose publications include TV Magazine and Evene, the companys chairman is Serge Dassault, whose Dassault Group has controlled the paper since 2004. Le Figaro was founded as a weekly in 1826, taking its name and motto from Le Mariage de Figaro. Its motto, from Figaros monologue in the final act, is Sans la liberté de blâmer. In 1833, editor Nestor Roqueplan fought a duel with a Colonel Gallois, who was offended by an article in Le Figaro, albert Wolff, Émile Zola, Alphonse Karr and Jules Claretie were among the papers early contributors. It was published irregularly until 1854, when it was taken over by Hippolyte de Villemessant. In 1866 Le Figaro became a daily newspaper and its first daily edition, that of 16 November 1866, sold 56,000 copies, having highest circulation of any newspaper in France. In 1922, Le Figaro was purchased by perfume millionaire François Coty, abel Faivre did cartoons for the paper. By the start of World War II, Le Figaro had become Frances leading newspaper, after the war it became the voice of the upper middle class, and continues to maintain a conservative position. In 1975, Le Figaro was bought by Robert Hersants Socpresse, in 1999, the Carlyle Group obtained a 40% stake in the paper, which it later sold in March 2002. Dassault owns 80% of the paper, in 2006, Le Figaro was banned in Egypt and Tunisia for publishing articles allegedly insulting Islam. Le Figaro switched to Berliner format in 2009, the paper has published The New York Times International Weekly on Friday since 2009, an 8-page supplement featuring a selection of articles from The New York Times translated into French. In 2010, Lefigaro. fr created a section called Le Figaro in English, Le Figaro has traditionally held a conservative editorial stance, becoming the voice of the French upper and middle classes. His son Olivier Dassault is a member of the French National Assembly, Dassault has remarked in an interview in 2004 on the public radio station France Inter that newspapers must promulgate healthy ideas and that left-wing ideas are not healthy ideas. They requested more pluralism and honesty and accused the paper of one-sided political reporting, mougeotte had previously said that Le Figaro would do nothing to embarrass the government and the right
Le Figaro
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Front page of Le Figaro, August 4, 1914
Le Figaro
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First issue, 15 January 1826
Le Figaro
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Figaro Illustré 01-08-1906
Le Figaro
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Logo during the 1820s
28.
Metro International
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Metro International is a Swedish media company based in Luxembourg that publishes the Metro newspapers. Metro Internationals advertising sales have grown at an annual growth rate of 41 percent since launch of the first newspaper edition in 1995. It is a freesheet, meaning that distribution is free, with revenues thus generated entirely through advertising and this newspaper is primarily intended for commuters who move daily in and out of big cities business areas, mainly during rush hours. The company was founded by Per Andersson and started as a subsidiary of the Modern Times Group along with Viasat Broadcasting and it is now controlled through investment company Kinnevik. The first edition of the newspaper was published as Metro Stockholm, as of 2012, all European editions have been sold, reportedly so that Metro International can focus on Latin America, considered the last growth market for free newspapers. Metro newspaper editions are distributed in high-traffic commuter zones or in public networks, via a combination of self-service racks. Saturday editions are published in Stockholm, Santiago, São Paulo, Metro International launched several editions in Canada during 2000, leading to the creation of several commuter newspaper competitors, such as Sun Medias 24 Hours. The local name of the Metro newspaper editions may vary due to trademark issues, peruvian, Chilean, and Mexican editions are called Publimetro, and the Spanish edition is named Metro Directo. Not all newspapers named Metro are part of the Metro International group, Associated Newspapers publishes another freesheet called Metro in twelve areas around Britain. This UK Metro is not related to Metro International, which used the name Morning News for its freesheet distributed there, however, Metro International and Associated Metro do collaborate on the Dublin Metro Herald newspaper, which they both own a third of, along with The Irish Times. The Dublin Metro newspaper uses the Associated Metro logo and format and it is reported that Metro International has plans to launch a rival free evening newspaper in London. There are also examples of newspapers named Metro that are not part of the Metro International Group. In Belgium, Mass Transit Media, a joint venture of Concentra and Rossel, in California, Metro Silicon Valley is a free weekly newspaper which was founded in 1985. Neither of these newspapers have links to Metro International, Metro was first launched in Stockholm on 13 February 1995. A German-language edition is published in Switzerland by Metro Publication AG under the name Metropol on 31 January 2000 as a competitor to 20 Minuten. The newspaper ceased publication without announcement on 13 February 2002, in 2000, a Spanish edition named Publimetro is published in Buenos Aires, Argentina, with a circulation of 390,000. Facing competition from the free daily La Razón published by Grupo Clarín, a weekly magazine named Metropop starts publication in Hong Kong on 27 April 2006. At the end of 2006, Metro started a dedicated technology paper, Metro Teknik which is distributed weekly to companies, science parks, and technical universities around Sweden
Metro International
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The Dutch Amsterdam Metro from 31 August 2007
Metro International
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Metro newspaper vending boxes in Canada
29.
Ouest-France
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Ouest-France is a daily French newspaper known for its emphasis on both local and national news. The paper is produced in 47 different editions covering events in different French départments within the régions of Brittany, Lower Normandy and its readership has been unaffected by the decline of newspaper reading in France, unlike most other dailies. With 2.5 million daily readers, it is by far the most read newspaper in the world, ahead of French national newspapers Le Figaro. Ouest-France was founded in 1944 by Adolphe Le Goaziou and others following the closure of Ouest-Éclair and it is based in Rennes and Nantes and has a circulation about 792,400, mostly in Brittany. Its editorial line has been strongly pro-European integration from the beginning, influenced by Christian democracy, now MoDem, the paper had a circulation of 773,471 copies in 2001 and 764,731 copies in 2002 with a market share of 14. 41%. The 47 different editions are divided among twelve départements, List of French newspapers Ouest-France website
Ouest-France
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Ouest-France
Ouest-France
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Original Ouest-France building in Rennes
30.
Le Journal du dimanche
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Le Journal du Dimanche is a French weekly newspaper published on Sundays in France. Le Journal du Dimanche was created by Pierre Lazareff in 1948 and he was managing editor of France Soir at that time. The weekly paper belongs to the Lagardère Group through Hachette Filipacchi Médias, the company is also the publisher of the paper which is based in Paris and which is published on Sundays. Le Journal du Dimanche was published in broadsheet format until 1999 when it began to be published in the Berliner format, on 6 March 2011 the paper again changed its format and became published in large tabloid format. In the period of 2001-2002 Le Journal du Dimanche had a circulation of 275,000 copies and its 2009 circulation was 269,000 copies. Between January and December 2010 the paper had a circulation of 257,280 copies, alain Genestar Jean-Claude Maurice between 1999 and December 2005. Jacques Espérandieu between December 2005 and May 2008, christian de Villeneuve between May 2008 and February 2010 Olivier Jay between March 2010 and December 2011 Jerôme Bellay since January 2012 Article on the French Wikipedia
Le Journal du dimanche
31.
Marianne (magazine)
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Marianne is a weekly Paris-based French news magazine. Marianne was created in 1997 by Jean-François Kahn with Maurice Szafran as editorialist, the main shareholder of the company is Robert Assaraf with 49. 4% of the shares. Marianne claims a distribution of 300,000 copies per week, during the period of 2007-2008 the circulation of the magazine was 275,000 copies. It was 264,000 copies in 2010, such aggressive practice rather common in Great Britain and the United States is unusual in France. It was since then made online for free in the magazines website
Marianne (magazine)
32.
Paris Match
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Paris Match is a French-language weekly news magazine. It covers major national and international news along with celebrity lifestyle features, the magazine was started as a news magazine with the name Match in 1938 by the industrialist Jean Prouvost and closed in June 1940. It was relaunched in 1949 with a new name, Paris Match, the magazine temporarily ceased its publication between 18 May and 15 June 1968 upon the call for a strike by the Syndicat du Livre, the French Printers’ Union. In 1976 Daniel Filipacchi purchased the ailing Paris Match, and turned it into one of Frances most successful and it is published weekly and is now part of Hachette Filipacchi Médias, which is itself owned by the Lagardère Group. On occasion, Paris Match has sold more than one million worldwide when covering major events such as the first flight by a French astronaut aboard the U. S. Benoît Clair, a writer for Paris Match, was the first journalist allowed to join the shuttle crew members from training until the departure for the launch pad at Cape Canaveral. A series of reports on the training was published in Paris Match on 22 April 1985,17 June 1985 and 20 January 1986, as of 1996 the magazine had an independent political stance. Paris Match had a circulation of 1,800,000 copies in 1958, the 1988 circulation of the magazine was 873,000 copies, making it the best-selling news weekly in the country. In 2001 the weekly was the tenth largest news magazine worldwide with a circulation of 630,000 copies, Paris Match had a circulation of 656,000 copies during the 2007–2008 period. In 2009 the magazine was the best selling magazine in France with a circulation of 611,000 copies. Its circulation was 578,282 copies in 2014, in Hergés Tintin adventure The Castafiore Emerald, reporters from the imaginary Paris-Flash magazine play a major role in the plots development. The magazine is satirized as sensationalist and inaccurate
Paris Match
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Paris Match
33.
Ludovic-Oscar Frossard
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Ludovic-Oscar Frossard, also known as L. -O. Frossard or Oscar Frossard, was a French socialist and communist politician, on 1 January 1923 Frossard resigned his positions and left the Communist movement over political differences. Following the armistice between France and Nazi Germany, Frossard declined to participate in the Vichy French government headed by Pétain and his position lead to his investigation, trial, and acquittal over accusations of collaborationism following the fall of the Pétain regime. He was born 5 March 1889 in Foussemagne, Territoire de Belfort and his father was a saddlemaker who was dedicated to his sons education and success in life. Following completion of his schooling, Frossard became a schoolteacher, also working as a journalist and he also became involve in Socialist politics, joining the Section française de lInternationale ouvrière, at the time of its formation in 1905. During World War I, Frossard supported the pacifist minority faction of the SFIO, as the bloody conflict ground on without remit, Frossards antiwar perspective became the majority view in the SFIO, leading to his election as Secretary-General of the party in 1918. He would remain in that capacity until the SFIO split into socialist and communist wings at the December 1920 Congress at Tours. Frossard was twice re-elected as the head of the PhD and was endorsed both at its 2nd Congress at Marseilles in December 1921 and its 3rd Congress at Paris in October 1922. As the Comintern developed, Frossard came into disagreement with several of its policies, which brought him into conflict. Although he did not attend the 4th World Congress of the Comintern in November 1922, he was elected a member of ECCI at that gathering. Frossards dissatisfaction with the Comintern remained, however, and on 1 January 1923 and he initially attempted to form a dissident Communist group but ultimately failed in this task and returned to participation in the SFIO, now headed by Léon Blum. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies, the chamber of the French Third Republic, platform with the 1928. He quit the SFIO group after the 1936 elections and his departure did not prevent him from becoming Minister of Propaganda in Blums Second Popular Front Ministry. From 1935, Frossard had been a member of the governments of Pierre Laval, afterwards, he served as Minister of Public Works under Radical Édouard Daladier and again as Minister of Propaganda under conservative Paul Reynaud. Frossard was made Minister of Public Works and Transmissions in the First Government of Philippe Pétain after the Battle of France and the beginning of Nazi Germanys occupation of France. After the signing of the armistice between France and Germany, Frossard declined to be part of any Vichy France executive, suspicion of collaboration with the enemy led to an enquiry into his activities at the end of World War II, but he was soon cleared. Frossard died 11 February 1946 in Paris, Frossards son, André Frossard, was a journalist and writer who converted into Catholicism in 1935. Philippe Robrieux, Histoire Intérieure du Parti Communiste, vol
Ludovic-Oscar Frossard
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Ludovic-Oscar Frossard (1929)
34.
Maurice Thorez
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Maurice Thorez was a French politician and longtime leader of the French Communist Party from 1930 until his death. He also served as premier of France from 1946 to 1947. Thorez, born in Noyelles-Godault, Pas-de-Calais, became a miner at the age of 12. He joined the French Section of the Workers International in 1919 and was imprisoned several times for his political activism. After a split in the SFIO led to the formation of the French Communist Party, Thorez became party secretary in 1923 and, in 1930, secretary general of the party, a position he held until his death. Thorez was supported by the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, for PCF leadership following splits in many non-Soviet Communist parties in wake of his struggle with Leon Trotsky, as the official leader, Thorez was secretly controlled by the Comintern and the secretive Eugene Fried. In 1932, Thorez became the companion of Jeannette Vermeersch, they had three sons before marrying in 1947, and they remained married until his death, Thorez was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1932 and was reelected in 1936. In 1934, following the Comintern directive, he helped form the Popular Front, the front, because of strong popular support as France was reeling from the impact of the Great Depression, won the elections of 1936. With the support of the Communists under Thorez, Léon Blum became prime minister of a Popular Front government, meanwhile, Thorez presided over the massive growth of the Communist Party beginning with the elections of 1936. Its publications were banned and many Party members were interned, Thorez himself had his nationality revoked. Shortly thereafter, Thorez was drafted, but rather fight the Germans. Thorez was tried in absentia for desertion and sentenced to death, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, The French Communist Party switched sides and joined the anti-German resistance. During this time, articles written by and ghostwritten for Thorez appeared frequently in the underground newspaper. Each of these letters was signed Maurice Thorez, Somewhere in France and it was not until several years after the war that the party admitted that this was false, and that Thorez had been in Moscow for the entire war. In his absence, the affairs of the Party and of the Party resistance movement in France were organised by his second in command, when General Charles de Gaulles Free French Forces liberated France in 1944, Thorez received a pardon. After the Liberation, Thorez was ordered by Stalin to lead the PCF immediately after the Second World War to a road to power. In November 1944, he returned to France from the Soviet Union, the PCF emerged from the Second World War as the largest political party in France based on its role in the anti-Nazi resistance movement during the occupation of France, at least after 1941. He tried to make a revolution, after strikes that he organised, Thorez was again elected to the Chamber of Deputies and reelected throughout the Fourth Republic
Maurice Thorez
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A Soviet stamp depicting Maurice Thorez.
35.
Jacques Duclos
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During World War I, Duclos fought in the Battle of Verdun, where he was wounded. He was captured at Chemin des Dames, and remained a prisoner of war for the remainder of the war, in 1920, he joined the newly formed French Communist Party. He rose to the Central Committee in 1926, and defeated Léon Blum in the elections for deputy in the 20th arrondissement and he was named head of the propaganda section of the Party in 1936, and was elected to Vice-President of the French National Assembly. A Stalinist, Duclos was for more than 35 years the brain behind political choices made by Maurice Thorez and he was involved in the International Communist Movement, in the Comintern, and in the Cominform. In the 1930s, he was assigned the task of exerting discipline on Communist Movements in Spain, on Joseph Stalins orders, he advised the Communist Party of Spain to participate in the Popular Front at the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War. The negotiations did not succeed but discredited the PCFs post-war credibility among many members of the masses, the Communist Party USA, meanwhile, had been following a Popular Front line under Earl Browder supportive of the New Deal. With the end of the Great Power alliance at the end of World War II, with the Comintern having been dissolved during the war, the Duclos letter was used to communicate informally Moscows views. CPUSA official Gil Green told interviewer Anders Stephanson, AS, But in 1945 Browder went out as a result of Ducloss attack on his coalition line, GG, I was terribly shocked by the article. But in my naiveté and innocence, I was shocked because I was supposed to have involved in what was a betrayal of Marxism. According to the Italians, later on, there is evidence that it was not aimed so much at Browder, the fear was that, with their underground fighting against the Nazis, they would emerge with tremendous prestige and be able to take an independent course. And while the blow was struck against us here, it wasnt necesarily concerned with us alone, William Z. Browder was expelled from the party in 1946. After 1950, Thorezs health faltered, but Duclos remained one of the most influential members of the Party and he was acting Secretary General from 1950 to 1953 in Thorezs absence and was instrumental in eliminating his rival André Marty from the Partys leadership. On the Dissolution of the Communist Party of the United States, reprinted in William Z. Foster et al. New York, New Century Publishers, February 1946, pp. 21–35
Jacques Duclos
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Jacques Duclos, 1950s.
Jacques Duclos
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Meeting of the clandestine French Communist Party (PCF) central committee at Longjumeau, 1943. Duclos is second from right.
36.
Waldeck Rochet
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Waldeck Rochet was a French communist politician. He was General Secretary of the French Communist Party from 1964 to 1972, the son of a cobbler, Rochet was named in honor of politician Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau. After completing his service in the army, he worked in market gardening, in 1923, he joined the youth wing of the French Communist Party, and the following year the Party itself. He was sent over to the Soviet Union, in order to receive training at Moscows International Lenin School. Rochet was local Party secretary in Lyon, then joined the leadership in Paris, from 1936 to 1940, he was a communist representative in the lower chamber. During those years, Waldeck Rochet founded and edited the periodical La Terre, in 1939, he refused to condemn the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, placing himself outside French law. He was detained in the French colony of Algeria, passing into the custody of Vichy France after the German invasion of France, in 1943, after joining the Free French Forces, he represented the communists in London and was elected to the provisional legislative body in Algiers. In late 1944, after the Liberation of Paris, Waldeck Rochet regained the French capital, from that moment on, Rochet was elected in other constituencies, Seine, then Seine-Saint-Denis, until 1973. He was head of the Assemblys agriculture commission, as well as president of the communist parliamentary group, during those years, Rochet rose to the third most important position within the Party, after Thorez and Jacques Duclos. A deputy general secretary in 1961, he became the PCF leader in 1964, favorable to left-wing cooperation, Rochet directed the PCF votes towards François Mitterrand in the presidential elections of 1965. The problem he faced as general secretary was the balance between a needed rejuvenation of the PCF structure and maintaining an orthodox Marxist-Leninist ideology. In consequence, he stated his disregard for the leftist movement of May 1968. The considerable stress of dealing with the event took a great toll on Rochets nervous health
Waldeck Rochet
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Waldeck Rochet in 1968
37.
Georges Marchais
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Georges René Louis Marchais was the head of the French Communist Party from 1972 to 1994, and a candidate in the French presidential elections of 1981. Born into a Roman Catholic family, he became a mechanic, just before the beginning of World War II and he joined the party in 1947. In 1956, he was appointed a member of the extended Central Committee and lead the South-Seine PCF local federation, in the bastion of Maurice Thorez, three years later, he became a full member of the Central Committee and of the Politburo. His lightning promotion was explained by his origins and his devotion to Thorez. Indeed, he was part of the guard of the General Secretary which participated to the strengthening of Maurice Thorezs leadership. In 1961, after the ousting of these, he was nominated secretary for organization, then, he supported the new General Secretary Waldeck Rochet and in his policy of conciliation with the other left-wing parties. In reaction to the riots of May 1968, in a article published in the partys paper LHumanité. He accused some students of being false revolutionaries coming from the bourgeoisie, from then on, he was one of the personalities intervening in the media in the name of the PCF. When Rochet fell ill, in 1970, he was promoted junior General Secretary, in fact, he was at this moment the real leader of the PCF. In this, he co-signed the Common Programme with the Socialist Party, from 1973 to 1997, he was deputy of Val de Marne département, a southern Paris suburb. In December 1972, he became officially General Secretary, following Waldeck Rochets retirement, at first, he pursued the policy of his predecessor in favour of the Union of the Left. In this, the PCF sided with François Mitterrand s candidacy in the 1974 presidential election, at the beginning of his mandate of General Secretary, the PCF scored around 20% in the elections. But in mid-1970s, it lost its place of first left-wing party to François Mitterrands Socialist Party, at first, he faced with the reproaches of Soviet leaders. Then, faced with growing of the PS at the expense of his party. The left-wing parties failed to update their Common Programme and lost the 1978 legislative election, outside and inside the party, he was accused of being responsible for this defeat. One year later, he supported the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, judged the Communist governments fairly positive, in the 1981 presidential election, he came fourth in the first round, with 15% of votes, thereafter endorsing Mitterrand, who won the second round. He negotiated the entry of four PCFs politician in the cabinet of Prime Minister Pierre Mauroy, in 1984, after President Mitterrand renounced the lefts Common Programme and the electoral sanction in the European Parliament election the PCFs ministers resigned from the cabinet. An electoral decline ensued and Marchais faced internal dissent from figures such as Pierre Juquin, Claude Poperen, indeed, some party members, notably among the locally elected, accused him of leading a suicidal strategy
Georges Marchais
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Georges Marchais in 1981
38.
Robert Hue
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Robert Hue, in full Robert Georges Auguste Hue, is a French politician who was National Secretary of the French Communist Party from 1994 to 2001 and President of the PCF from 2001 to 2002. He served as a Deputy in the National Assembly of France from 1997 to 2002, Hue was a candidate in the 1995 presidential election, in which he received 8. 7% of the vote, and in the 2002 presidential election, in which he won 3. 37%. He is married to Marie-Edith, and he is father of two, Hue was born at Cormeilles-en-Parisis, Val-dOise in 1946. His family professed Communist beliefs, and Hue, as a child, sold issues of the Party newspaper and he studied at the technical school in Cormeilles-en-Parisis, sang in a rock band called Les Rapaces under the alias Willy Barton, and practiced judo. Age sixteen, he entered the section of the PCF. After studying in Paris and becoming an orderly, he was employed in an institution in Argenteuil. Close to Georges Marchais, Hue climbed the steps in the Party hierarchy and he was to be reelected for all possible terms, until 2001. In February 1981, he was briefly under the spotlight, by starting a campaign against a family of immigrants. This seemed strange to the opinion in France, as Hue had been a strict follower of the Party lines. In 1987, Hue joined the Partys Central Committee and, in 1990, at that time, he presided the National association of Communist elects. In 1994, while largely unknown, Hue was appointed successor by Georges Marchais. Hue changed renamed the office of Secretary General National Secretary in an effort to refresh the partys image and he did become quite well known only a few hours later, when he uttered a famous lapsus linguae, Im not nobodys pawn. He made his approach public through his book, Communisme, la mutation, Robert Hues low percentage in 1995 is explained by the competition from Workers Struggle, but it was still more than André Lajoinies result in 1988. In 1997, he stood by the idea of Gauche Plurielle which brought the leftist politics back in power with Lionel Jospin, Hue became a deputy, and the government included a number of Communists. However, the Party was falling out of favor with the public, from over 200,000 members in 1998, the Party lost a good deal of allegiancies during the 2001 municipal elections. Hue created and assumed in 2001 the title of President of the Party and his successor as National secretary of the party was Marie-George Buffet. The poor result in 2002 made the far-right leader Jean-Marie Le Pen cheer the death of Communist strength, in fact, the outcome was so bad that the Party did not have anything to show for the money it had invested in its campaign, and verged on financial collapse. Hue resigned the Presidency while the Party appealed to the generosity of its members, the Presidency was abolished, the National Secretary remaining as the Partys sole leader
Robert Hue
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Robert Hue
39.
Marie-George Buffet
–
Marie-George Buffet is a French politician. She was the head of the French Communist Party from 2001 to 2010 and she joined the Party in 1969, and she served in the government as Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports from 4 June 1997 to 5 May 2002. Buffet was re-elected on 16 June 2002 to another term in the National Assembly as a representative of Seine-Saint-Denis. Buffet was born in Sceaux, Hauts-de-Seine and her father Paul Kosellek is of Polish descent. Buffet was elected in 2001 as National Secretary of the Party, succeeding Robert Hue, when Hue resigned after his poor score in the 2002 presidential elections, the post of president was removed, leaving Buffet as sole leader of the Party. As head of the French Communist Party, Buffet speaks regularly on a variety of topics relating to the plight of the working people, most of Buffets speeches tend to focus upon practical implementations of the taxpayers duty to provide for workers. As a member of the French National Parliament, Buffet has begun to recognize the need to organize with the Communist and Socialist parties of other states within the EU and this can be seen in the Marie-George Buffet Statement, which came out in June 2005. It constitutes a comment on the aftermath of the referendum on the establishment of free trade rulings inside the European Union. Buffet sees this French Communist victory as a victory for communists across Europe, in 2009, she condemned as irresponsible and criminal statements by Pope Benedict XVI which claimed that condoms promote AIDS, although they in fact help prevent it. The elementary curriculum was revised in September 2013 under the name lABCD de legalite. Buffet had to compete with the radical-left candidacies of Olivier Besancenot, José Bové and she ended up receiving 1. 93% of the popular vote, the lowest result ever for a Communist presidential candidate in France. Governmental function Minister of Youth and Sports, 1997-2002, electoral mandates National Assembly of France Member of the National Assembly of France for Seine-Saint-Denis, Elected in 1997, but she became minister in June / And since 2002. Elected in 1997, reelected in 2002,2007,2012, Regional Council Regional councillor of Ile-de-France, 1998-2002. Municipal Council Deputy-mayor of Chatenay-Malabry, 1977-1983, municipal councillor of Le Blanc-Mesnil, Since 2001. Political functions National Secretary of the French Communist Party, 2001-2010, official French National Assembly page Speeches - Personal info page on National Assembly web site
Marie-George Buffet
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Marie-George Buffet
40.
Pierre Laurent (politician)
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Pierre Laurent is a French politician and journalist. His father, Paul Laurent, was a member of the National Assembly of France for Paris, pierre Laurent joined the Union of Communist Students when he was studying economics in Paris. He was National Secretary of UEC from 1982 to 1985, after graduating, he became a journalist for LHumanité. At first specialized in issues, he became chief editor in 1999. He became a member of the French Communist Party National Council in 2000 and he was the main writer of the 33rd Congress resolution in 2009, which he introduced. He was then nominated national coordinator, in charge of leading the partys collegial direction, in 2010, he led the list for the Left Front in Île-de-France for the French regional elections. He received 6. 55% of the popular vote, Laurent was elected National Secretary of the French Communist Party in June 2010, replacing Marie-George Buffet
Pierre Laurent (politician)
–
Pierre Laurent (politician)
41.
History of the French Communist Party
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The French Communist Party has been a part of the political scene in France since 1920, peaking in strength around the end of World War II. It originated when a majority of members resigned from the socialist French Section of the Workers International party to set up the French Section of the Communist International, the SFIO had been divided over support for French participation in World War I and over whether to join the Communist International. The new SFIC defined itself as revolutionary and democratic centralist, Ludovic-Oscar Frossard was its first secretary-general, and Ho Chi Minh was also among the founders. Frossard himself resigned in 1923, and the 1920s saw a number of splits within the party over relations with other left-wing parties, the party gained representation in the French parliament in successive elections, but also promoted strike action and opposed colonialism. With the rise of Fascism this policy shifted after 1934, and the PCF supported the Popular Front, the party helped to secure French support for the Spanish Republicans during the Spanish Civil War, and opposed the 1938 Munich agreement with Hitler. During this period the PCF adopted a more patriotic image, and favoured an equal, the party was banned in 1939 on the outbreak of World War II. Under Comintern direction the PCF opposed the war and may have sabotaged arms production, the leadership, threatened with execution, fled abroad. At the same time the PCF began to work with de Gaulles Free France, the London-based government in exile, by the time the German occupation ended in 1944, the party had become a powerful force in many parts of France. It was among the parties in elections in 1945 and 1946, and entered into the governing Tripartite alliance with the socialist SFIO. The Tripartite governments pursued social reforms and statism, however, amid concerns within France and abroad over the extent of communist influence, the PCF was excluded from government in May 1947. Under pressure from Moscow, the PCF thereafter distanced itself from other parties, for the rest of the Fourth Republic period the PCF, led by Thorez and Jacques Duclos, remained politically isolated, still taking a Stalinist line, though retaining substantial electoral support. Although the PCF opposed de Gaulles formation of the Fifth Republic in 1958, the years saw a rapprochement with other left-wing forces. With Waldeck Rochet as its new secretary-general, the party supported François Mitterrands unsuccessful presidential bid in 1965, during the student riots and strikes of May 1968, the party supported the strikes while denouncing the revolutionary student movements. Under the Common Programme, however, the PCF steadily lost ground to the PS, initially allotted a minor share in Mitterrands government, the PCF resigned in 1984 as the government turned towards fiscal orthodoxy. Under Marchais the party continued loyal to the Soviet Union up to its fall in 1991, extensive reform of the partys structure and policies had to wait until 1994, when Robert Hue became leader. The partys renunciation of much traditional communist dogma after this did little to stem its declining popularity, elections in 2002 gave worse results than ever for the PCF, now led by Marie-George Buffet. Under Buffet, the PCF turned away from parliamentary strategy and sought broader social alliances and it condemned the Nicolas Sarkozy governments response to riots in 2005 and adopted a more militant stance towards the European Union. Buffets attempt to stand in the 2007 presidential election as a candidate of the anti-liberal left had little success
History of the French Communist Party
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Six communist candidates running for the
1928 legislative elections
History of the French Communist Party
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Counter exhibition to the 1931
Paris Colonial Exposition (during which
human beings were displayed in cages), organised by the PCF. Entitled The truth about the colonies, the first section was dedicated to abuses committed during the colonial conquests, and quoted
Albert Londres ' and
André Gide 's criticisms of
forced labour while the second one contrasted the Soviet policy on nationalities with 'imperialist colonialism'.
History of the French Communist Party
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During a street protest in 2005 in Paris
History of the French Communist Party
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French Communist Party in Paris 2012
42.
Mouvement Jeunes Communistes de France
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The Mouvement Jeunes communistes de France, commonly called the JC, is a political youth organisation, close to the French communist party. The MJCF was founded in 1920 as the Jeunesse communiste, under the auspices of the Tours Congress and its secretary general as of February 2009 is Pierric Annoot, elected at the time of the national council of 28 June 2008. According to its own statistics, the movement counts 15,000 members in France, the MJCF publishes a monthly journal, Avant-garde. It is part of the World Federation of Democratic Youth and was part of the European Network of Democratic Young Left until its dissolution, the MJCF contains the Union des étudiants communistes student grouping, which directs its own institutions to meet the specific demands of militancy in higher education. The MJCF, being an organization, leads its own campaigns as well as aiding in those of the PCF. Libérez Marwan Barghouti, campaign for the liberation of the Palestinian ex deputy leader Marwan Barghouti, the MJCF, who consider Barhouti a political prisoner, strongly criticized what they saw as an unjust trial, as well as the conditions in which he has been detained. Campaign for the liberation of Mumia Abu-Jamal, an American sentenced to death, beyond this campaign, the MJCF intends to lead a broader fight against the death penalty throughout the world. Emploi, formation et lutte contre la précarité Un emploi ou une formation pour tous, campagne contre la loi Fillon, the MJCF, particularly its schools network has actively participated in the spring 2005 movement against Fillons law to reform secondary school teaching. MJCF was particularly involved in the campaign of the left to no in the French referendum on a treaty for a European constitution. In 2006, the MJCF was also involved in the movement against the Contrat première embauche and was an member of the collectif jeune against the CPE. The MJCF also participated in the collective Unis contre limmigration jetable where it fought against the projet de loi relatif à limmigration et à lintégration of Nicolas Sarkozy, fabien Marion, Nous les garçons et les filles. Un révélateur des contradictions du Mouvement de la jeunesse communiste de France, M1, Provence,2007,62 pp. Guillaume Quashie-Vauclin, 1945-1968, M1, Paris-I,2007,147 pp. Guillaume Quashie-Vauclin, LUnion de la jeunesse républicaine de France. La Jeunesse communiste sous le Front populaire », Histoire@Politique, I, De 1920 à1939, Paris, Editions sociales,1975,272 pp
Mouvement Jeunes Communistes de France
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Jeunesse communiste demonstrators, May 2007
43.
Francs-Tireurs et Partisans
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The Francs-Tireurs et Partisans Français, or commonly the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans, was an armed resistance organization created by leaders of the French Communist Party during World War II. Three groups were formed, consisting of party members, young communists, early in 1942 they were merged to form the FTP, which undertook sabotage and assassinations of the occupation. The FTP became the best organized and most effective of the French Resistance groups, in March 1944, before the Allied forces returned to Normandy, the FTP was theoretically merged with the other Resistance groups. In practice, it retained its independence until the end of the war, germany attacked the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in Operation Barbarossa. With this, the policy of the French Communist Party policy switched to support for armed struggle against the German occupiers, the National Front was created as a French Resistance movement in the northern area in June 1941. The Front national was theoretically independent of the French Communist Party, in fact it was dominated by the PCF. At first the objectives were mainly political, taking advantage of the situation under the occupying German army. Charles Tillon was put in charge of military matters, on 2 August 1941 Albert Ouzoulias was put in charge of the Bataillons de la Jeunesse, fighting groups that were being created by the Jeunesses Communistes. Soon after Arthur Dallidet introduced him to Eugène Hénaff, who was responsible for the struggle under the direction of Tillon. In October 1941 the PCF decided to unify its armed groups into the Organisation Spéciale, Hénaff joined the leadership of the PCFs Organisation Spéciale, where he was responsible for coordinating between the various armed units. He was a member of the Comité militaire national, which became the Francs-tireurs et partisans français, rather than limit armed action to Communists, it was decided to create a non-Communist organization, the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans, under the Front national. The FTP was open to non-communists but operated under communist control, the FTP movement was seen as a way to increase the political influence of the Communist Party in the future government of France. A special issue of LHumanité in February 1942 confirmed the existence of partisans et de francs-tireurs to whom patriots should give aid, another special issue in March 1942 urged people to form such groups to conduct guerrilla war and help the population defend itself against the boches. The FTP was created in April 1942, led by Charles Tillon, the paper began using the initials FTP in July 1942. The FTPs mandate was to sabotage railways and factories, punish collaborators, the FTP unified three Communist organizations, the Bataillons de la Jeunesse, the Organisation Spéciale and the Main-dœuvre immigrée. The FTP national committee was headed by Charles Tillon, commander in chief, Eugène Hénaff was political commissioner of the force until May 1943, when he was replaced by René Camphin. Albert Ouzoulias was in charge of operations, and Georges Beyer was responsible for armaments, marcel Prenant, a captain of the reserve, was Chief of Staff. He wrote some of the manuals on tactics and armament, the inter-regional and departmental military committees reported to the central organization in groups of three, a basic principle in the communist Resistance
Francs-Tireurs et Partisans
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Paratroopers and FTP members during the
Battle of Normandy, summer 1944
Francs-Tireurs et Partisans
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FTP fighters at the camp of
Roche-Saint-Secret-Béconne in May 1943
Francs-Tireurs et Partisans
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A captured Resistance fighter in 1944. The German caption says "This communist leader is on the wanted list... his papers prove his affiliation with terrorist groups."
44.
French Resistance
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The Résistance also planned, coordinated, and executed acts of sabotage on the electrical power grid, transport facilities, and telecommunications networks. Estimated to have a strength of 100,000 in June 1944 and this burden amounted to approximately 20 million German reichsmarks per day, a sum that, in May 1940, was approximately equivalent to four hundred million French francs. Because of this overvaluation of German currency, the occupiers were able to make fair and honest requisitions and purchases while, in effect. Prices soared, leading to food shortages and malnutrition, particularly among children, the elderly. The labour shortage was worsened by the fact that a number of the French were also held as prisoners of war in Germany. Beyond these hardships and dislocations, the occupation became increasingly unbearable, onerous regulations, strict censorship, incessant propaganda and nightly curfews all played a role in establishing an atmosphere of fear and repression. The sight of French women consorting with German soldiers infuriated many French men, as reprisals for Résistance activities, the authorities established harsh forms of collective punishment. For example, the militancy of communist resistance in August 1941 led to the taking of thousands of hostages from the general population. A typical policy statement read, After each further incident, a number, reflecting the seriousness of the crime, during the occupation, an estimated 30,000 French civilian hostages were shot to intimidate others who were involved in acts of resistance. In early 1943, the Vichy authorities established a paramilitary group and they worked alongside German forces that, by the end of 1942, were stationed throughout France. The group collaborated closely with the Nazis, and was the Vichy equivalent of the Gestapo security forces in Germany and their actions were often brutal and included torture and execution of Résistance suspects. After the liberation of France in the summer of 1944, the French executed many of the estimated 25,000 to 35,000 miliciens for their collaboration. Many of those who escaped arrest fled to Germany, where they were incorporated into the Charlemagne Division of the Waffen SS, the experience of the Occupation was a deeply psychologically disorienting one for the French as what was once familiar and safe become strange and threatening. Many Parisians could not get over the shock experienced when they first saw the huge swastika flags hanging over the Hôtel de Ville, Many résistants often spoke of some climax when they saw some intolerable act of injustice, after which they could not longer remain passive. Barthelt recalled, I recognized him only by his hat, only by his hat, I tell you and because I was waiting on the roadside to see him pass. I saw his face all right, but there was no skin on it, both his poor eyes had been closed into two purple and yellow bruises. In the beginning, resistance was limited to such as severing phone lines, vandalizing posters. Another form of resistance was underground newspapers like Musée de lHomme which circulated clandestinely, the Musée de lHomme was founded by two professors, Paul Rivet and the Russian émigré Boris Vildé in July 1940
French Resistance
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French resistance partisans fought alongside
Allied troops to retake their cities.
French Resistance
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The cemetery and memorial in
Vassieux-en-Vercors where, in July 1944, German
Wehrmacht forces executed more than 200, including women and children, in reprisal for the
Maquis 's armed resistance. The town was later awarded the
Ordre de la Libération.
French Resistance
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French Resistance fighter Lucien Pélissou's identity document.
French Resistance
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The ruins of
Oradour-sur-Glane, in the
Limousin region of the
Massif central
45.
National Council of the Resistance
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Various resistance movements had arisen in France since the start of the German occupation in June 1940. With the possible exception of the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans and other loyal to the Communist Party of France. This lack of coordination made them effective in their actions against the Nazi occupiers. Charles de Gaulle, exiled in London and recognized by the UK as leader of a French government in exile, on January 1,1942, he delegated this task to Jean Moulin. Moulin achieved the feat on May 27,1943 with the first meeting of the Conseil National de la Résistance in the apartment of René Corbin on the floor of 48, Rue du Four. Over the next three days, Moulin was tortured by Klaus Barbie himself, and would die during his transfer to Germany and he divulged no information to his torturers and his silence was likely to have allowed the CNR to pursue its activities. The new office was under the direction of Alexandre Parodi, delegate-general, and Georges Bidault, on September 9,1944, Louis Saillant succeeded Bidault as head of the CNR. On March 15,1944, the CNR adopted, after months of negotiations and they constitute a large part of the so-called acquis sociaux of the second half of the 20th century in France. The text of this article was translated from this version of the French-language Wikipedia article Conseil National de la Résistance
National Council of the Resistance
–
Charles de Gaulle, ca.1942
National Council of the Resistance
–
Drawing of Jean Moulin based on iconic photo with hat and scarf,
cross of Lorraine in background
46.
MRAP (NGO)
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MRAP stands for Mouvement contre le racisme et pour lamitié entre les peuples, and is an anti-racist French NGO, created in 1949. Mouloud Aounit became in 1989 its first general secretary, then president, a primary goal was to save as many black children as possible from deportation, and the movement coordinated its actions with the Protestant and Catholic Church. Two clandestine newspapers, Jaccuse in the North zone and Fraternité in the South zone, were charged with countering the Nazis and Vichys racist ideology. The MRAP was created on May 22,1949, around former MNCR members and various personalities and it took the name of Mouvement contre le racisme, lantisémitisme et pour la paix in a period during which the dominant questions were neo-nazism, anti-Semitism and the Cold War. On January 6,1956, at the Hôtel Lutetia in Paris, the award recognized the “great impact” against Antisemitism made by Isaac’s two books Jésus et Israël and Genèse de lantisémitisme. The MRAP supported anti-colonialism and was opposed to the Algerian War and it was one of the rare organizations to condemn the methods of the police prefect Maurice Papon and the Paris massacre of 1961. It became the Mouvement contre le Racisme et pour lAmitié entre les Peuples in 1972, the MRAP is also engaged in international issues. It was active against apartheid in South Africa and now struggles against racism in the United States and it continues to be engaged against anti-Semitism, defends the rights of immigrants, Gypsies and fights against all forms of racism. It is also engaged in actions against the far right, as well as the right wing, the MRAP was engaged in the creation of the alter-globalization NGO ATTAC in 1998. Currently, it concentrates its action against immigration-restricting laws and in favor of rights, as well as denunciation of racism on the internet. France in the twentieth century Human rights in France Official website
MRAP (NGO)
–
Leaflet for the founding congress (1949).
47.
United Left (France)
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United Left was a political party in France which used to be one part of a faction within the Revolutionary Communist League. The party is led by Christian Picquet, a member of the Revolutionary Communist League. The creation of the party was announced on 8 March 2009 at the congress of the Left Front electoral coalition ahead of the 2009 European elections. As a result, Picquets small movement integrated the Left Front, ideologically, the party sought to unite all democratic socialists opposed to neo-liberalism under a common front. The GU was part of the Left Front until 2014, on 8 September 2015, the GU decided to merge into the French Communist Party. This decision was taken to limit the division of the left
United Left (France)
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United Left Gauche unitaire
48.
Marxist-Leninism
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Marxism–Leninism is a political philosophy or world view founded on ideas of Classical Marxism and Leninism, and seeks to establish socialist states and develop them further. Marxism–Leninism first became a philosophical movement in the Soviet Union during the 1920s. It rejected the notions, common among Marxists at the time, of revolution as a prerequisite for building socialism in Russia. The internationalism of Marxism–Leninism was expressed in supporting revolutions in foreign countries, trotskyists claim that Marxism–Leninism led to the establishment of a degenerated workers state. Criticism like this has itself been criticised for philosophical determinism—i. e. that the events in the movements history were predetermined by their convictions. In complete contrast, E. Van Ree argues that Stalin continued to be in agreement with the classical works of Marxism until his death. Within five years of Vladimir Lenins death in 1924, Stalin completed his rise to power in the Soviet Union, according to G. Lisichkin, Stalin compiled Marxism–Leninism as a separate ideology in his book Concerning Questions of Leninism. During the period of Stalins rule in the Soviet Union, Marxism–Leninism was proclaimed the ideology of the state. There is no agreement amongst historians regarding whether or not Stalin actually followed the principles established by Karl Marx. After the Sino-Soviet split of the 1960s, the communist parties of the Soviet Union, after the death of Mao on 1976, Peruvian Maoists associated with the Communist Party of Peru coined the term Marxism–Leninism–Maoism, arguing that Maoism was a more advanced stage of Marxism. In North Korea, Marxism–Leninism was officially superseded in 1977 by Juche, in concepts of class and class struggle, in other words Marxism itself. However, the government is sometimes referred to as Marxist–Leninist, or more commonly as Stalinist, due to its political. Originally and for a time the concept of a socialist society was regarded as equal to that of a communist society. However, it was Lenin who defined the difference between socialism and communism, explaining that they are similar to what Marx described with the lower and upper stages of communist society. For Marxism–Leninism, the USSR was a state and thus any property under this State was a type of socialist property. This is part of Marxist–Leninists advocacy of promoting and reinforcing the operation of a planned socialist economy and it advocates universal education with a focus on developing the proletariat with knowledge, class consciousness, and understanding the historical development of communism. Marxism–Leninism supports the emancipation of women and ending the exploitation of women, Marxist–Leninist cultural policy focuses upon modernisation and distancing society from, the past, the bourgeoisie, and the old intelligentsia. Agitprop and various associations and institutions are used by the Marxist–Leninist state to educate society with the values of communism, the state serves as a safeguard for the ownership and as the coordinator of production through a universal economic plan
Marxist-Leninism
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The Russian Orthodox Cathedral, once the most dominant landmark in
Baku, was demolished in the 1930s in accordance with
Marxist–Leninist atheism.
Marxist-Leninism
–
Vladimir Lenin, leader of both the
RSFSR and the Soviet Union from 1917 to 1924, was one of the most influential figures of the 20th Century.
Marxist-Leninism
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Bolshevik forces marching in
Moscow in 1917, shortly after the
October Revolution
49.
Eurocommunism
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Eurocommunism was a revisionist trend in the 1970s and 1980s within various Western European communist parties. They claimed to be developing a theory and practice of social transformation more relevant for Western Europe, during the Cold War, they sought to undermine the influence of the Soviet Union and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. It was especially prominent in Italy, Spain and France, the Eurocommunists came into conflict with the orthodox Marxist-Leninists in the various communist parties of the West. They sought to move the focus away from the class struggle politics of industrial workers, the origin of the term Eurocommunism was subject to great debate in the mid-1970s, being attributed to Zbigniew Brzezinski and Arrigo Levi, among others. Jean-François Revel once wrote that one of the amusements of political scientists is to search for the author of the term Eurocommunism. In April 1977, Deutschland Archiv decided that the word was first used in the summer of 1975 by Yugoslav journalist Frane Barbieri, outside Western Europe, it is sometimes referred to as Neocommunism. They are sometimes called Gramscians because of their reliance on the theories of Antonio Gramsci rather than Vladimir Lenin, early inspirations can also be found in the Austromarxism and its seeking of a third democratic way to socialism. The Prague Spring and particularly its crushing by the Soviet Union in 1968 became a point for the Communist world. The usually very pro-Soviet Communist Party of Ireland initially condemned the invasion but later changed their stance, some Communist parties with strong popular support, notably the Italian Communist Party and the Communist Party of Spain adopted Eurocommunism most enthusiastically. The Communist Party of Finland was dominated by Eurocommunists, in the 1980s the traditional, pro-Soviet faction broke away, calling the main party revisionist. The PCE and its Catalan referent, the United Socialist Party of Catalonia, had already committed to the liberal possibilist politics of the Popular Front during the Spanish Civil War. The Communist parties of Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, in 1975 the PCI and the PCE had made a declaration regarding the march toward socialism to be done in peace and freedom. The compromesso storico with Democrazia Cristiana, stopped by the kidnapping, the same happened and even more drastically when Finnish Peoples Democratic League changed its leadership also, with the reformist Ele Alenius leading it. In 1968 CPFI FPDL were the parties to directly oppose the actions of the Soviet militarship in Prague in 1968. Thus, the two organizations split de facto into two different parties, one reformist and one hard-line Soviet, what was peculiar was that the Youth was nearly completely Taistolaist. Finally in 1984 with a strong Eurocommunist majority the PCFI hard-line organizations were expelled from the already weakened party. Pro-Soviet hard-liners formed their own cover-organization, Democratic Movement, finally in 1990 the new Left Alliance integrated the CPFI/FPDL, FPDL, s ex-secretary Alenius chose not to be member of it because they also took hard-line Taistolaists. Western European communists came to Eurocommunism via a variety of routes, for some it was their direct experience of feminist and similar action
Eurocommunism
–
"Viva Dubček" – demonstration against the
Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1968 in Helsinki
Eurocommunism
–
"Beginning of a prolonged struggle" – French revolutionary poster, May 1968
Eurocommunism
–
Giorgio Napolitano, prominent figure of the
Italian Communist Party (until 1991), and
President of Italy from 2006 to 2015.
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