1.
Chinese name
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Chinese personal names are names used by those from mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and the Chinese diaspora overseas. Prior to the 20th century, educated Chinese also utilized a courtesy name or style name called zi by which they were known among those outside of their family and closest friends. From at least the time of the Shang dynasty, the Han Chinese observed a number of naming taboos regulating who may or may not use a given name. In general, using the given name connoted the speakers authority, peers and younger relatives were barred from speaking it. Owing to this, many historical Chinese figures – particularly emperors – used a half-dozen or more different names in different contexts and those possessing names identical to the emperors were frequently forced to change them. Although some terms in the ancient Chinese naming system, such as xìng and míng, are used today, they were used in different. Commoners possessed only a name, and the modern concept of a surname or family name did not yet exist at any level of society.3 billion citizens. In fact, just the top three – Wang, Li, and Zhang – cover more than 20% of the population. This homogeneity results from the majority of Han family names having only one character. Chinese surnames arose from two separate traditions, the xìng and the shì. The original xìng were clans of royalty at the Shang court, the shì did not originate from families, but denoted fiefs, states, and titles granted or recognized by the Shang court. Apart from the Jiang and Yao families, the original xìng have nearly disappeared, xìng is now used to describe the shì surnames which replaced them, while shì is used to refer to maiden names. The enormous modern clans sometimes share ancestral halls with one another, nonetheless, however tenuous these bonds sometimes are, it remains a minor taboo to marry someone with the same family name. In modern mainland China, it is the norm that a woman keeps her name unchanged. A child usually inherits his/her fathers surname, though the law explicitly states that a child may use either parents or the grandparents. It is also possible, though far less common, for a child to both parents surnames. In the older generations, it was common for a married woman to prepend her husbands surname to her own. This practice is now almost extinct in mainland China, though there are a few such as the name change of Gu Kailai, but survives in some Hong Kong, Macau
2.
Chinese surname
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Chinese surnames are used by Han Chinese and Sinicized ethnic groups in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames existed, namely xing or lineage names, and shi or clan names, Chinese family names are patrilineal, passed from father to children. Women do not normally change their surnames upon marriage, except in places with more Western influences such as Hong Kong, traditionally Chinese surnames have been exogamous. The colloquial expressions laobaixing and bǎixìng are used in Chinese to mean ordinary folks, prior to the Warring States period, only the ruling families and the aristocratic elite had surnames. Historically there was also a difference between clan names or xing and lineages names or shi, Xing were surnames held by the noble clans. They generally are composed of a nü radical which has taken by some as evidence they originated from matriarchal societies based on maternal lineages. Another hypothesis has been proposed by sinologist Léon Vandermeersch upon observation of the evolution of characters in oracular scripture from the Shang dynasty through the Zhou, the female radical seems to appear at the Zhou period next to Shang sinograms indicating an ethnic group or a tribe. This combination seems to designate specifically a female and could mean lady of such or such clan, prior to the Qin Dynasty China was largely a fengjian society. In this way, a nobleman would hold a shi and a xing, after the states of China were unified by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC, surnames gradually spread to the lower classes and the difference between xing and shi blurred. Many shi surnames survive to the present day, according to Kiang Kang-Hu, there are 18 sources from which Chinese surnames may be derived, while others suggested at least 24. The following are some of the sources, Xing, These were usually reserved for the central lineage of the royal family. Of these xings, only Jiang and Yao have survived in their form to modern days as frequently occurring surnames. Royal decree by the Emperor, such as Kuang, state name, Many nobles and commoners took the name of their state, either to show their continuing allegiance or as a matter of national and ethnic identity. These are some of the most common Chinese surnames, name of a fief or place of origin, Fiefdoms were often granted to collateral branches of the aristocracy and it was natural as part of the process of sub-surnaming for their names to be used. An example is Di, Marquis of Ouyangting, whose descendants took the surname Ouyang, there are some two hundred examples of this identified, often of two-character surnames, but few have survived to the present. Names of an ancestor, Like the previous example, this was also a common origin with close to 500 or 600 examples,200 of which are two-character surnames, often an ancestors courtesy name would be used. For example, Yuan Taotu took the character of his grandfathers courtesy name Boyuan as his surname. Sometimes titles granted to ancestors could also be taken as surnames, seniority within the family, In ancient usage, the characters of meng, zhong, shu and ji were used to denote the first, second, third and fourth eldest sons in a family
3.
Zhang Lu (painter)
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Zhang Lu was a Chinese landscape painter during the Ming Dynasty. His courtesy name was Tianchi and his pseudonym was Pingshan and he was a student of Wu Wei. Zhang followed the Zhe school of painting and he painted landscapes and human figures in a free and uninhibited style. Ci hai bian ji wei yuan hui (辞海编辑委员会）, Shanghai, Shanghai ci shu chu ban she （上海辞书出版社）,1979
4.
Traditional Chinese characters
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Traditional Chinese characters are Chinese characters in any character set that does not contain newly created characters or character substitutions performed after 1946. They are most commonly the characters in the character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong. Currently, a number of overseas Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between both sets. In contrast, simplified Chinese characters are used in mainland China, Singapore, the debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters has been a long-running issue among Chinese communities. Although simplified characters are taught and endorsed by the government of Mainland China, Traditional characters are used informally in regions in China primarily in handwriting and also used for inscriptions and religious text. They are often retained in logos or graphics to evoke yesteryear, nonetheless, the vast majority of media and communications in China is dominated by simplified characters. Taiwan has never adopted Simplified Chinese characters since it is ruled by the Republic of China, the use of simplified characters in official documents is even prohibited by the government in Taiwan. Simplified characters are not well understood in general, although some stroke simplifications that have incorporated into Simplified Chinese are in common use in handwriting. For example, while the name of Taiwan is written as 臺灣, similarly, in Hong Kong and Macau, Traditional Chinese has been the legal written form since colonial times. In recent years, because of the influx of mainland Chinese tourists, today, even government websites use simplified Chinese, as they answer to the Beijing government. This has led to concerns by residents to protect their local heritage. In Southeast Asia, the Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative regarding simplification, while major public universities are teaching simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications like the Chinese Commercial News, World News, and United Daily News still use traditional characters, on the other hand, the Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified. Aside from local newspapers, magazines from Hong Kong, such as the Yazhou Zhoukan, are found in some bookstores. In case of film or television subtitles on DVD, the Chinese dub that is used in Philippines is the same as the one used in Taiwan and this is because the DVDs belongs to DVD Region Code 3. Hence, most of the subtitles are in Traditional Characters, overseas Chinese in the United States have long used traditional characters. A major influx of Chinese immigrants to the United States occurred during the half of the 19th century. Therefore, the majority of Chinese language signage in the United States, including street signs, Traditional Chinese characters are called several different names within the Chinese-speaking world
5.
Tang dynasty
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The Tang dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It is generally regarded as a point in Chinese civilization. Its territory, acquired through the campaigns of its early rulers, rivaled that of the Han dynasty. The dynasty was founded by the Lǐ family, who seized power during the decline, the dynasty was briefly interrupted when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, proclaiming the Second Zhou dynasty and becoming the only Chinese empress regnant. In two censuses of the 7th and 8th centuries, the Tang records estimated the population by number of registered households at about 50 million people. Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court, while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it controlled through a protectorate system. Besides political hegemony, the Tang also exerted a powerful influence over neighboring states such as those in Korea, Japan. Like the previous Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty maintained a service system by recruiting scholar-officials through standardized examinations and recommendations to office. This civil order was undermined by the rise of military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century. Chinese culture flourished and further matured during the Tang era, it is considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry. Two of Chinas most famous poets, Li Bai and Du Fu, belonged to this age, as did many famous painters such as Han Gan, Zhang Xuan, there was a rich variety of historical literature compiled by scholars, as well as encyclopedias and geographical works. The adoption of the title Tängri Qaghan by the Tang Emperor Taizong in addition to his title as emperor was eastern Asias first simultaneous kingship, there were many notable innovations during the Tang, including the development of woodblock printing. Buddhism became an influence in Chinese culture, with native Chinese sects gaining prominence. However, Buddhism would later be persecuted by the state, subsequently declining in influence, although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century, art and culture continued to flourish. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage, which includes the Tang poet Li Bai, the Tang Emperors also had Xianbei maternal ancestry, from Emperor Gaozu of Tangs Xianbei mother Duchess Dugu. He had prestige and military experience, and was a first cousin of Emperor Yang of Sui, Li Yuan rose in rebellion in 617, along with his son and his equally militant daughter Princess Pingyang, who raised and commanded her own troops. In winter 617, Li Yuan occupied Changan, relegated Emperor Yang to the position of Taishang Huang or retired emperor, and acted as regent to the puppet child-emperor, Emperor Gong of Sui. On the news of Emperor Yangs murder by General Yuwen Huaji on June 18,618, Li Yuan declared himself the emperor of a new dynasty, the Tang
6.
Xian (Taoism)
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The xian archetype is described by Victor H. Mair. They are immune to heat and cold, untouched by the elements and they dwell apart from the chaotic world of man, subsist on air and dew, are not anxious like ordinary people, and have the smooth skin and innocent faces of children. The transcendents live an existence that is best described as spontaneous. They recall the ancient Indian ascetics and holy men known as ṛṣi who possessed similar traits.1994,376 According to the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism, the most famous Chinese compound of xiān is Bāxiān. Other common words include xiānrén, xiānrénzhăng, xiānnǚ, and shénxiān, besides humans, xiān can also refer to supernatural animals. The mythological húlijīng 狐狸精 fox fairy, vixen, witch, enchantress has a name of húxiān 狐仙. The etymology of xiān remains uncertain, the circa 200 CE Shiming, a Chinese dictionary that provided word-pun etymologies, defines xiān as to get old and not die, and explains it as someone who qiān the mountains. Two linguistic hypotheses for the etymology of xian involve the Arabic language, wu and Davis suggested the source was jinn, or jinni genie. The marvelous powers of the Hsien are so like those of the jinni of the Arabian Nights that one wonders whether the Arabic word, jinn, may not be derived from the Chinese Hsien. The word xiān is written with three characters 僊, 仙, or 仚, which combine the logographic radical rén with two phonetic elements, the oldest recorded xiān character 僊 has a xiān phonetic supposedly because immortals could ascend into the heavens. The usual modern xiān character 仙, and its rare variant 仚, have a shān phonetic, for a character analysis, Schipper interprets the human being of the mountain, or alternatively, human mountain. The two explanations are appropriate to these beings, they haunt the mountains, while also embodying nature. The Shijing contains the oldest occurrence of the character 僊, reduplicated as xiānxiān, but when they have drunk too much, Their deportment becomes light and frivolous—They leave their seats, and go elsewhere, They keep dancing and capering. Needham and Wang suggest xian was cognate with wu 巫 shamanic dancing, paper writes, the function of the term xian in a line describing dancing may be to denote the height of the leaps. Since, to live for a time has no etymological relation to xian. The 121 CE Shuowen Jiezi, the first important dictionary of Chinese characters and it defines 僊 as live long and move away and 仚 as appearance of a person on a mountaintop. This section chronologically reviews how Chinese texts describe xian immortals, transcendents, on one the hand, neidan techniques included taixi breath control, meditation, visualization, sexual training, and Tao Yin exercises. On the other hand, waidan techniques for immortality included alchemical recipes, magic plants, rare minerals, herbal medicines, drugs, the earliest representations of Chinese immortals, dating from the Han Dynasty, portray them flying with feathery wings or riding dragons
7.
East Asian cultural sphere
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The Sinosphere, or East Asian cultural sphere, refers to a grouping of countries and regions in East Asia that were historically influenced by the culture of China. The East Asian cultural sphere shares a Confucian ethical philosophy, Buddhism, political and legal structures, the core regions of the East Asian cultural sphere are Mainland China, Taiwan Island, North Korea, South Korea, Ryukyu Islands, Japan and Vietnam. Although Mongolia and parts of Central Asia are sometimes included and perhaps more on an ethnic basis, the terms East Asian cultural sphere and Chinese character cultural sphere are used interchangeably with Sinosphere but have different denotations. British historian Arnold J. Toynbee listed the Far Eastern civilization as one of the main civilizations outlined in his book and he included Japan and Korea in his Far Eastern civilization, and proposed that it grew out of the Sinic civilization that originated in the Yellow River basin. Toynbee compared the relationship between the Sinic and Far Eastern civilization with that of the Hellenic and Western civilizations, according to Toynbee, the Hellenic and Western civilizations had an apparentation-affiliation relationship, while the Far Eastern world was controlled by the ghost of the Sinic universal state. Japanese historian Nishijima Sadao conceived a Chinese or East Asian cultural sphere largely isolated from other cultures, according to Sadao, this cultural sphere shared the philosophy of Confucianism, the religion of Buddhism, and similar political and social structures. His cultural sphere includes China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, the American Sinologist and historian Edwin O. Reischauer grouped China, Korea, and Japan together into a cultural sphere that he called the Sinic world. These countries are centralized states that share a Confucian ethical philosophy, Reischauer states that this culture originated in Northern China, and compared the relationship between Northern China and East Asia with that of Greco-Roman civilization and Europe. The elites of East Asia were tied together through a written language based on Chinese characters. Political scientist Samuel P. Huntington considered the Sinic world as one of civilizations in his The Clash of Civilizations. Huntingtons Sinic civilization includes China, North Korea, South Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, of the many civilizations that Huntington discusses, the Sinic world is the only one that is based on a cultural, rather than religious, identity. Huntingtons theory was that in a post-Cold War world, humanity identify with groups, tribes, ethnic groups, religious communities. Huntington argued that the Sinic world would eventually oppose the Wests hegemony in Asia, countries from the East Asian cultural sphere share a common architectural style stemming from the architecture of ancient China. The countries of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are rén, yì, and lǐ. Mid-Imperial Chinese philosophy is defined by the development of Neo-Confucianism. During the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism from India also became a prominent philosophical, Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Tang Dynasty, the Confucianist scholar Han Yu is seen as a forebear of the Neo-Confucianists of the Song Dynasty. The Song Dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi is seen as the first true pioneer of Neo-Confucianism, elsewhere in East Asia, Japanese philosophy began to develop as indigenous Shinto beliefs fused with Buddhism, Confucianism and other schools of Chinese philosophy. Similar to Japan, in Korean philosophy elements of Shamanism were integrated into the Neo-Confucianism imported from China, East Asian literary culture was based on the use of Literary Chinese, which became the medium of scholarship and government across the region
8.
Taoism
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Taoism, also known as Daoism, is a religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is an idea in most Chinese philosophical schools, in Taoism, however. Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order, the Tao Te Ching, a compact book containing teachings attributed to Laozi, is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi. By the Han dynasty, the sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organizations. In earlier ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, Zhuangzi was the best known of these, and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was part of local Chinese shamanic traditions. Women shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was strong in the southern state of Chu. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism, shamans revealed basic texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century. Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in recent times are conventionally grouped into two main branches, Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism. After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Daozang—which was published at the behest of the emperor, throughout Chinese history, Taoism was nominated several times as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor, Chinese alchemy, Chinese astrology, Chan Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia, Taoism also has a presence in Hong Kong, Macau, and in Southeast Asia. English speakers continue to debate the preferred romanization of the words Daoism and Taoism, the root Chinese word 道 way, path is romanized tao in the older Wade–Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is formed from the Chinese loanword tao/dao 道 way, route, principle and the native suffix -ism. The debate over Taoism vs. Daoism involves sinology, phonemes, loanwords, Daoism is pronounced /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/, but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/. In theory, both Wade–Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism, an investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages illustrates this /daʊ/ pronunciations widespread familiarity. In speech, Tao and Taoism are often pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/, lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism. Taoist philosophy or Taology, or the mystical aspect — The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching and these texts were linked together as Taoist philosophy during the early Han Dynasty, but notably not before. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing, however, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars
9.
Eight Immortals
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The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian in Chinese mythology. Each immortals power can be transferred to a tool that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight tools are called the Covert Eight Immortals, most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Song dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also an element in the secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, the Immortals are, He Xiangu Cao Guojiu Li Tieguai Lan Caihe Lü Dongbin Han Xiangzi Zhang Guolao Zhongli Quan In literature before the 1970s, they were sometimes translated as the Eight Genies. First described in the Yuan Dynasty, they were named after the Eight Immortal Scholars of the Han. While cults dedicated to various Taoist immortals date back to the Han dynasty, the art of the Jin tombs of the 12th and 13th centuries depicts a group of eight Taoist immortals in wall murals and sculptures. They officially became known as the Eight Immortals in the writings, the most famous art depiction of the Eight Immortals from this period is a mural of them in the Eternal Joy Temple at Ruicheng. The 8 Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and they were frequent adornments on celadon vases. They were also common in sculptures owned by the nobility and their most common appearance, however, was in paintings. Many silk paintings, wall murals, and wood block prints remain of the Eight Immortals and they were often depicted either together in one group, or alone to give more homage to that specific immortal. This shows that early on, the Eight Immortals quickly became eminent figures of the Taoist religion and had great importance and we can see this importance is only heightened in the Ming and Qing dynasties. During these dynasties, the Eight Immortals were very frequently associated with other prominent spiritual deities in artwork, there are numerous paintings with them and the Three Stars together. Also, other deities of importance, such as the Queen Mother of the West, are seen in the company of the Eight Immortals. The artwork of the Eight Immortals is not limited to paintings or other visual arts and they are quite prominent in written works too. Authors and playwrights wrote numerous stories and plays on the Eight Immortals, one famous story that has been rewritten many times and turned into several plays is The Yellow-Millet Dream, which is the story of how Lǚ Dòngbīn met Zhongli Quan and began his path to immortality. The Immortals are the subject of artistic creations, such as paintings. There is another work, also made during the Ming, by an anonymous writer and it is about the Immortals on their way to attend the Conference of the Magical Peach when they encounter an ocean
10.
Zhongli Quan
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Zhongli Quan, courtesy name Jidao, is a Chinese mythological figure and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. He is also known as Han Zhongli because he was said to have born in the Han dynasty. In legend, he wields a fan which can resurrect the dead. According to legend, bright beams of light filled the room during his birth. After he was born, he did not stop crying until seven days had passed. He was destined for greatness from the day he was born by showing features such as a forehead, thick ears, long eyebrows, deep eyes, red nose, square mouth, high cheeks. Later Taoists celebrate his birthday on the day of the fourth month of the Chinese calendar. Following his fathers example, he became a member of the court, during his time as a general, his army fought against Tibet. In his last battle he was beaten by the Tibetans, forcing him to flee into the areas surrounding him. There he came across an old man who led him to a sanctuary where he was welcomed in. There he learned the ways of the rituals and extensive amounts of alchemy. After three hard days of teaching, he was dismissed and told to use his powers to serve his people. When he turned back to talk to the man, he, using his power of alchemy and his magical fan, he created silver and gold coins from stones and saved people from poverty and famine. There are two stories that depict how he became one of the immortals, in the first, it was in his continuous use of the immortal powers and his magical fan that eventually caused his descent into the shimmering cloud of the immortals. In the second, he was meditating near a wall of his hermitage when all of a sudden it collapsed, behind the wall was a jade vessel that took him as an immortal to the shimmering cloud. In Taoism, he is known as Zhengyang Zushi, literally True-Yang Ancestor-Master and he is also called Master of the Cloud-Chamber in accounts describing his encounter with Lü Dongbin before achieving immortality. He is known for his pleasing disposition, and is painted or drawn drinking wine. In the television show Jackie Chan Adventures, Zhongli was shown to be the Immortal who sealed away Xiao Fung, media related to Zhongli Quan at Wikimedia Commons
11.
Li Tieguai
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Li Tieguai, also known as Tieguai Li, is a Chinese mythological figure and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. He is sometimes described as irascible and ill-tempered, but also benevolent to the poor, sick and he is often portrayed as an ugly old man with dirty face, scraggy beard, and messy hair held by a golden band. He walks with the aid of a crutch and often has a gourd slung over his shoulder or held in his hand. He often is depicted as a figure who descends to earth in the form of a beggar who uses his power to fight for the oppressed. The legend says that Li was born in the Yuan dynasty, however, in folklore, he is depicted as Laozis apprentice, hence he should have lived in the sixth century BC. The Eight Immortals became immortals by means of practising Taoist magical arts, according to the myth, they lived on an island paradise, Mount Penglai in eastern China, which only they could traverse due to the weak water which would not support ships. Among the Eight Immortals, Li Tieguai was one of the more popular, some say that in the myth the gourd had spirals of smoke ascend from it, denoting his power of setting his spirit free from his body. Others say that the gourd was full of medicine which he dispensed to the poor, Li studied with Laozi, the founder of Taoism. He is said to have renounced material comforts and led a life of self-discipline as an act of devotion for 40 years. Li lived in a cave in the stage of his Taoist training. Laozi tempted him with a woman he had made of wood. After refusing to acknowledge the presence of this woman and therefore defeating his temptation, Laozi told him of his trick, after consuming this tablet, Li was never hungry nor ill. Laozi tempted Li again with money, some robbers had buried money in Lis field without knowing he was watching. Laozi approached him in disguise and told him he should take any money that came to him, after Li refused, saying that he did not care if he remained poor his whole life, Laozi rewarded him with another pill. This pill bestowed upon Li the ability to fly at amazing speeds, before becoming an immortal, it was previously stated that Li was a very handsome man. However, on one occasion, his spirit travelled to Heaven to meet other immortals and he had told his apprentice, Li Qing, to wait for seven days for his spirit to return. Li Qing thus cremated Li Tieguais body and he passed by a dying beggar on his way to his mothers but did not have time to bury him. Upon returning, Li Tieguais spirit found that his body had been cremated and had to enter the body available at the time
12.
Neidan
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It is believed the Xiuzhen Tu is such a cultivation map. In China, it is an important form of practice for most schools of Taoism, the Chinese compound nèidān combines the common word nèi 內 meaning inside, inner, internal with dān 丹 cinnabar, vermillion, elixir, alchemy. The antonym of nèi is wài 外 outside, exterior, external, Chinese alchemical texts and sources ordinarily call neidan the jīndān dào 金丹道 or Way of the Golden Elixir. In Modern Standard Chinese usage, the term nèidān shù 內丹術 refers generally to internal alchemical practices, the date for the earliest use of the term neidan is uncertain. I pray that all the saints and sages will come to my help, so that I may get some good magic mushrooms, in this way I shall be able to practice continually the way of the Sutras and to engage in the several forms of meditations. I shall hope to find a peaceful dwelling in the depths of the mountains, with enough numinous elixirs, thus by the aids of external elixirs I shall be able to cultivate the elixir within. Others believed that neidan first occurred in the biographies of Deng Yuzhi鄧郁之, however, the authenticity of the relevant passages in these pseudo-historical sources is doubtful. Tang texts described internal alchemical practices with the words fúyào 服藥 take drug/medicine and chángshēng 長生 long life, longevity, liu Xiyues 劉希岳988 Taixuan langranzi jindao shi 太玄朗然子進道詩 has the earliest dateable mention of the terms neidan and waidan. The c.1019 Yunji Qiqian Daoist anthology mentions the term neidan, Neidan is part of the Chinese alchemical meditative tradition that is said to have been separated into internal and external at some point during the Tang dynasty. The Cantong qi is the earliest known book on alchemy in China. This text influenced the formation of Neidan, whose earliest existing texts date from the first half of the 8th century, the authors of several Neidan articles refer to their teachings as the Way of the Golden Elixir. The majority of Chinese alchemical sources is found in the Daozang, Neidan shares a significant portion of its notions and methods with classical Chinese medicine, fangshi and with other bodies of practices, such as meditation and the methods for nourishing life. To do so, first keep the body at ease, thereby energy can be made complete. Making ones energy complete, one can nurture the mind, to do so, first keep the mind pure, and make sure there are no thoughts. Thereby spirit can be made complete, making ones spirit complete, one can recover emptiness. To do so, first keep the will sincere, and make sure body, thereby spirit can be returned to emptiness. To attain immortality, there is nothing else but the refinement of these three treasures, essence, energy, spirit. When the three treasures are maintained, along with a balance of yin and yang, it is possible to achieve a healthy body and longevity
13.
Magic sword
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A magic sword is any mythological or fictional sword imbued with magical power to increase its strength or grant it other supernatural qualities. The archetype originated in myth and legend, and occurs regularly in fantasy fiction, renowned swords appear in the folklore of every nation that used swords. Sometimes the sword is ascribed no powers of its own and it is famous because it is the heros sword, or because of its origin, as when a god gives it to the hero. Other swords keep their wielders safe or destroy their enemies, a more localized motif is the sword that has been broken and must be reforged, commonly found in Northern Europe. Such a sword symbolizes the defeat and loss of honor of its wielder. Subsequent victory and the restoration of honor is achieved by reforging it and it is probable that the roots of the sentient weapon myths stem from ancient peoples belief that sword making and metallurgy was in fact a magical process. Through the fires of the forge a lump of earth was transformed into a shiny usable object that could be hammered into many shapes. Extending further from the transformation of ore into metal, the difficulty of obtaining a quality blade. While any blacksmith could manufacture a knife or an axehead only a swordsmith could create a high quality sword, the secrets of doing so were jealously guarded as well as formulas for alloys. A few degrees too hot or too cold within a limited temperature range. A lack of expertise in knowing when and how to apply carbon and flux, thus the swordsmith almost felt like he was one with his work, giving the process his complete devotion of concentration and thought. This led to the belief that he was actually imbuing the blade with an essence of his spirit, One would only have to see how they are referenced within the Holy Books of Christians, Jews and Muslims to make this point evident. The Vikings prized their swords above all things, handing them down from generation to generation. The value of the blade was not only determined by its quality, polynesian people such as the Māori also had comparable reverence for their weapons. They believed a weapon contained a force called mana and that the weapon held the spirits of its maker, its line of owners. These weapons where highly prized for their mana and cherished as heirlooms, the Samurai of Japan believed that their swords had their own soul that could possess them. It was not the wielder but their swords that desired to kill, since most of them were Buddhists, that train of thought gave them some peace of mind in their killing vocation. Magic swords may exhibit various degrees of sentience, from being influenced by the wielder to being able to think for itself or even control its owner
14.
Quan Tangshi
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The Quantangshi is the major reservoir of surviving Tang Dynasty poems, from which the pre-eminent shorter anthology, Three Hundred Tang Poems is largely drawn. In 1705, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to Cao Yin, a trusted imperial bondservant, official, and he commanded Cao to compile and publish all the surviving shi of the Tang, inaugurating the first of the great literary projects for which the Manchu dynasty became famous. The emperor also appointed nine scholars of the Hanlin Academy to oversee the collation of the texts, the team compared texts from various libraries as well as checking into private collections. Cao trained calligraphers in a style of writing before carving the wood blocks for printing. The work was finished in the short time, though Cao felt called upon to apologize to the emperor for the delay. More than one hundred craftsmen worked on the printing, for paper was specially procured. Although the Quan Tangshi is the largest compilation of Tang poems, the work was done in some haste, and the editors did not justify or even indicate their own choices of texts or variant readings. Many additional poems and variant texts were discovered in the early 20th century in the library at Dunhuang, for instance. In the case of major poets, there were better texts in individually edited volumes. Many are listed in Tang dynasty catalogs but did not survive the destruction of the imperial libraries, the poems are arranged in sections, for instance, those by emperors or consorts and 乐府 Yuefu. Seven hundred and fifty-four sections, the largest number of sections, are arranged by author, others are arranged by form or subject, such as women, monks, priests, spirits, ghosts, dreams, prophecy, proverbs, mystery, rumor, and drinking. 274–313, ISBN0231109849 Spence, Jonathan D. Tsao Yin, typeset punctuated edition in 25 volumes, but commentaries are not included. Yu, Pauline, The Chinese Poetic Canon and its Boundaries, in Hay, John, Boundaries in China, London, Reaktion Books, ISBN 978-0-948462-38-2 Schafer, Edward H
15.
Given name
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A given name is a part of a persons personal name. It identifies a person, and differentiates that person from other members of a group, such as a family or clan. The term given name refers to the fact that the name usually is bestowed upon a person and this contrasts with a surname, which is normally inherited, and shared with other members of the childs immediate family. Given names are used in a familiar and friendly manner in informal situations. In more formal situations the surname is commonly used, unless it is necessary to distinguish between people with the same surname. The idioms on a basis and being on first-name terms allude to the familiarity of addressing another by a given name. The order given name – family name, commonly known as the Western order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe. The order family name – given name, commonly known as the Eastern order, is used in East Asia, as well as in Southern and North-Eastern parts of India. The order given name - fathers family name - mothers family name is used in Spanish-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents. Today the order can also be changed legally in Spain using given name - mothers family name - fathers family name, under the common Western naming convention, people may have one or more forenames. If more than one, there is usually a main forename for everyday use, sometimes however two or more forenames may carry equal weight. There is no particular ordering rule for forenames – often the main forename is at the beginning, a childs given name or names are usually chosen by the parents soon after birth. If a name is not assigned at birth, one may be given at a ceremony, with family. In most jurisdictions, a name at birth is a matter of public record, inscribed on a birth certificate. In western cultures, people normally retain the same name throughout their lives. However, in some cases names may be changed by petitioning a court of law. People may also change their names when immigrating from one country to another with different naming conventions, in France, the agency can refer the case to a local judge. Some jurisdictions, like in Sweden, restrict the spelling of names, parents may choose a name because of its meaning
16.
Courtesy name
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A courtesy name, also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to ones given name. This practice is a tradition in East Asian cultures, including China, Japan, Korea, formerly in China, the zi would replace a males given name when he turned twenty, as a symbol of adulthood and respect. It could be either by the parents or by the first personal teacher on the first day of family school. Females might substitute their given name for a zi upon marriage, one also may adopt a self-chosen courtesy name. In China the popularity of the custom has declined to some extent since the May Fourth Movement in 1919, a courtesy name is not to be confused with an art name, another frequently mentioned term for an alternative name in Asian culture-based context. An art name is associated with art and is more of a literary name or a pseudonym that is more spontaneous. The zì, sometimes called the biǎozì or courtesy name, is a name given to Chinese males at the age of 20. It was sometimes given to females upon marriage, the practice is no longer common in modern Chinese society. According to the Book of Rites, after a man reaches adulthood, it is disrespectful for others of the generation to address him by his given name. The zì is mostly disyllabic and is based on the meaning of the míng or given name. Yan Zhitui of the Northern Qi dynasty believed that while the purpose of the míng was to one person from another. The relation which exists between a persons zì and míng may be seen in the case of Chiang Kai-shek, whose ming was Zhōngzhèng. Thus he was also called 蔣中正（Chiang Chung-cheng）in some context, another way to form a zì is to use the homophonic character zǐ – a respectful title for a male – as the first character of the disyllabic zì. Thus, for example, Gongsun Qiaos zì was Zǐchǎn, and Du Fus and it is also common to construct a zì by using as the first character one which expresses the bearers birth order among male siblings in his family. Thus Confucius, whose name was Kǒng Qiū, was given the zì Zhòngní, the characters commonly used are bó for the first, zhòng for the second, shū for the third, and jì typically for the youngest, if the family consists of more than three sons. General Sun Jians four sons, for instance, were Sun Ce, Sun Quan, Sun Yi, the use of zì began during the Shang dynasty, and slowly developed into a system which became most widespread during the succeeding Zhou dynasty. During this period, women were also given zì, the zì given to a woman was generally composed of a character indicating her birth order among female siblings and her surname. For example, Mèng Jiāng was the eldest daughter in the Jiāng family, prior to the twentieth century, sinicized Koreans, Vietnamese, and Japanese were also referred to by their zì
17.
Yin and yang
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Many tangible dualities are thought of as physical manifestations of the duality symbolized by yin and yang. Duality is found in many systems, but Yin and Yang are parts of a Oneness that is also equated with the Tao. A term has been coined dualistic-monism or dialectical monism, Yin and yang can be thought of as complementary forces that interact to form a dynamic system in which the whole is greater than the assembled parts. Everything has both yin and yang aspects, either of the two major aspects may manifest more strongly in a particular object, depending on the criterion of the observation. The yin yang shows a balance between two opposites with a portion of the element in each section. In Taoist metaphysics, distinctions between good and bad, along with other dichotomous moral judgments, are perceptual, not real, so, the duality of yin and yang is an indivisible whole. In the ethics of Confucianism on the hand, most notably in the philosophy of Dong Zhongshu. The Chinese terms yīn 陰 or 阴 shady side and yáng 陽 or 阳 sunny side are linguistically analyzable in terms of Chinese characters, pronunciations and etymology, meanings, topography, and loanwords. The first phonetic yīn 侌 cloudy ideographically combines jīn 今 now, present and yún 云 cloud, the second phonetic yáng 昜 bright originally pictured 日 the sun with 勿 rays coming down. This phonetic is expanded with the sun radical into yáng 暘 rising sun, the mound, hill radical 阝full forms semantically specify yīn 陰 shady/dark side of a hill and yáng 陽 sunny/light side of a hill. Compare the Classical Chinese names for these two bodies, Tàiyīn 太陰 moon and Tàiyáng 太陽 sun. Reconstructions of Old Chinese have illuminated the etymology of modern Chinese words, Yin and yang are semantically complex words. A reliable Chinese-English dictionary gives the translation equivalents. Many Chinese place names or toponyms contain the word yang sunny side, similarly, yin refers to north side of a hill in Huayin 華陰, which is north of Mount Hua 華山 in Shaanxi province. English yin, yang, and yin-yang are familiar loanwords of Chinese origin, the Oxford English Dictionary defines, yin Also Yin, Yn. a. Also attrib. or as adj. and transf, comb. as yin-yang, the combination or fusion of the two cosmic forces, freq. attrib. Esp. as yin-yang symbol, a divided by an S-shaped line into a dark. Comb. yang-yin = yin-yang s. v. yin b, for the earliest recorded yin and yang usages, the OED cites 1671 for yin and yang,1850 for yin-yang, and 1959 for yang-yin
18.
Aroma compound
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An aroma-compound, also known as an odorant, aroma, fragrance, or flavor, is a chemical compound that has a smell or odor. A chemical-compound has a smell or odor when it is volatile to be transported to the olfactory system in the upper-part of the nose. Generally molecules meeting this specification have molecular weights of <300, flavors affect both the sense of taste and smell, whereas fragrances affect only smell. Flavors tend to be occurring, and fragrances tend to be synthetic. Aroma-compounds can be found in food, wine, spices, floral scent, perfumes, fragrance oils, for example, many form biochemically during the ripening of fruits and other crops. In wines, most form as byproducts of fermentation, an odorizer may add an odorant to a dangerous odorless substance, like propane, natural gas, or hydrogen, as a safety measure. Note, Carvone, depending on its chirality, offers two different smells, furaneol 1-Hexanol cis-3-Hexen-1-ol Menthol High concentrations of aldehydes tend to be very pungent and overwhelming, but low concentrations can evoke a wide range of aromas. Acetaldehyde Hexanal cis-3-Hexenal Furfural Hexyl cinnamaldehyde Isovaleraldehyde – nutty, fruity, cocoa-like Anisic aldehyde – floral, sweet and it is a crucial component of chocolate, vanilla, strawberry, raspberry, apricot, and others. Its smell is so potent it can be detected several hundred meters downwind mere seconds after a container is opened, butane-1-thiol, commonly called normal-butyl mercaptan is a chemical-intermediate. Olfactory-receptors are cell-membrane receptors on the surface of neurons in the olfactory system that detect air-borne. In mammals, olfactory-receptors are expressed on the surface of the epithelium in the nasal cavity. In 2005–06, fragrance-mix was the third-most-prevalent allergen in patch tests, Fragrance was voted Allergen of the Year in 2007 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. The composition of fragrances is usually not disclosed in the label of products, hiding the actual chemicals of the formula, the EPA, however, does not conduct independent-safety testing but relies on data provided by the manufacturer. In 2010 the International Fragrance Association published a list of 3,059 chemicals used in 2011 based on a voluntary-survey of its members and it was estimated to represent about 90% of the worlds production-volume of fragrances
19.
Chinese calendar
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Traditional Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. It is used for activities in China and overseas Chinese communities. It depictures and lists the dates of traditional Chinese holidays, and guides Chinese people in selecting the most auspicious days for weddings, funerals, moving, in the Chinese calendar, the days begin and end at midnight. The months begin on the day with the dark moon, the years begin with the dark moon near the midpoint between winter solstice and spring equinox. The solar terms are the important components of the Chinese calendar, in a month, there are one to three solar terms. The currently used traditional Chinese calendar is the end result of centuries of evolution, many astronomical and seasonal factors were added by ancient scientists, and people can reckon the date of natural phenomena such as the moon phase and tide upon the Chinese calendar. The Chinese calendar has over 100 variants, whose characteristics reflect the evolutionary path. As with Chinese characters, different variants are used in different parts of the Chinese cultural sphere, calendars in Mongolia and Tibet have absorbed elements from the Chinese calendar and elements from other systems, but they are not direct descendants of the Chinese calendar. The official calendar in China is the Gregorian calendar, but the traditional Chinese calendar still plays an important role there. The Chinese calendar is known officially as the Rural Calendar, but is referred to by other names, such as the Former Calendar. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture, although the month sequences of Chinese calendar is decided by the solar term, the Chinese calendar is not an agriculture calendar. The Chinese calendar has greatly influenced the traditional calendars around Asia, the calendar has a year, month and date frame. The key elements are the day, synodic month and solar year, the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar, similar to the Hindu and Hebrew calendars. The concepts in the Chinese, Hindu, and Hebrew calendars, day, in the Chinese calendar, a day starts from the midnight, in the Hindu calendars, a day starts from sunrise, and in the Hebrew calendar, a day starts from sunset. Month, the time is based on the obliquity of the moon path, a month is about 29 17/32 days. Phase, 1/30 month, 12° obliquity of the moon path, a unique concept of dating method in the Hindu calendar, a phase is about 63/64 day, which derived out the 64 divinatory symbols. Date, the day number in a month, in the Chinese and Hebrew calendars, days are numbered in sequence from 1 to 29 or 30, and in the Hindu calendars, the days are numbered according to the number of the phase in the days. In the Hindu calendars, some dates may be vacant, Year, the time based on the earths revolution
20.
Imperial examination
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The Chinese imperial examinations were a civil service examination system in Imperial China to select candidates for the state bureaucracy. The examination helped to shape Chinas intellectual, cultural, political, shopping, arts and crafts, the increased reliance on the exam system was in part responsible for Tang dynasty shifting from a military aristocracy to a gentry class of scholar-bureaucrats. Starting with the Song dynasty, the system was regularized and developed into a roughly three-tiered ladder from local to provincial to court exams, the content was narrowed and fixed on texts of Neo-Confucian orthodoxy. Critics charged that the system stifled creativity and created officials who dared not defy authority, wealthy families, especially merchants, could opt into the system by educating their sons or purchasing degrees. In the 19th century, critics blamed the system, and in the process its examinations, for Chinas lack of technical knowledge. The influence of the Chinese examination system spread to neighboring Asian countries, such as Vietnam, Korea, Japan, following the initial success in that company, the British government adopted a similar testing system for screening civil servants in 1855. Other European nations, such as France and Germany, followed suit, modeled after these previous adaptations, the U. S established its own testing program for certain government jobs after 1883. However, the structure of the system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian. Thus the system played a key role in the selection of the scholar-officials, during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system contributed to the narrowness of intellectual life and the autocratic power of the emperor. The system continued with some modifications until its 1905 abolition under the Qing dynasty, other brief interruptions to the system occurred, such as at the beginning of the Yuan dynasty in the 13th century. The modern examination system for selecting civil servants also indirectly evolved from the imperial one and this changed during the Sui, when recruitment into the imperial civil service bureaucracy became to be considered an imperial prerogative, rather than a duty to be performed by the lower levels. By the Tang dynasty, most of the recruitment into central government bureaucrat offices was being performed by the bureaucracy itself, the regular higher level degree examination cycle was nominally decreed in 1067 to be 3 years. The jinshi tests were not an event and should not be considered so. Oral examination on policy issues were sometimes conducted personally by the emperor himself, beginning in the Three Kingdoms period, imperial officials were responsible for assessing the quality of the talents recommended by the local elites. This system continued until Emperor Yang of Sui established a new category of recommended candidates for the mandarinate in AD605, for the first time, an examination system was explicitly instituted for a category of local talents. However, the Sui dynasty was short-lived, and the system did not reach its mature development until afterwards, a pivotal point in the development of imperial examinations arose with the rise of Wu Zetian. Up until that point, the rulers of the Tang dynasty were all members of the Li family. Reform of the examinations to include a new class of elite bureaucrats derived from humbler origins became a keystone of Wus gamble to retain power
21.
Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty was an era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continued until 1279. It succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, coincided with the Liao and Western Xia dynasties and it was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or true paper money nationally and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as the first discernment of true north using a compass, the Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods, Northern and Southern. During the Northern Song, the Song capital was in the city of Bianjing. The Southern Song refers to the period after the Song lost control of its half to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the Jin–Song Wars. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze, the Southern Song dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad. To repel the Jin, and later the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder, in 1234, the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and his younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan, though his claim was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan was proclaimed the Emperor of China, after two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khans armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279. The Mongol invasion led to a reunification under the Yuan dynasty, the population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. The Northern Song census recorded a population of roughly 50 million, much like the Han and this data is found in the Standard Histories. However, it is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of some 100 million people and this dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution in pre-modern China. The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and the emergence of a national economy led to the withdrawal of the central government from direct involvement in economic affairs. The lower gentry assumed a role in grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the gentry for their services, sponsorship. Social life during the Song was vibrant, citizens gathered to view and trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the expansion of woodblock printing. Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished over the course of the Song, although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period
22.
Chang'an
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Changan is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xian. Changan means Perpetual Peace in Classical Chinese, during the short-lived Xin dynasty, the city was renamed Constant Peace, yet after its fall in AD23, the old name was restored. By the time of the Ming dynasty, the name was changed to Xian, meaning Western Peace. Changan had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao Culture was established in Banpo in the citys suburb, from its capital at Xianyang, the Qin dynasty ruled a larger area than either of the preceding dynasties. The imperial city of Changan during the Han dynasty was located northwest of todays Xian. During the Tang dynasty, the area to be known as Changan included the area inside the Ming Xian fortification, plus small areas to its east and west. The Tang Changan hence, was 8 times the size of the Ming Xian, during its heyday, Changan was one of the largest and most populous cities in the world. Around AD750, Changan was called a million peoples city in Chinese records, while modern estimates put it at around 800, 000–1,000,000 within city walls. According to the census in 742 recorded in the New Book of Tang,362,921 families with 1,960,188 persons were counted in Jingzhao Fu, the strategic and economic importance of ancient Changan was mainly due to its central position. The roads leading to Gansu, Sichuan, Henan, Hubei, the site of the Han capital was located 3 km northwest of modern Xian. As the capital of the Western Han, it was the political, economic and it was also the eastern terminus of the Silk Road, and a cosmopolitan metropolis. By 2 AD, the population was 246,200 in 80,000 households and this population consisted mostly of the scholar gentry class whose education was being sponsored by their wealthy aristocratic families. In addition to civil servants was a larger underclass to serve them. Initially, Emperor Liu Bang decided to build his capital at the center of the sun and this location was the site of the holy city Chengzhou, home of the last Zhou emperors. The magical significance of location was believed to ensure a long-lasting dynasty like the Zhou. However, in practice the strategic value of a capital located in the Wei Valley became the deciding factor for locating the new capital. To this end, it is recorded c 200 BC he forcibly relocated thousands of clans in the aristocracy to this region. First, it kept all potential rivals close to the new Emperor and his adviser Liu Jing described this plan as weakening the root while strengthening the branch
23.
Handan
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Handan is a prefecture-level city located in the southwestern part of Hebei province, China. It borders Xingtai on the north, and the provinces of Shanxi on the west, Henan on the south and Shandong on the east. Handan, whose name has not changed in its history, was the capital of the State of Zhao during the Warring States period. King Wuling of Zhao turned Zhao into one of the Qin states most stalwart foes, the city was conquered by the State of Qin after the virtual annexation of Zhao by Qin except for the Dai Commandery. The conquest of Zhao, particularly the Qin siege of Handan, is featured extensively in Chen Kaiges classic film, The Emperor, Handan was still regarded as a cultural and commercial centre during the Western and Eastern Han dynasties. It slowly declined, perhaps because of the battles that ravaged northern China following the Han Dynasty. It was also the birthplace in the 19th century of Yang-style tai chi chuan, modern-day Congtai Park is located on the site of the historical Zhao court. Next to Congtai Park is the legendary Xuebu Qiao, or Learning to Walk Bridge, legend has it that a noble from the state of Yan heard of a particularly elegant manner of walking unique to Handan. Arriving in Handan, he spent weeks trying to master the Handan style of walking on a bridge, in the process, however, he had forgotten how to walk normally and had to crawl back to Yan. This story inspired the Chinese expression, 邯郸学步, which means learning something difficult too intensely, the nearby Xiangtangshan Caves contain massive Buddha statues carved into the mountainside, some dating to the 6th century. Many of these statues were vandalised by occupying Japanese forces during World War II. Handan was prized by the Japanese invaders for its coal reserves. The population at the 2010 census was 941,427 for the 3 urban districts,2,845,790 for the built up area and 9,174,683 for the entire Prefecture-level city area of 12,068 km2. The municipal executive, legislative and judiciary are situated in Congtai District, as well as the CPC, Handan has a cold semi-arid climate Industrial growth in the city was due to its communication and transport activities. Coal mines at Fengfeng provide power for Handans iron, steel, chemical and cement plants along with other industries also benefit. The GDP per capita in Renminbi, aka yuan was estimated at ¥13,449 in 2005, according to a survey by Global voices China in February 2013, Handan is one of Chinas most polluted cities due to heavy industrial outputs. According to Handan government in 2007,40 ethnic groups were present in Handan, ethnic minorities represent 50,000 people, among which 48,000 Hui. There are 22 Hui schools and 5 Hui junior high schools in Handan, the most widespread religions in Handan are Chinese folk religions including Taoism, and Buddhism
24.
Millet
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Millets are a group of highly variable small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Millets are important crops in the tropics of Asia and Africa. The crop is favored due to its productivity and short growing season under dry, millets are indigenous to many parts of the world. The most widely grown millet is pearl millet, which is an important crop in India, Finger millet, proso millet, and foxtail millet are also important crop species. Millets have been important food staples in human history, particularly in Asia and they have been in cultivation in East Asia for the last 10,000 years. Consumption of the minor millets has been practiced since the beginning of the ancient civilizations of the world, generally, the millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to grass family. They are highly tolerant of extreme conditions such as drought and are nutritious compared to the major cereals such as rice. They contain low phytic acid and are rich in fiber, iron, calcium. Moreover, these millets release sugar slowly in the blood and also diminish the glucose absorption, major millets are the most widely cultivated species. Eragrostideae tribe, Eleusine coracana, Finger millet - the fourth-most cultivated millet, paniceae tribe, Panicum miliaceum, Proso millet - the third-most cultivated millet. Pennisetum glaucum, Pearl millet - the most cultivated millet, setaria italica, Foxtail millet - the second-most cultivated millet. Jobs tears - of minor importance as a crop, eragrostideae tribe, Eragrostis tef, Teff - often not considered to be a millet. White fonio, Black fonio, Raishan, Polish millet - of minor importance as a crop, Japanese barnyard millet, Indian barnyard millet, Burgu millet, Common barnyard grass. Collectively, the members of this genus are called barnyard grasses or barnyard millets, other common names to identify these seeds include Jhangora, Samo seeds or Morio / Mario / Moraiaya seeds. Panicum sumatrense, Little millet Paspalum scrobiculatum, Kodo millet Urochloa ramosa, guinea millet Foxtail Millet is known to have been the first domesticated millet. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of millet to Shennong, the legendary Emperor of China, millets also formed important parts of the prehistoric diet in Indian, Chinese Neolithic and Korean Mumun societies. Broomcorn and foxtail millet were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China, for example, some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan. Evidence at Cishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 6500 BC, a 4, 000-year-old well-preserved bowl containing well-preserved noodles made from foxtail millet and broomcorn millet was found at the Lajia archaeological site in China
25.
Prime minister
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A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss members of the cabinet. In most systems, the minister is the presiding member. In parliamentary systems fashioned after the Westminster system, the minister is the presiding and actual head of government. In such systems, the head of state or the head of states official representative usually holds a ceremonial position. The prime minister is often, but not always, a member of the Legislature or the Lower House thereof and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature. In some monarchies the monarch may also exercise powers that are constitutionally vested in the crown. The first actual usage of the prime minister or Premier Ministre was used by Cardinal Richelieu when in 1625 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of France. Louis XIV and his descendants generally attempted to avoid giving this title to their chief ministers, the term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the United Kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole. Over time, however, the title became honorific and remains so in the 21st century, the monarchs of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government. Examples were Thomas Cromwell under Henry VIII, William Cecil, Lord Burghley under Elizabeth I, Clarendon under Charles II and these ministers held a variety of formal posts, but were commonly known as the minister, the chief minister, the first minister and finally the prime minister. The power of ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch. Although managing the parliament was among the skills of holding high office. Although there was a cabinet, it was appointed entirely by the monarch, when the monarch grew tired of a first minister, he or she could be dismissed, or worse, Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful, late in Annes reign, for example, the Tory ministers Harley and St John shared power. The monarch could no longer any law or impose any tax without its permission. It is at point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge. A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714, George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in Hanover, and had neither knowledge of, nor interest in, the details of English government
26.
Tao
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Tao or Dao is a Chinese word signifying way, path, route, key or sometimes more loosely doctrine or principle. The Tao differs from conventional ontology in that it is an active and holistic practice of the order of Nature and its universal awakening. The Tao is eternally nameless” and to be distinguished from the countless named things which are considered to be its manifestations, the Tao lends its name to the religious tradition and philosophical tradition that are both referred to in English with the single term Taoism. The word Tao has a variety of meanings in ancient and modern Chinese language. Aside from its purely prosaic use to mean road, channel, path, principle, or similar, the Tao can be roughly thought of as the flow of the Universe, or as some essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the Universe balanced and ordered. It is related to the idea of qi, the energy of action. The Tao is a non-dualistic principle – it is the whole from which all the individual elements of the Universe derive. The Tao is more expressed in the relationship between wu and yinyang, leading to its central principle of wu wei. The Tao is usually described in terms of elements of nature, like water it is undifferentiated, endlessly self-replenishing, soft and quiet but immensely powerful, and impassively generous. Much of Taoist philosophy centers on the continuity of the natural world. In all its uses, the Tao is considered to have qualities that prevent it from being defined or expressed in words. It can, however, be known or experienced, and its principles can be followed or practiced, much of East Asian philosophical writing focuses on the value of adhering to the principles of the Tao and the various consequences of failing to do so. The Tao was shared with Confucianism, Chán and Zen Buddhism and more broadly throughout East Asian philosophy and religion in general. In Taoism, Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism, the object of spiritual practice is to one with the Tao or to harmonise ones will with Nature in order to achieve effortless action. This involves meditative and moral practices, important in this respect is the Taoist concept of De. De is the generally used to refer to proper adherence to the Tao. Particular things that manifest from the Tao have their own nature that they follow, in accordance with the Tao. Historically, the concept of De differed significantly between Taoists and Confucianists and this led to some philosophical and political conflicts between Taoists and Confucianisms
27.
Ma Zhiyuan
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Ma Zhiyuan, courtesy name Dongli, was a Chinese poet and celebrated playwright, a native of Dadu during the Yuan dynasty. Among his achievements is the development and popularizing of the sanqu lyric type of Classical Chinese poetry forms, the poem Autumn Thoughts from the book 东篱乐府 is the most widely known of his sanqu poems. Shanghai, Shanghai ci shu chu ban she （上海辞书出版社）,1979, works by Ma Zhiyuan at LibriVox
28.
Yuan dynasty
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The Yuan dynasty, officially the Great Yuan, was the empire or ruling dynasty of China established by Kublai Khan, leader of the Mongolian Borjigin clan. His realm was, by point, isolated from the other khanates and controlled most of present-day China and its surrounding areas. Some of the Mongolian Emperors of the Yuan mastered the Chinese language, while others used their native language. The Yuan dynasty is considered both a successor to the Mongol Empire and an imperial Chinese dynasty and it was the khanate ruled by the successors of Möngke Khan after the division of the Mongol Empire. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven, following the Song dynasty, the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu. In addition to Emperor of China, Kublai Khan also claimed the title of Great Khan, supreme over the other khanates, the Chagatai, the Golden Horde. As such, the Yuan was also referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan. However, while the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was at times recognized by the khans, their subservience was nominal. In 1271, Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan, establishing the Yuan dynasty, dà Yuán is from the clause 大哉乾元 in the Commentaries on the Classic of Changes section regarding Qián. The counterpart in Mongolian language was Dai Ön Ulus, also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus, in Mongolian, Dai Ön is often used in conjunction with the Yeke Mongghul Ulus, resulting in Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus, meaning Great Mongol State. Nevertheless, both terms can refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271. Genghis Khan united the Mongol and Turkic tribes of the steppes and he and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han Chinese teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani and he sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedeis son, Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251 and he granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money, revived Chinese rituals and he adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later renamed Shangdu. Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin, two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima, and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan, Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols
29.
History of the Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty of China was a ruling dynasty that controlled China proper and southern China from the middle of the 10th century into the last quarter of the 13th century. However, it was also a period of political and military turmoil, with opposing and often aggressive political factions formed at court, the frontier management policies of the Chancellor Wang Anshi exacerbated hostile conditions along the Chinese-Vietnamese border, sparking a border war with the Lý dynasty. It was there that new naval strength was developed to combat the Jurchens Jin dynasty formed in the north, the Later Zhou was the last of the Five Dynasties that had controlled northern China after the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907. Zhao Kuangyin, later known as Emperor Taizu, usurped the throne from the Zhou with the support of commanders in 960. Upon taking the throne, his first goal was the reunification of China after half a century of political division. This included the conquests of Nanping, Wu-Yue, Southern Han, Later Shu, and Southern Tang in the south as well as the Northern Han and the Sixteen Prefectures in the north. With capable military officers such as Yang Ye, Liu Tingrang, Cao Bin and Huyan Zan, consolidation in the south was completed in 978, with the conquest of Wu-Yue. Song military forces then turned north against the Northern Han, which fell to Song forces in 979, however, efforts to take the Sixteen Prefectures were unsuccessful and they were incorporated into the Liao state based in Manchuria to the immediate north instead. Although the Song state was evenly matched against the Liao dynasty, after political consolidation through military conquest, Emperor Taizu held a famous banquet inviting many of the high-ranking military officers that had served him in Songs various conquests. As his military officers drank wine and feasted with Taizu, he spoke to them about the potential of a coup against him like those of Five Dynasties era. His military officers protested against this notion, and insisted that none were as qualified as him to lead the country, the passage of this account in the Song Shi follows as such, The emperor said, The life of man is short. Happiness is to have the wealth and means to enjoy life and this system of civilian rule led to a greater concentration of power in the central government headed by the emperor than had been possible during the previous dynasties. Although new municipal governments were established, the same number of prefectures and provinces were in existence as before the Song came to power. In 971, he ordered Lu Duosun to update and re-write all the Tu Jing in the world, nonetheless, he traveled throughout the provinces to collect illustrative gazetteers and as much data as possible. With the aid of Song Zhun, the work was completed in 1010. The later Song Shi historical text stated, Yuan Hsieh was Director-General of governmental grain stores. In pursuance of his schemes for the relief of famines he issued orders that each pao should prepare a map which would show the fields and mountains, the rivers and the roads in fullest detail. The maps of all the pao were joined together to make a map of the tu, and these in turn were joined with others to make a map of the hsiang, Taizu also displayed a strong interest in science and technology
30.
Chen Tuan
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Chen Tuan 陳摶 was a legendary Taoist sage credited with creation of the kung fu system Liuhebafa. The character Tuan is sometimes confused with the very similar-looking character Bo, in Chinese, he is often respectfully referred to as Aged Ancestor Chen Tuan and Ancestral Teacher Xiyi. Chen Tuan, styled Tunan, titled himself Fuyao Zi Known as the Sleeping Immortal, little is certain about his life, including when and where he was born. He was born around the end of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, by another account, he was born in Zhenyuan of Haozhou. Chen is said to have been astonishingly intelligent and erudite in his childhood, according to certain Taoist schools who claim him as a founder, he lived two decades of a secluded life in the Nine Room Cave on Mount Wudang, though traveled frequently. On the 1st year of Xiande Period of Later Zhou Dynasty he is known to live on the Mount Hua, the story goes that Chen Tuan had planned a career at the Imperial court, but flunked the state examination and became a hermit sage instead. Thus, as a student he was conversant with the Confucian classics, history, among the Confucian classics, he was particularly fond of the Yi jing, which he was unable to put down. Apart from the classics, he was said to be conversant with medical principles, astronomy and geography, Chen Tuan had a good command of primordial Yi learning, taught the River Chart and Luo River Book as well as the Infinite and Taiji Charts. As an important teacher of Taoist doctrines who pioneered the Confucian school of idealist philosophy of the Song and Ming Dynasties, having rejected the emperor’s orders and edicts, he was still conferred the title of “Master Xi Yi by the Emperor Taizong of the Song Dynasty. I am about to leave, nowadays I’m transformed in the Zhang Chao Valley at the foot of Lotus Peak on the 27th day of the month of the lunar calendar”. By the time he died when he cupped his cheek in his hand his facial features remained unchanged, many tales of Chen Tuan have been circulated around and it is said that He wanders around and shows no concern for worldly benefits. However, despite many mystical and mysterious stories, Chen was known to care about and was compassionate to ordinary people, for this he is deeply respected by the common folk. This Taoist sage was considered the embodiment of the Supreme Lord Lao and received the nickname of “Aged Ancestor”, a symbol of Taoism in Huashan. According to the biography of General Yue Fei, it was the immortal Chen Tuan who, disguised as a wandering Taoist. General Yue Fei ISBN 962-04-1279-6 Chan Yik Yan Wu Yi Hui Toqtoa, history of Liuhebafa and Chen Xiyi www. liuhopafa. com Taoist Culture & Information Center Plexus-Plus, Myth becomes Historical Artifact
31.
Taijitu
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A taijitu is a symbol or diagram in Chinese philosophy representing Taiji representing both its monist and its dualist aspects. Such a diagram was first introduced by Song Dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi in his Taijitu shuo 太極圖說, the modern Taoist canon, compiled during the Ming era, has at least half a dozen variants of such taijitu. The two most similar are the Taiji Primal Heaven and the diagrams, both of which have been extensively studied during the Qing period for their possible connection with Zhou Dunyis taijitu. Ming period author Lai Zhide simplified the taijitu to a design of two interlocking spirals, in the Ming era, the combination of the two interlocking spirals of the taijitu with two black-and-white dots superimposed on them became identified with the He tu or Yellow River diagram. This version was reported in Western literature of the late 19th century as the Great Monad, the contemporary Chinese term for the modern symbol is 太极兩儀图 two-part Taiji diagram. Unicode features the symbol in the Miscellaneous Symbols block, at code point U+262F. The related double body symbol is included at U+0FCA, in the Tibetan block, the taijitu consists of five parts. Strictly speaking the yin and yang symbol, itself popularly called taijitu, at the top, an empty circle depicts the absolute A second circle represents the Taiji as harboring Dualism, yin and yang, represented by filling the circle in a black-and-white pattern. In some diagrams, there is an empty circle at the center of this. Below this second circle is a diagram representing the Five Agents. The Five Agents are connected by lines indicating their proper sequence, the circle below the Five Agents represents the conjunction of Heaven and Earth, which in turn gives rise to the ten thousand things. This stage is represented by the Eight Trigrams. His brief text synthesized aspects of Chinese Buddhism and Taoism with metaphysical discussions in the Yijing, zhous key terms Wuji and Taiji appear in the opening line 無極而太極, which Adler notes could also be translated The Supreme Polarity that is Non-Polar. The Supreme Polarity in activity generates yang, yet at the limit of activity it is still, in stillness it generates yin, yet at the limit of stillness it is also active. Activity and stillness alternate, each is the basis of the other, in distinguishing yin and yang, the Two Modes are thereby established. The alternation and combination of yang and yin generate water, fire, wood, metal, with these five qi harmoniously arranged, the Four Seasons proceed through them. The Five Phases are simply yin and yang, yin and yang are simply the Supreme Polarity, instead of usual Taiji translations Supreme Ultimate or Supreme Pole, Adler uses Supreme Polarity because Zhu Xi describes it as the alternating principle of yin and yang, and. Insists that taiji is not a thing, thus, for both Zhou and Zhu, taiji is the yin-yang principle of bipolarity, which is the most fundamental ordering principle, the cosmic first principle
32.
Richard Wilhelm (sinologist)
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Richard Wilhelm was a German sinologist, theologian, and missionary. He lived in China for 25 years, became fluent in spoken and written Chinese and he is best remembered for his translations of philosophical works from Chinese into German that in turn have been translated into other major languages of the world, including English. His son Hellmut Wilhelm was also a sinologist, and was professor of Chinese at the University of Washington, richard Wilhelm, a Sinicized German Translator. In, Alleton, Vivianne and Michael Lackner, de lun au multiple, traductions du chinois vers les langues européennes Translations from Chinese into European Languages. Éditions de la maison des sciences de lhomme,1999, Paris
33.
The Secret of the Golden Flower
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The Secret of the Golden Flower is a Chinese Taoist classic about neidan meditation. The text of The Secret of the Golden Flower is attributed to Lü Dongbin of the late Tang dynasty and it is now known to have originated hundreds of years later, and was first published in the early Qing dynasty, circa 1668–1692. The meditation technique, set forth in language, reduces to a formula of sitting, breathing. Sitting primarily relates to a straight posture, breathing is described in detail, primarily in terms of the esoteric physiology of the path of qi, or breath energy. The energy path associated with breathing has been described as similar to an internal wheel vertically aligned with the spine, when breathing is steady, the wheel turns forward, with breath energy rising in back and descending in front. Bad breathing habits may cause the wheel not to turn, or move backward, in contemplation, one watches thoughts as they arise and recede. Such benefits are ascribed to improved internal energy associated with breath energy circulation, several drawings portray imagery relevant to the personal evolution of a meditation practitioner, images that may be somewhat confusing in terms of pure rational analysis. Only after one hundred days of consistent work, only then is the light genuine, the first such illustration represents the first one hundred days, or gathering the light. The second one represents an emergence of meditative consciousness, the third stage represents a meditative awareness that exists even in mundane, daily life. Stage four represents a higher meditative perception, where all conditions are recognized, then, varied conditions are portrayed as separately perceived, yet each separate perception is part of a whole of awareness. The Secret of the Golden Flower was first translated into German by sinologist Richard Wilhelm, a friend of Carl Jung, the work was later translated from German to English by Cary F. Baynes. Based on this sort of translation, Jung thought that the Chinese had no idea that they were discussing psychological phenomena. He then tried to repsychologize the terminology, but since he did not quite understand it to begin with he could not, contemporary Academic Research, page 24, Jan
34.
Wudang Mountains
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The Wudang Mountains consist of a small mountain range in the northwestern part of Hubei, China, just south of Shiyan. They are home to a complex of Taoist temples and monasteries associated with the god Xuan Wu. The Wudang Mountains are renowned for the practice of Taichi and Taoism as the Taoist counterpart to the Shaolin Monastery, which is affiliated with Chinese Chán Buddhism. On Chinese maps, the name Wudangshan is applied both to the mountain range, and to the small group of peaks located within Wudangshan subdistrict of Danjiangkou. It is the specific area which is known as a Taoist center. Modern maps show the elevation of the highest of the peaks in the Wudang Shan proper as 1612 meters, however, the entire Wudangshan range has somewhat higher elevations elsewhere. Some consider the Wudang Mountains to be a branch of the Daba Mountains range, for centuries, the mountains of Wudang have been known as an important center of Taoism, especially famous for its Taoist versions of martial arts or Taichi. The first site of worship—the Five Dragons Temple—was constructed at the behest of Emperor Taizong of Tang, temples regularly had to be rebuilt, and not all survived, the oldest extant structures are the Golden Hall and the Ancient Bronze Shrine, made in 1307. Other noted structures include Nanyang Palace, the stonewalled Forbidden City at the peak, the monasteries such as the Wudang Garden were made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994. On January 19,2003, the 600-year-old Yuzhengong Palace at the Wudang Mountains was accidentally burned down by an employee of an arts school. A fire broke out in the hall, reducing the three rooms that covered 200 square meters to ashes, a gold-plated statue of Zhang Sanfeng, which was usually housed in Yuzhengong, was moved to another building just before the fire, and so escaped destruction in the inferno. At the first national martial arts tournament organized by the Central Guoshu Institute in 1928, participants were separated into practitioners of Shaolin, styles considered to belong to the latter group—called Wudangquan—are those with a strong element of Taoist neidan exercises. Typical examples of Wudangquan are Taijiquan, Xingyiquan and Baguazhang, according to legend, Taijiquan was created by the Taoist hermit Zhang Sanfeng, who lived in the Wudang mountains. Wudangquan has been reformed to fit the PRC sport and health promotion program. The third biannual Traditional Wushu Festival was held in Wudang Mountains from October 28 to November 2,2008
35.
Heaven
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According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to earth or incarnate, and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven in the afterlife, or in exceptional cases enter Heaven alive. Some believe in the possibility of a Heaven on Earth in a World to Come, another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. In Indian religions, Heaven is considered as Svarga loka, and this cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, the modern English word heaven is derived from the earlier heven, this in turn was developed from the previous Old English form heofon. By about 1000, heofon was being used in reference to the Christianized place where God dwells, all of these have been derived from a reconstructed Proto-Germanic form *Hemina-. In Ancient Egyptian religion, belief in an afterlife is much more stressed than in ancient Judaism, Heaven was a physical place far above the Earth in a dark area of space where there were no stars, basically beyond the Universe. Their heart would finally be weighed with the feather of truth, almost nothing is known of Bronze Age Canaanite views of Heaven, and the archeological findings at Ugarit have not provided information. The 1st century Greek author Philo of Byblos may preserve elements of Iron Age Phoenician religion in his Sanchuniathon, in the Middle Hittite myths, Heaven is the abode of the gods. In the Song of Kumarbi, Alalu was king in Heaven for nine years before giving birth to his son, Anu was himself overthrown by his son, Kumarbi. The Baháí Faith regards the description of Heaven as a specific place as symbolic. The Baháí writings describe Heaven as a condition where closeness to God is defined as Heaven. For Baháís, entry into the life has the potential to bring great joy. Baháulláh likened death to the process of birth and he explains, The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in the womb of its mother. Accordingly, Baháís view life as a stage, where one can develop. The key to progress is to follow the path outlined by the current Manifestation of God. Baháulláh wrote, Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return, in Buddhism there are several Heavens, all of which are still part of samsara. Those who accumulate good karma may be reborn in one of them, however, their stay in Heaven is not eternal—eventually they will use up their good karma and will undergo rebirth into another realm, as a human, animal or other being. Because Heaven is temporary and part of samsara, Buddhists focus more on escaping the cycle of rebirth, Nirvana is not a heaven but a mental state
36.
Incarnation
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Incarnation literally means embodied in flesh or taking on flesh. It refers to the conception and birth of a sentient being who is the manifestation of an entity. In its religious context the word is used to mean the descent from Heaven of a god, or divine being in human/animal form on Earth. In the Baháí Faith, God is not seen to be incarnated into this world and is not seen to be part of creation as he cannot be divided and does not descend to the condition of his creatures. The Manifestations of God are also not seen as an incarnation of God, Buddhism is a non-theistic religion, it denies the concept of a creator god or any incarnation of a creator god. In Tibetan Buddhism, a spiritual teacher is believed to reincarnate. According to Tulku Thondup, there are three types of tulkus. They are the emanations of buddhas, the manifestations of highly accomplished adepts, there are also authentic secondary types as well which include unrecognized tulkus, blessed tulkus, and tulkus fallen from the path. The incarnation of Christ is a central Christian doctrine that God became flesh, assumed a human nature, and became a man in the form of Jesus, the Son of God and the second person of the Trinity. This foundational Christian position holds that the nature of the Son of God was perfectly united with human nature in one divine Person, Jesus. The theological term for this is hypostatic union, the Second Person of the Trinity, God the Son, biblical passages traditionally referenced in connection with the doctrine of the Incarnation include John 3, 1-21, Colossians 2,9, and Philippians 2, 7-8. In Hinduism, incarnation refers to its doctrine, and in its theistic traditions to avatar. Avatar literally means descent, alight, to ones appearance. The word also implies to overcome, to remove, to bring down, an avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is a saguna embodiment of the nirguna Brahman or Atman. Neither the Vedas nor the Principal Upanishads ever mention the word avatar as a noun, the verb roots and form, such as avatarana, do appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as action of descending, but not as an incarnated person. The related verb avatarana is, states Paul Hacker, used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, the term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu god Vishnu. It is in medieval era texts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the version of avatar appears. The incarnation idea proliferates thereafter, in the Puranic stories for many deities, while Avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional
37.
Reincarnation
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Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence and it is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by Greek historic figures, such as Pythagoras, Socrates. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teach reincarnation, in recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation, and many contemporary works mention it. The word reincarnation derives from Latin, literally meaning, entering the flesh again, the Greek equivalent metempsychosis derives from meta and empsykhoun, a term attributed to Pythagoras. An alternate term is transmigration implying migration from one life to another, the term has been used by modern philosophers such as Kurt Gödel and has entered the English language. Another Greek term sometimes used synonymously is palingenesis, being born again, Rebirth is a key concept found in major Indian religions, and discussed with various terms. These religions believe that this reincarnation is cyclic and an endless Saṃsāra and they consider the release from the cycle of reincarnations as the ultimate spiritual goal, and call the liberation by terms such as moksha, nirvana, mukti and kaivalya. Gilgul, Gilgul neshamot or Gilgulei Ha Neshamot refers to the concept of reincarnation in Kabbalistic Judaism, Gilgul means cycle and neshamot is souls. Kabbalistic reincarnation says that humans only to humans and to the same sex only. The origins of the notion of reincarnation are obscure, discussion of the subject appears in the philosophical traditions of India. The Greek Pre-Socratics discussed reincarnation, and the Celtic Druids are also reported to have taught a doctrine of reincarnation, the ideas associated with reincarnation may have arisen independently in different regions, or they might have spread as a result of cultural contact. In ancient European, Iranian and Indian agricultural cultures, the cycles of birth, death. The idea of reincarnation has early roots in the Vedic period, predating the Buddha, the concepts of the cycle of birth and death, samsara, and liberation partly derive from ascetic traditions that arose in India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. Though no direct evidence of this has found, the tribes of the Ganges valley or the Dravidian traditions of South India have been proposed as another early source of reincarnation beliefs. Hinduisms Rigveda makes references to reincarnation in the Brahmanas layer, though these early textual layers of the Vedas, from 2nd millennium BCE, mention and anticipate the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, the idea is not fully developed. It is in the early Upanishads, which are pre-Buddha and pre-Mahavira, the texts of ancient Jainism that have survived into the modern era are post-Mahavira, likely from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, and extensively mention rebirth and karma doctrines. The Jaina philosophy assumes that the soul exists and is eternal, passing through cycles of transmigration, after death, reincarnation into a new body is asserted to be instantaneous in early Jaina texts
38.
Wise old man
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The wise old man is an archetype as described by Carl Jung, as well as a classic literary figure, and may be seen as a stock character. The wise old man can be a profound philosopher distinguished for wisdom and he may occasionally appear as an absent-minded professor, appearing absent-minded due to a predilection for contemplative pursuits. The wise old man is seen to be in some way foreign. In extreme cases, he may be a liminal being, such as Merlin, in medieval chivalric romance and modern fantasy literature, he is often presented as a wizard. He can also or instead be featured as a hermit and this character type often explained to the knights or heroes—particularly those searching for the Holy Grail—the significance of their encounters. In storytelling, the character of the old man is commonly killed or in some other way removed for a time. In Jungian analytical psychology, senex is the term used in association with this archetype. In Ancient Rome, the title of Senex was only awarded to men with families who had good standing in their village. Examples of the archetype in a positive form include the wise old man or wizard. The senex may also appear in a form as a devouring father or a doddering fool. In the individuation process, the archetype of the Wise old man was late to emerge, the antithetical archetype, or enantiodromic opposite, of the senex is the Puer Aeternus. He was well known as a military strategist and the most famous Prime Minister of the Zhou Dynasty of China. Nguyen Binh Khiem, also known as the White Cloud Hermit and he is a saint of the Cao Dai religion and the most prominent person of Vietnam history in the 16th century. Zarathustra, the Persian avestan sage with a dualist cosmology and theogony in perpetual tension between good and evil, see List of magicians in fantasy for more examples. Senex is a name of an old character in the novel A Wind in the Door by Madeleine LEngle. The Seventh Doctor in the long-running British science fiction series Doctor Who acted as an old man. An unused story would have explored his plans for her further, a character in episode 7 of the anime Ergo Proxy is named Senex Proxy, and is the Agent of Moonlight. She is killed by Ergo Proxy and it is possible the name Senex is in reference to the age, and immortality of the Proxies
39.
King
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King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen regnant, in the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the title may refer to tribal kingship. Germanic kingship is cognate with Indo-European traditions of tribal rulership In the context of classical antiquity, king may translate Latin rex or either Greek archon or basileus. In classical European feudalism, the title of king as the ruler of a kingdom is understood as the highest rank in the order, potentially subject. In a modern context, the title may refer to the ruler of one of a number of modern monarchies. The title of king is used alongside other titles for monarchs, in the West prince, emperor, archduke, duke or grand duke, in the Middle East sultan or emir, etc. Kings, like other royalty, tend to wear purple because purple was a color to wear in the past. The English term king is derived from the Anglo-Saxon cyning, which in turn is derived from the Common Germanic *kuningaz, the Common Germanic term was borrowed into Estonian and Finnish at an early time, surviving in these languages as kuningas. The English term king translates, and is considered equivalent to, Latin rēx, the Germanic term is notably different from the word for king in other Indo-European languages. It is a derivation from the term *kunjom kin by the -inga- suffix, the literal meaning is that of a scion of the kin, or perhaps son or descendant of one of noble birth. English queen translates Latin regina, it is from Old English cwen queen, noble woman, the Germanic term for wife appears to have been specialized to wife of a king, in Old Norse, the cognate kvan still mostly refers to a wife generally. Scandinavian drottning, dronning is a derivation from *druhtinaz lord. The English word is of Germanic origin, and historically refers to Germanic kingship, the Early Middle Ages begin with a fragmentation of the former Western Roman Empire into barbarian kingdoms. The core of European feudal manorialism in the High Middle Ages were the territories of the kingdom of France, the Holy Roman Empire, in southern Europe, the kingdom of Sicily was established following the Norman conquest of southern Italy. The Kingdom of Sardinia was claimed as a title held by the Crown of Aragon in 1324. In the Balkans, the Kingdom of Serbia was established in 1217, in eastern-central Europe, the Kingdom of Hungary was established in AD1000 following the Christianisation of the Magyars. The kingdoms of Poland and Bohemia were established within the Holy Roman Empire in 1025 and 1198, in Eastern Europe, the Kievan Rus consolidated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which did not technically claim the status of kingdom until the early modern Tsardom of Russia. In northern Europe, the kingdoms of the Viking Age by the 11th century expanded into the North Sea Empire under Cnut the Great, king of Denmark, England
40.
Guanyin
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Guanyin or Guan Yin is an East Asian bodhisattva associated with compassion as venerated by Mahayana Buddhists. She is commonly known as the Goddess of Mercy in English, the Chinese name Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, meaning Perceives the Sounds of the World. She is also referred to as Guanyin Bodhisattva, some Buddhists believe that when one of their adherents departs from this world, they are placed by Guanyin in the heart of a lotus, and then sent to the western Pure Land of Sukhāvatī. Guanyin is often referred to as the most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her, as is said in the Lotus Sutra and Karandavyuha Sutra. Several large temples in East Asia are dedicated to Guanyin including Shitennoji, Sensoji, Kiyomizu-dera, furthermore, Guanyin can also be found in some influential Theravada temples such as Gangaramaya and Kelaniya of Sri Lanka. Statues can also be found in the Asian art sections of most museums in the world as a widely depicted subject of Asian art and it is generally accepted among East Asian adherents that Guanyin originated as the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. In Chinese folk religion, there are mythical accounts about Guanyins origins that are not associated with the Avalokiteśvara described in Buddhist sutras, Guānyīn is a translation from the Sanskrit avalokitasvara or Avalokiteshvara, referring to the Mahāyāna bodhisattva of the same name. Another later name for this bodhisattva is Guānzìzài and it was initially thought that the Chinese mis-transliterated the word Avalokiteśvara as Avalokitasvara which explained why Xuanzang translated it as Guānzìzài instead of Guānyīn. However, the form was indeed Avalokitasvara with the ending svara. This is the equivalent of the Chinese translation Guānyīn. The original form Avalokitasvara already appears in Sanskrit fragments of the fifth century, the original meaning of the name Avalokitasvara fits the Buddhist understanding of the role of a bodhisattva. The reinterpretation presenting him as an īśvara shows an influence of Śaivism, as the term īśvara was usually connected to the Hindu notion of Śiva as a creator god. The Lotus Sutra has been dated to between the 1st century BCE and 1st century CE, in Japanese, Guanyin is pronounced Kannon, occasionally Kanon, or more formally Kanzeon, the spelling Kwannon, based on a premodern pronunciation, is sometimes seen. This rendition was used for a spelling of the well-known camera manufacturer Canon Inc. which was named for Guanyin. When iconography of Kannon depicts her with the Nyoihōju wishing gem she is known as Nyoirin Kannon, in Korean, Guanyin is called Gwan-eum or Gwanse-eum. In Thai, she is called Kuan Im, Phra Mae Kuan Im, in Burmese, the name of Guanyin is Kwan Yin Medaw, literally meaning Mother Kwan Yin. In Vietnamese, the name is Quan Âm or Quán Thế Âm, in Indonesian, the name is Kwan Im or Dewi Kwan Im. She is also called Mak Kwan Im Mother Guanyin, in Malaysian Mandarin, the name is Kwan Im Ma Mother GuanYin, GuanYin Pusa, Guan Shi Yin Pusa
