1.
Frank Baum (footballer)
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Frank Baum is a retired German footballer, who played as a defender for several German football clubs and the East Germany national football team between 1963 and 1997. Baum spent his playing for BSG Aktivist Zwenkau and 1. Between 1974 and 1979 Baum played for BSG Chemie Leipzig and by the 1978–79 season was a regular first-team player, on 28 February 1979 he gained his first cap for East Germany in a 1–0 loss to Bulgaria. The same year saw Baum transfer to city rivals Lokomotiv Leipzig, following the transfer, he won the FDGB Pokal three times and played the European Cup. He was part of the team who reached the final of the 1986–87 UEFA Cup Winners Cup in Athens, in total, Baum played in 248 games in the DDR-Oberliga, scoring ten goals. Between 1979 and 1984 he made 17 appearanced for East Germany and he won a silver medal in the 1980 Olympics in Moscow with the GDR Olympic team. After leaving Lokomotive Leipzig in 1989, Baum had spells at Chemie Böhlen, Sachsen Leipzig, Baum became first-team player-coach at SV LVB Leipzig and also coached Kickers 94 Markkleeberg in 1995. Currently, he is coaching the mens first team of the Leipzig Transport Authority team in the Leipzig District League
2.
Hollywood
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Hollywood is an ethnically diverse, densely populated neighborhood in the central region of Los Angeles, California. It is notable as the home of the U. S. film industry, including several of its studios, and its name has come to be a shorthand reference for the industry. Hollywood was a community in 1870 and was incorporated as a municipality in 1903. It was consolidated with the city of Los Angeles in 1910, in 1853, one adobe hut stood in Nopalera, named for the Mexican Nopal cactus indigenous to the area. By 1870, an agricultural community flourished, the area was known as the Cahuenga Valley, after the pass in the Santa Monica Mountains immediately to the north. According to the diary of H. J. Whitley, known as the Father of Hollywood, along came a Chinese man in a wagon carrying wood. The man got out of the wagon and bowed, the Chinese man was asked what he was doing and replied, I holly-wood, meaning hauling wood. H. J. Whitley had an epiphany and decided to name his new town Hollywood, Holly would represent England and wood would represent his Scottish heritage. Whitley had already started over 100 towns across the western United States, Whitley arranged to buy the 500-acre E. C. Hurd ranch and disclosed to him his plans for the land. They agreed on a price and Hurd agreed to sell at a later date, before Whitley got off the ground with Hollywood, plans for the new town had spread to General Harrison Gray Otis, Hurds wife, eastern adjacent ranch co-owner Daeida Wilcox, and others. Daeida Wilcox may have learned of the name Hollywood from Ivar Weid, her neighbor in Holly Canyon and she recommended the same name to her husband, Harvey. In August 1887, Wilcox filed with the Los Angeles County Recorders office a deed and parcel map of property he had sold named Hollywood, Wilcox wanted to be the first to record it on a deed. The early real-estate boom busted that year, yet Hollywood began its slow growth. By 1900, the region had a post office, newspaper, hotel, Los Angeles, with a population of 102,479 lay 10 miles east through the vineyards, barley fields, and citrus groves. A single-track streetcar line ran down the middle of Prospect Avenue from it, but service was infrequent, the old citrus fruit-packing house was converted into a livery stable, improving transportation for the inhabitants of Hollywood. The Hollywood Hotel was opened in 1902 by H. J. Whitley who was a president of the Los Pacific Boulevard, having finally acquired the Hurd ranch and subdivided it, Whitley built the hotel to attract land buyers. Flanking the west side of Highland Avenue, the structure fronted on Prospect Avenue, the hotel was to become internationally known and was the center of the civic and social life and home of the stars for many years. Whitleys company developed and sold one of the residential areas
3.
Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
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Forest Lawn Memorial Park is a privately owned cemetery in Glendale, California. It is the location of Forest Lawn, a chain of six cemeteries in Southern California. Forest Lawn Glendale was founded in 1906 as a cemetery by a group of businessmen from San Francisco. Dr. Hubert Eaton and C. B. Sims entered into a contract with the cemetery in 1912. Eaton took over the management of the cemetery in 1917, Eaton was a firm believer in a joyous life after death. A number of plaques which state Eatons intentions are signed The Builder, frederick Llewellyn, Eatons nephew, became CEO of Forest Lawn in 1966. In 1987 he was succeeded by his son, John Llewellyn, for many decades the cemetery refused black, Jewish, and Chinese burials. The Forest Lawn Museum in Glendale was founded in 1957 and displays art, artifacts, the museum has hosted solo exhibitions for Henri Matisse, Winslow Homer, Ian Hornak, Francisco Goya, Rembrandt, Marc Davis and Reuben Nakian among many others. The objects in Forest Lawns permanent collection represent specific locations and peoples from around the world, there are sections for India, Africa, the Middle East, East and Southeast Asia, the United States, South America, Australia and Europe. D. The stained glass collection includes portions of William Randolph Hearsts former collection and owns the work of Albrecht Dürer, all of these precious art pieces are put in storage or hidden behind temporary walls when a special display is on site. The six Forest Lawn cemeteries contain about 1,500 statues, about 10% of which are reproductions of works of art. On display in the Hall of the Crucifixion is the painting by the Polish artist Jan Styka entitled The Crucifixion. It is the largest permanently mounted religious painting in the world, the main gates of Forest Lawn – Glendale are claimed to be the worlds largest wrought iron gates. Over 60,000 people have actually been married here, including Ronald Reagan, more than 250,000 people are buried at Forest Lawn, and over a million people visit it each year, including thousands of schoolchildren on field trips. Many commentators have considered Forest Lawn to be a unique American creation, the Great Mausoleum was fashioned after Campo Santo in Genoa, Italy and contains many of the most highly sought after interment places within Forest Lawn, Glendale. Within the portion of the Great Mausoleum accessible to the public is the Court of Honor where individuals are inducted as Immortals by Forest Lawns Council of Regents, the rest of the structure is protected by guards and is closed to the public. Time magazine described it as the New Worlds Westminster Abbey, in 2009 the cemetery became the focus of intense media interest surrounding the private interment of Michael Jackson in the privacy of Holly Terrace in the Great Mausoleum. List of United States cemeteries Providencia Ranch The Loved One – a satirical novel inspired by Forest Lawn, official website Evelyn Waughs witty essay, Half in love with easeful death, imagines archaeologists in 1000 years coming upon Forest Lawn
4.
Editing
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Editing is the process of selecting and preparing written, visual, audible, and film media used to convey information. The editing process can involve correction, condensation, organization, and many other modifications performed with an intention of producing a correct, consistent, accurate and complete work. The editing process begins with the authors idea for the work itself. As such, editing can involve creative skills, human relations, there are various editorial positions in publishing. Typically, one finds editorial assistants reporting to the editorial staff. Senior executive editors are responsible for developing a product for its final release, the smaller the publication, the more these roles overlap. The top editor at many publications may be known as the chief editor, a frequent and highly regarded contributor to a magazine may acquire the title of editor-at-large or contributing editor. Mid-level newspaper editors often manage or help to manage sections, such as business, sports, in U. S. newspapers, the level below the top editor is usually the managing editor. Obtaining manuscripts or recruiting authors is the role of an editor or a commissioning editor in a publishing house. Finding marketable ideas and presenting them to appropriate authors are the responsibilities of a sponsoring editor, copy editors correct spelling, grammar and align writings to house style. Changes to the industry since the 1980s have resulted in nearly all copy editing of book manuscripts being outsourced to freelance copy editors. At newspapers and wire services, copy editors write headlines and work on substantive issues, such as ensuring accuracy, fairness. In some positions, they design pages and select news stories for inclusion, at U. K. and Australian newspapers, the term is sub-editor. They may choose the layout of the publication and communicate with the printer and these editors may have the title of layout or design editor or makeup editor. However, another editor is sometimes involved in the creation of research articles. Called the authors editor, this works with authors to get a manuscript fit for purpose before it is submitted to a scholarly journal for publication. The primary difference between copy editing scholarly books and journals and other sorts of copy editing lies in applying the standards of the publisher to the copy. K, technical editing involves reviewing text written on a technical topic, identifying usage errors and ensuring adherence to a style guide. Large companies dedicate experienced writers to the editing function
5.
Fantasy
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Fantasy is a fiction genre set in an imaginary universe, often but not always without any locations, events, or people from the real world. Most fantasy uses magic or other elements as a main plot element, theme. Magic and magical creatures are common in many of these imaginary worlds, in popular culture, the fantasy genre is predominantly of the medievalist form. In its broadest sense, however, fantasy works by many writers, artists, filmmakers. Fantasy is studied in a number of disciplines including English and other studies, cultural studies, comparative literature, history. The identifying trait of fantasy is the reliance on imagination to create narrative elements that do not have to rely on history or nature to be coherent. This differs from realistic fiction in that whereas realistic fiction has to attend to the history and natural laws of reality, an author applies his or her imagination to come up with characters, plots, and settings that are impossible in reality. Fantasy has often compared with science fiction and horror because they are the major categories of speculative fiction. Fantasy is distinguished from science fiction by the plausibility of the narrative elements, a science fiction narrative is unlikely, though seeming possible through logical scientific and/or technological extrapolation, whereas fantasy narratives do not need to be scientifically possible. The imagined elements of fantasy do not need an explanation to be narratively functional. Authors have to rely on the suspension of disbelief, an acceptance of the unbelievable or impossible for the sake of enjoyment. Despite both genres heavy reliance on the supernatural, fantasy and horror are distinguishable, horror primarily evokes fear through the protagonists weaknesses or inability to deal with the antagonists. Beginning perhaps with the earliest written documents, mythic and other elements that would come to define fantasy. MacDonald was an influence on both J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis. The other major fantasy author of this era was William Morris, lord Dunsany established the genres popularity in both the novel and the short story form. Many popular mainstream authors also began to write fantasy at this time, including H. Rider Haggard, Rudyard Kipling and Edgar Rice Burroughs. Indeed, juvenile fantasy was considered more acceptable than fantasy intended for adults, nathaniel Hawthorne wrote fantasy in A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys, intended for children, though works for adults only verged on fantasy. Political and social trends can affect a societys reception towards fantasy, in the early 20th century, the New Culture Movements enthusiasm for Westernization and science in China compelled them to condemn the fantastical shenmo genre of traditional Chinese literature
6.
Poetry
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Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic
7.
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
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The story chronicles the adventures of a young farm girl named Dorothy in the magical Land of Oz, after she and her pet dog Toto are swept away from their Kansas home by a cyclone. The novel is one of the stories in American literature and has been widely translated. The Library of Congress has declared it Americas greatest and best-loved homegrown fairytale and its groundbreaking success and the success of the Broadway musical adapted from the novel led Baum to write thirteen additional Oz books that serve as official sequels to the first story. Baum dedicated the book to my good friend & comrade, My Wife, in January 1901, George M. Hill Company completed printing the first edition, a total of 10,000 copies, which quickly sold out. The Wonderful Wizard of Oz sold three million copies by the time it entered the domain in 1956. The book was published by George M. Hill Company and its first edition had a printing of 10,000 copies and was sold in advance of the publication date of September 1,1900. On May 17,1900, the first copy of the book came off the press, Baum assembled it by hand, the public saw the book for the first time at a book fair at the Palmer House in Chicago, July 5–20. The books copyright was registered on August 1, full distribution followed in September, by October 1900, the first edition had already sold out and the second edition of 15,000 copies was nearly depleted. In a letter to his brother Harry, Baum wrote that the books publisher George M. Hill predicted a sale of about 250,000 copies, in spite of this favorable conjecture, Hill did not initially predict that the book would be phenomenally successful. He agreed to publish the book only when the manager of the Chicago Grand Opera House Fred R. Hamlin committed to making The Wonderful Wizard of Oz into a stage play to publicize the novel. The play The Wizard of Oz debuted on June 16,1902 and it was revised to suit adult preferences and was crafted as a musical extravaganza, with the costumes modeled after Denslows drawings. Hills publishing company became bankrupt in 1901, so Baum and Denslow agreed to have the Indianapolis-based Bobbs-Merrill Company resume publishing the novel, Baums son Harry Neal told the Chicago Tribune in 1944 that L. Frank told his children whimsical stories before they became material for his books. Harry called his father the swellest man I knew, a man who was able to give a decent reason as to why black birds cooked in a pie could afterwards get out, by 1938, more than one million copies of the book had been printed. Less than two decades later in 1956, the sales of his novel had grown to three million copies in print, Dorothy is a young girl who lives with her Aunt Em and Uncle Henry and her little dog Toto on a Kansas farm. One day, Dorothy and Toto are caught up in a cyclone that deposits her farmhouse into Munchkin Country in the magical Land of Oz, the falling house has killed the Wicked Witch of the East, the evil ruler of the Munchkins. The Good Witch of the North arrives with the grateful Munchkins, the Good Witch tells Dorothy that the only way she can return home is to go to the Emerald City and ask the great and powerful Wizard of Oz to help her. As Dorothy embarks on her journey, the Good Witch of the North kisses her on the forehead, on her way down the yellow brick road, Dorothy attends a banquet held by a Munchkin man named Boq. The next day, Dorothy frees the Scarecrow from the pole on which he is hanging, applies oil from a can to the connections of the Tin Woodman
8.
Maud Gage Baum
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Maud Gage Baum was the wife of L. Frank Baum. Her mother was the suffragist Matilda Joslyn Gage, in her early life, she attended a boys high school and was raised to be headstrong. Maud lived in Fayetteville, New York, with her parents until she married Frank in 1882. At the onset of their marriage, she accompanied her husbands acting troupe throughout the United States, after she became pregnant, Maud and Frank settled down in a rented house, where she gave birth to Frank Joslyn in 1883. Complications arising from giving birth to her second son Robert Stanton in 1886 caused Maud to become afflicted with peritonitis, Ill for two years, she found solace in visiting her mother and siblings. In 1889 and 1891, she gave birth to Harry Neal and Kenneth Gage, described by her children as a no-nonsense mother, Maud took charge of the family finances and the disciplining of her children. She was their primary caretaker because her husbands business obligations frequently led to his being away for weeks at a time, the family moved to Aberdeen, South Dakota, in 1888 because Maud wished to be near her brother and two sisters. After her husband was unable to sustain a living there, they moved to Chicago, because of their dire financial situation, Maud also worked, teaching embroidery and lace-making. Beginning in 1900, her husbands best-selling picture book, Father Goose, His Book and they began spending their summers at a cottage in Macatawa Park, Michigan. In November of that year, Frank transferred to Maud the literary rights of his most recent books, including Father Goose, by dint of Franks literary successes, Maud and Frank were financially secure enough to tour Egypt and Europe for six months. Since Frank was frequently occupied with penning stories for his publishers and these letters were later published in 1907 as In Other Lands Than Ours for friends and family. After Frank died, she authorized Ruth Plumly Thompson to write more Oz sequels, in 1953, she died at 91 years of age, surviving her husband by 34 years. Born on March 27,1861 to Matilda Joslyn Gage and Henry Hill Gage Maud was the youngest of their four children and she had two sisters, Helen Leslie Gage and Julia Gage Carpenter, and a brother, Thomas Clarkson Gage. Her mother was a feminist who fought for rights. A relative noted that Mauds mother was a woman of force who ruled her mild, gentle husband, Maud lived with her graying parents in a Greek Revival home in Fayetteville, New York. Baum scholar Evan I. Schwartz wrote that Maud had dark hair, a shapely figure, in her youth, Maud went to a boys high school. Both she and her husband, L. Frank Baum, attended Syracuse Classical School. In September 1880, Maud headed to Cornell University, leaving on a train and her brother, Clarkson, had graduated as one of the top of the class, though her elder sisters did not attend a university
9.
Harry Neal Baum
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Harry Neal Baum was an American author and the third son of L. Frank Baum. His father dedicated his 1902 novel The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus to him, Baum, who received a Ph. D. in medieval history, wrote a number of history books for children. He worked in several advertising companies and ghostwrote the 1917 novel Mary Louise Solves a Mystery to satisfy his ill fathers publishing obligations, raised in Chicago, Baum was born in Aberdeen, South Dakota, on December 18,1889, to Maud Gage and L. Frank Baum. His brothers were Frank Joslyn, Robert Stanton, and Kenneth Gage. Baum received a Ph. D. in medieval history and he coauthored with Olive Beaupre Miller the Book of History, a 1929 four-volume work published by The Bookhouse for Children. He served as a president of Burson-Marsteller. He worked as a manager at Fairbanks-Morse before being employed at Gebhardt & Brockson. L. Frank Baum dedicated his 1902 novel The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus to Harry, because of L. Frank Baums deteriorating health in 1917, he was unable to fulfill his obligations to his publishers. Therefore, Harry ghostwrote the 1917 novel Mary Louise Solves a Mystery, in 1944, Harry starred as President Woodrow Wilson in the play The Time to Come produced by the Little Theater of Western Springs. He stated that he considered acting to be only a hobby and he had seen the opening production of The Wizard of Oz, which had been written by his father. Baum also served as the host of a number of meetings held by The International Wizard of Oz Club. At the 1964 convention, he awarded a plaque, the annual clubs annual Oz award. Baum married Mary Niles in 1910, in 1942, he married Brenda Holter, a pianist and composer who served as the president of Chicagos Musicians Club of Women. Baum retired to Bass Lake, Indiana, at which he managed the Wizard of Oz lodge, upon his death, on June 7,1967, he was survived by his wife, Brenda. He was also survived by sons Richard and Henry and daughters Ann and Judith, notes Bibliography Harry Neal Baum at The International Wizard of Oz Club
10.
Children's literature
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Childrens literature or juvenile literature includes stories, books, magazines, and poems that are enjoyed by children. Modern childrens literature is classified in two different ways, genre or the age of the reader. Childrens literature can be traced to stories and songs, part of an oral tradition. The development of childrens literature, before printing was invented, is difficult to trace. Even after printing became widespread, many childrens tales were originally created for adults. Since the 15th century, a quantity of literature, often with a moral or religious message, has been aimed specifically at children. The late nineteenth and early centuries became known as the Golden Age of Childrens Literature as this period included the publication of many books acknowledged today as classics. There is no single or widely used definition of childrens literature and it can be broadly defined as anything that children read or more specifically defined as fiction, non-fiction, poetry, or drama intended for and used by children and young people. The International Companion Encyclopedia of Childrens Literature notes that the boundaries of genre. are not fixed but blurred, sometimes, no agreement can be reached about whether a given work is best categorized as literature for adults or children. Rowlings Harry Potter series was written and marketed for young adults, the series extreme popularity led The New York Times to create a separate best-seller list for childrens books. Despite the widespread association of childrens literature with picture books, spoken narratives existed before printing, seth Lerer, in the opening of Childrens Literature, A Readers History from Aesop to Harry Potter, says, This book presents a history of what children have heard and read. The history I write of is a history of reception, early childrens literature consisted of spoken stories, songs, and poems that were used to educate, instruct, and entertain children. It was only in the 18th century, with the development of the concept of childhood, that a genre of childrens literature began to emerge, with its own divisions, expectations. French historian Philippe Ariès argues in his 1962 book Centuries of Childhood that the concept of childhood only emerged in recent times. He explains that children were in the past not considered as different from adults and were not given significantly different treatment. Pre-modern childrens literature, therefore, tended to be of a didactic and moralistic nature, with the purpose of conveying conduct-related, educational, during the 17th century, the concept of childhood began to emerge in Europe. Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection, the English philosopher John Locke developed his theory of the tabula rasa in his 1690 An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and he also suggested that picture books be created for children
11.
The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)
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The film stars Judy Garland as Dorothy Gale. Notable for its use of Technicolor, fantasy storytelling, musical score and it was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture, but lost to Gone with the Wind. It did win in two categories, including Best Original Song for Over the Rainbow and Best Original Score by Herbert Stothart. However, the film was a box office disappointment on its release, earning only $3,017,000 on a $2,777,000 budget. It was MGMs most expensive production at that time, and did not completely recoup the studios investment and turn a profit until theatrical re-releases starting in 1949. The film was named the most-viewed motion picture on television syndication by the Library of Congress, designation on the registry calls for efforts to preserve it for being culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant. It is also one of the few films on UNESCOs Memory of the World Register, the Wizard of Oz is often ranked on best-movie lists in critics and public polls. It is the source of many quotes referenced in popular culture. It was directed primarily by Victor Fleming, noel Langley, Florence Ryerson, and Edgar Allan Woolf received credit for the screenplay, but uncredited contributions were made by others. The songs were written by Edgar Yip Harburg and Harold Arlen, the musical score and the incidental music were composed by Stothart. The film begins in Kansas, which is depicted in a sepia tone, Dorothy Gale lives with her dog Toto on the farm of her Aunt Em and Uncle Henry. Dorothys dog gets in trouble with a neighbor, Miss Almira Gulch. However, Dorothys family and the farmhands are all too busy to pay attention to her, Miss Gulch arrives with permission from the sheriff to have Toto euthanized. She takes him away, but he escapes and returns to Dorothy and they meet Professor Marvel, a phony but kindly fortune teller, who realizes Dorothy has run away and tricks her via his crystal ball into believing that Aunt Em is ill so that she must return home. She races home just as a tornado strikes. Unable to get into her familys storm cellar, she seeks safety in her bedroom, a wind-blown window sash hits her in the head, knocking her out. The house is picked up and sent spinning in the air by the twister, the farmhouse crashes in Munchkinland in the Land of Oz, where the film changes to Technicolor. Glinda the Good Witch of the North and the Munchkins welcome her as their heroine, as the house has landed on and killed the Wicked Witch of the East, leaving only her stocking feet exposed
12.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
13.
Augmented reality
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Augmented reality is a live direct or indirect view of a physical, real-world environment whose elements are augmented by computer-generated sensory input such as sound, video, graphics or GPS data. It is related to a general concept called mediated reality. As a result, the functions by enhancing one’s current perception of reality. By contrast, virtual reality replaces the real world with a simulated one, augmentation is conventionally in real time and in semantic context with environmental elements, such as sports scores on TV during a match. With the help of advanced AR technology the information about the real world of the user becomes interactive. Information about the environment and its objects is overlaid on the real world and this information can be virtual or real, e. g. seeing other real sensed or measured information such as electromagnetic radio waves overlaid in exact alignment with where they actually are in space. Augmented reality brings out the components of the world into a persons perceived real world. One example is an AR Helmet for construction workers which displays information about the construction sites, hardware components for augmented reality are, processor, display, sensors and input devices. Various technologies are used in Augmented Reality rendering including optical projection systems, monitors, hand held devices, a head-mounted display is a display device paired to the forehead such as a harness or helmet. HMDs place images of both the world and virtual objects over the users field of view. Modern HMDs often employ sensors for six degrees of freedom monitoring that allow the system to align virtual information to the physical world, HMDs can provide VR users mobile and collaborative experiences. Specific providers, such as uSens and Gestigon, are even including gesture controls for full virtual immersion, in January 2015, Meta launched a project led by Horizons Ventures, Tim Draper, Alexis Ohanian, BOE Optoelectronics and Garry Tan. On February 17,2016, Meta announced their product at TED. AR displays can be rendered on devices resembling eyeglasses, a head-up display, also known as a HUD, is a transparent display that presents data without requiring users to look away from their usual viewpoints. Near eye augmented reality devices can be used as portable head-up displays as they can show data, information, many definitions of augmented reality only define it as overlaying the information. CrowdOptic technology can be used by Google Glass users to learn where to look at a point in time. In January 2015, Microsoft introduced HoloLens, which is an independent smartglasses unit, First impressions and opinions have been generally that HoloLens is a superior device to the Google Glass, and manages to do several things right in which Glass failed. Contact lenses that display AR imaging are in development and these bionic contact lenses might contain the elements for display embedded into the lens including integrated circuitry, LEDs and an antenna for wireless communication
14.
Laptop
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Laptops are folded shut for transportation, and thus are suitable for mobile use. Although originally there was a distinction between laptops and notebooks, the former being bigger and heavier than the latter, as of 2014, there is often no longer any difference. Laptops are commonly used in a variety of settings, such as at work, in education, Internet surfing using sites such as YouTube and for personal multimedia, most 2016-era laptops also have integrated webcams and built-in microphones. Laptops can be powered either from a battery or by an external power supply from an AC adapter. Hardware specifications, such as the speed and memory capacity. Design elements, form factor, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending on intended use, as portable computers evolved into the modern laptop, they became widely used for a variety of purposes. The terms laptop and notebook are used interchangeably to describe a computer in English. Regardless of the etymology, by the late 1990s, the terms were interchangeable, as the personal computer became feasible in 1971, the idea of a portable personal computer soon followed. A personal, portable information manipulator was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968, the IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the IBM PALM processor, the IBM5100, the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype. As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly, the Osborne 1, released in 1981, used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 23.6 pounds. It had no battery, a 5 in CRT screen, in the same year the first laptop-sized portable computer, the Epson HX-20, was announced. The Epson had an LCD screen, a battery. Both Tandy/RadioShack and HP also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period, the first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85, the US$8,150 GRiD Compass 1101, released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military, among others. The Sharp PC-5000, Ampere and Gavilan SC released in 1983, the Gavilan SC was the first computer described as a laptop by its manufacturer, while the Ampere had a modern clamshell design. The Toshiba T1100 won acceptance not only among PC experts but the market as a way to have PC portability. From 1983 onward, several new techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad, the pointing stick
15.
The Master Key (novel)
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The Master Key, An Electrical Fairy Tale, Founded Upon the Mysteries of Electricity and the Optimism of Its Devotees is a 1901 novel by L. Frank Baum, author of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. It was illustrated by F. Y, the protagonist is a boy named Rob Joslyn. Baum dedicated the book To My Son, Robert Stanton Baum, Rob is an electrical experimenter whose father encourages him and sees that he never lacked batteries, motors or supplies of any sort. A net-work of wires soon ran throughout the house, there is a bright flash, and a being who calls himself the Demon of Electricity appears. He tells Rob that he has touched the Master Key of Electricity and is entitled to demand from me three gifts each week for three successive weeks. Rob protests that he not know what to ask for. It is, however, somewhat fragile and becomes damaged and unreliable during Robs adventures, the good will bear the letter G, the evil the letter E. The wise will be marked with a W and the foolish with an F, the kind will show a K upon their foreheads and the cruel a letter C. Over the next two weeks, Rob experiences adventures exploring the use of the Demons gifts, but eventually concludes that neither he nor the world is ready for them. On the third week, Rob rejects the Demons gifts and tells him to bide his time until humankind knows how to use them, with a light heart, Rob concludes that he made the right decision. Like some of Baums adult novels, The Master Key features encounters with real historical figures of the period, such as King Edward of Britain, President Loubet of France, and the Duke of Orléans. In 1901, the New York Times ran a notice calling it a story for boys—all boys who love good wholesome adventure. It is a story of the electrical Demon, treating of powers that dominate all nature, and written for the eager, alert. The Master Key, full online at Project Gutenberg The Master Key public domain audiobook at LibriVox The Master Key
16.
Tik-Tok of Oz
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Tik-Tok of Oz is the eighth Land of Oz book written by L. Frank Baum, published on June 19,1914. The book actually has little to do with Tik-Tok and is primarily the quest of the Shaggy Man to rescue his brother, the endpapers of the first edition held maps, one of Oz itself, and one of the continent on which Oz and its neighboring countries belonged. These were the first maps printed of Oz, Queen Ann Soforth of Oogaboo, a small monarchy separated from the rest of Ozs Winkie Country, sets out to raise an army to conquer Oz. Seventeen men eventually make up the Army of Oogaboo, they out of their valley. Glinda magically rearranges the path through the mountains and Queen Ann and her army out of Oz into a low-lying. Betsy Bobbin, a girl who is an older than Dorothy Gale. They arrive at a greenhouse that is the domain of the Rose Kingdom. The flowers, not having hearts, are unaffected by the Magnet, and force the travelers to leave, taking them the newly plucked Rose Princess Ozga, a cousin of Ozma. The Shaggy Man relates how Ozma sent him here via the Magic Belt because he wanted to find his brother and he surmised that the Nome King, ruler of the underground Nome Kingdom, captured him. They meet up with Polychrome the Rainbows Daughter, and they rescue Tik-Tok from the well where the Nome King had tossed him. Once Tik-Tok is wound up, he accompanies Betsy, Hank, the Shaggy Man, Ozga, and Polychrome to their chance encounter with Queen Ann and her army. In a rage, Queen Ann orders them to be seized and bound, but Private Files — the only private in this army of generals, colonels and he resigns his commission on the spot. When Queen Ann learns of the riches to be found in the Nome Kings underground kingdom, she calms down, the Nome King is aghast at this group coming toward his underground kingdom. There the party enters the jurisdiction of the immortal called Tittiti-Hoochoo, the Great Jinjin and he sends Tik-Tok and the others back with his Instrument of Vengeance, a lackadaisical dragon named Quox. Quox and his riders bound from the end of the Tube into an army of Nomes. Queen Ann and the Army of Oogaboo fall into the Slimy Cave when they enter the Nome Kingdom, Ann and her army escape the cave while the Nome King amuses himself by transforming his captives into various objects. Quox arrives, bursting through the main cavern, the Nome King sees the ribbon around Quoxs neck and forgets all the magic he ever knew. The Nome King is driven out of his kingdom when Quox releases six eggs from the padlock around his neck, the eggs, poisonous to Nomes, follow the Nome King to the Earths surface and confine him there
17.
Phoebe Daring
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Phoebe Daring, A Story for Young Folk is a mystery novel for juvenile readers, written by L. Frank Baum, the author of the Oz books. Published in 1912, it was a sequel to the previous years The Daring Twins, phoebe Daring was illustrated by Joseph Pierre Nuyttens, the artist who illustrated Baums The Flying Girl, Annabel, and The Flying Girl and Her Chum in the same period. Hungry Tiger Press announced that they would reprint the book as Unjustly Accused. in the back of their 2006 reprint of the first book as The Secret of the Lost Fortune. This similarity, and lack of originality, might be the best explanation for the books limited popular success and it is clear that Baum had hopes of more Daring Twins novels, involving the younger of the five Daring siblings and eventually their children as well. Baums correspondence with his publisher, Reilly & Britton, mentions yet another book, yet nothing of these other Daring books is known to have survived. The girl-detective concept had a persistent hold on Baums imagination and he returned to it in a more successful series, the Mary Louise novels that he began in 1916
18.
Aunt Jane's Nieces at Work
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Aunt Janes Nieces at Work is a 1909 young adult novel, written by L. Frank Baum, famous as the creator of the Land of Oz. It is the volume in the ten-book series Aunt Janes Nieces. Like the other books in the series, it was issued under the pen name Edith Van Dyne, one of Baums multiple pseudonyms, the novel carries forward the continuing story of the three cousins Louise Merrick, Beth De Graf, and Patsy Doyle, and their circle. The title is misleading, it could more accurately have been called Aunt Janes Nieces in Politics. The story begins three days after the end of the book, Aunt Janes Nieces at Millville, the freckled and red-haired Patsy still sports a sunburn from her summer in the Adirondacks. She and Louise have received letters from their cousin Kenneth Forbes, Kenneth has become involved in politics, he is running as the Republican candidate for the local seat in the New York State legislature, but thinks he is going to lose to his opponent. The family decide to go all out to help Kenneth win the election, the cousins and Uncle John go to the rural district where Forbess estate, Elmhurst, is located. The multi-millionaire Uncle John, the three girls, and their two motorcars create a sensation. Patsy campaigns among the businessmen, Beth writes newspaper articles and press releases. Uncle John spreads his cash around, even buying positive coverage for Forbes in the local paper, kenneths mercenary and cynical Democratic opponent, Erastus Hopkins, fights back vigorously – but, provoked by the three cousins, he intemperately takes an anti-female line that works against him. In the end, Kenneth wins easily in the normally Republican district, unlike most of the books in the series, Aunt Janes Nieces at Work also possesses a significant subplot. Beth and Kenneth learn of a girl named Lucy Rogers, after being falsely accused of theft, she suffered a mental breakdown. Beth and Kenneth help to find the girl and get her effective psychological help, the subplot gives the book the emotional warmth, sentimentality, and human interest that is typical of the series, but somewhat lacking in the politics of the main plot. Commentators have been divided on the significance of the party alignment in the book, critic Fred Erisman notes that the book specifically identifies the villains as Democrats in keeping with Baums lifelong Republicanism. Yet there is evidence of party allegiance in Baums life, books. Biographer Katharine Rogers observes that the text itself denies the significance of parties, also they safeguard our interests by watching one another. Baums choice to make the Democratic candidate a practitioner of low politics might be taken, to some degree, though the heyday of Boss Tweed was long passed by 1909, Tammany Hall, the New York Democratic Party political machine, was still strong at the time. In the story, Kenneth Forbes is an idealistic and progressive reformer, Aunt Janes Nieces at Work public domain audiobook at LibriVox
19.
Methodism
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Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
20.
German Americans
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The German American ethnic group consists of Americans who have full or partial German ancestry. With an estimated size of approximately 46 million in 2014, German Americans are the largest of the groups reported by the US Census Bureau in its American Community Survey. The group accounts for about 1⁄3 of the total ethnic German population in the world, none of the German states had American colonies. In the 1670s the first significant groups of German immigrants arrived in the British colonies, settling primarily in New York, immigration continued in very large numbers during the 19th century, with eight million arrivals from Germany. Between 1820 and 1870 over seven and a half million German immigrants came to the United States — more than doubling the population of the country. By 2010, their population grew to 49.8 million immigrants, there is a German belt that extends all the way across the United States, from eastern Pennsylvania to the Oregon coast. The state of Pennsylvania has 3.5 million people of German ancestry and they were pulled by the attractions of land and religious freedom, and pushed out of Europe by shortages of land and religious or political oppression. Many arrived seeking religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Europe, the arrivals before 1850 were mostly farmers who sought out the most productive land, where their intensive farming techniques would pay off. After 1840, many came to cities, where Germania—German-speaking districts—soon emerged, German Americans established the first kindergartens in the United States, introduced the Christmas tree tradition, and introduced popular foods such as hot dogs and hamburgers to America. The great majority of people with some German ancestry have become Americanized and hardly can be distinguished, traditional Oktoberfest celebrations and the German-American Day are popular festivities. There are major events in cities with German heritage including Chicago, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, San Antonio. The Germans included many quite distinct subgroups with differing religious and cultural values and they generally opposed womens suffrage but this was used as argument in favor of suffrage when German Americans became pariahs during World War I. The first English settlers arrived at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607 and he was followed in 1608 by five glassmakers and three carpenters or house builders. The first permanent German settlement in what became the United States was Germantown, Pennsylvania, large numbers of Germans migrated from the 1680s to 1760s, with Pennsylvania the favored destination. They migrated to America for a variety of reasons, often immigrants paid for their passage by selling their labor for a period of years as indentured servants. Large sections of Pennsylvania and upstate New York attracted Germans, most were Lutheran or German Reformed, many belonged to small religious sects such as the Moravians and Mennonites. German Catholics did not arrive in number until after the War of 1812, in 1709, Protestant Germans from the Pfalz or Palatine region of Germany escaped conditions of hardship, traveling first to Rotterdam and then to London. Anne, Queen of Great Britain, helped them get to her colonies in America, the trip was long and difficult to survive because of the poor quality of food and water aboard ships and the infectious disease typhus
21.
Scotch-Irish Americans
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While an estimated 36 million Americans reported Irish ancestry in 2006, and 6 million reported Scottish ancestry, an additional 5.4 million identified more specifically with Scotch-Irish ancestry. The term Scotch-Irish is used primarily in the United States, with people in Great Britain or Ireland who are of a similar ancestry identifying as Ulster Scots people and these included 200,000 Scottish Presbyterians who settled in Ireland between 1608-1697. Many English-born settlers of this period were also Presbyterians, although the denomination is today most strongly identified with Scotland, when King Charles I attempted to force these Presbyterians into the Church of England in the 1630s, many chose to re-emigrate to North America where religious liberty was greater. Later attempts to force the Church of Englands control over dissident Protestants in Ireland were to lead to further waves of emigration to the trans-Atlantic colonies, the term Scotch-Irish is first known to have been used to refer to a people living in Northeastern Ireland. In a letter of April 14,1573, in reference to Ulster, Elizabeth I of England wrote, We are given to understand that a nobleman named Sorley Boy and others, who be of the Scotch-Irish race. This term continued in usage for over a century before the earliest known American reference appeared in a Maryland affidavit in 1689/90, today, Scotch-Irish is an Americanism, rarely used in England, Ireland or Scotland. Smaller numbers of migrants came from Wales and the southeast of England, and others were Protestant religious refugees from Flanders, the German Palatinate. What united these different national groups was a base of Calvinist religious beliefs and that said, the large ethnic Scottish element in the Plantation of Ulster gave the settlements a Scottish character. Upon arrival in North America, these migrants at first usually identified simply as Irish, at first, the two groups had little interaction in America, as the Scots-Irish had become settled decades earlier, primarily in the backcountry of the Appalachian region. Many of the new Irish migrants also went to the interior in the 19th century, attracted to jobs on large-scale infrastructure projects such as canals, the usage Scots-Irish developed in the late 19th century as a relatively recent version of the term. The word Scotch was the favored adjective for things of Scotland, including people, until the early 19th century and it was never properly used as a noun. People in Scotland refer to themselves as Scots, as a noun, although referenced by Merriam-Webster dictionaries as having first appeared in 1744, the American term Scotch-Irish is undoubtedly older. An affidavit of William Patent, dated March 15,1689, in a case against a Mr. Matthew Scarbrough in Somerset County, Maryland and it was no more sin to kill me then to kill a dogg, or any Scotch Irish dogg. Leyburn cites the following as early American uses of the term before 1744, another Church of England clergyman from Lewes, Delaware, commented in 1723 that great numbers of Irish have transplanted themselves and their families from the north of Ireland. The Oxford English Dictionary says the first use of the term Scotch-Irish came in Pennsylvania in 1744,1744 W. MARSHE Jrnl,21 June in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society. 177, The inhabitants are chiefly High-Dutch, Scotch-Irish, some few English families and its citations include examples after that into the late 19th century. In Albions Seed, Four British Folkways in America, historian David Hackett Fischer asserts and it is true that many sailed from the province of Ulster. Part of much larger flow which drew from the lowlands of Scotland, the north of England, Many scholars call these people Scotch-Irish
22.
Mattydale, New York
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Mattydale is a hamlet in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 6,446 at the 2010 census, Mattydale is a community in the northeast part of the town of Salina and is a northern suburb of Syracuse. Mattydale was named for the farm of Frank Matty, Mattydale is located at 43°5′55″N 76°8′37″W. It is north of Syracuse, New York, according to the United States Census Bureau, the community has a total area of 1.9 square miles, all land. The New York State Thruway passes across the community, the Thruway intersects Interstate 81 west of Mattydale. Mattydale is southwest of Syracuse Hancock International Airport and borders the community of Hinsdale, ley Creek, which flows along the south part of Mattydale, enters Onondaga Lake a few miles southwest of the village. As of the census of 2000, there were 6,367 people,2,631 households, the population density was 3,323.3 per square mile. There were 2,804 housing units at a density of 1,463. 6/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 94. 33% White,1. 74% African American,0. 86% Native American,0. 80% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 68% from other races, and 1. 55% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 14% of the population,29. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the family size was 2.99. In the CDP, the population was out with 25. 4% under the age of 18,7. 4% from 18 to 24,30. 6% from 25 to 44,20. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.3 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $35,387, and the median income for a family was $43,668. Males had an income of $32,917 versus $25,808 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $19,030, about 6. 4% of families and 9. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11. 4% of those under age 18 and 6. 3% of those age 65 or over
23.
Printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
24.
Stamp dealer
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A stamp dealer is a company or an individual who deals in stamps and philatelic products. It also includes individuals who sell postage stamps for day to day use or revenue stamps for use on court documents, stamp dealers who sell to stamp collectors and philatelists are of many kinds and their businesses range from small home operations to large international companies. Dealers may sell by mail order, at fairs, at their own retail premises. Increasingly, dealers sell on internet sites like eBay or Delcampe. Dealers also vary in the type of material they handle, ranging from a stock to highly specialised firms who only trade in particular countries or topical areas. Stamp catalogues principally evolved from stamp dealers price lists, though today most stamp catalogues no longer represent a retail price list. In practice, many items are not in stock, or are not in the same condition, the Gibbons catalogue was originally published as a penny price list in November 1865. It has been estimated at £5 Billion, in a 2007 interview, Mike Hall of Stanley Gibbons estimated that About $1 billion of rare stamps trade annually in the $10 billion-a-year stamp market. The number of collectors worldwide was estimated at 30 million in 2004, in 2009, Adrian Roose of Stanley Gibbons estimated the figure at 48 million including 18 million in China. It is not known how many of these are serious collectors
25.
Hamburg chicken
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The Hamburg, Dutch, Hollands hoen, German, Hamburger, is a breed of chicken which is thought to have originated Holland sometime prior to the fourteenth century. The name may be spelt Hamburgh in the United Kingdom and in Australia, the Hamburg is a small or medium-sized breed. Cocks weigh 2–2.5 kg and hens about 1. 6–1.8 kg, with slender legs, ring size is 16 mm for cocks and 15 mm for hens. Pencilled breeds are smallest and self-coloured birds are largest, Hamburgs mature quickly and are considered good egg producers. Eggs weigh about 50 g, with glossy, white shells, lalia Phipps Boone argued in 1949 that Chauntecleer and Pertelote, the chickens in Chaucers Nuns Priests Tale, are Golden Spangled Hamburgs. Media related to Hamburg at Wikimedia Commons
26.
Independence Day (United States)
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It declared that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as a new nation, the United States of America, and were no longer part of the British Empire. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States, Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail, The second day of July,1776, I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, adamss prediction was off by two days. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2,1776, although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4,1831. He was the third President in a row who died on the anniversary of independence, calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4,1872, so far he is the only U. S. President to have been born on Independence Day. In 1777 thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting. In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a ration of rum for his soldiers. Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, in 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5, in 1781 the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration. In 1783, Moravians in Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration of July 4 with a music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter. This work was titled The Psalm of Joy and this is recognized as the first recorded celebration and is still celebrated there today. In 1870 the U. S. Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees, in 1938 Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday. Independence Day is a holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on day to appear at a public event to praise the nations heritage, laws, history, society. Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue, many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, decorations are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag
27.
Santa Claus
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Some maintain Santa Claus also absorbed elements of the Germanic god Wodan, who was associated with the pagan midwinter event of Yule and led the Wild Hunt, a ghostly procession through the sky. This image has been maintained and reinforced through song, radio, television, childrens books, films and he accomplishes this feat with the aid of his elves, who make the toys in his workshop at the North Pole, and his flying reindeer, who pull his sleigh. He is commonly portrayed as living at the North Pole and saying ho ho ho often, Saint Nicholas of Myra was a 4th-century Greek Christian bishop of Myra in Lycia, a province of the Byzantine Empire, now in Turkey. Nicholas was famous for his generous gifts to the poor, in presenting the three impoverished daughters of a pious Christian with dowries so that they would not have to become prostitutes. He was very religious from an age and devoted his life entirely to Christianity. In continental Europe he is portrayed as a bearded bishop in canonical robes. The remains of Saint Nicholas are in Italy, in 1087, the Italian city of Bari mounted an expedition to locate the tomb of the Saint. The reliquary of St. Nicholas was conquered by Italian sailors, a basilica was constructed the same year to store the loot and the area became a pilgrimage site for the devout. Sailors from Bari collected just half of Nicholas skeleton, leaving all the fragments in the grave. These were collected by Venetian sailors during the First Crusade and taken to Venice, where a church to St. Nicholas, the patron of sailors, was built on the San Nicolò al Lido. This tradition was confirmed in two important scientific investigations of the relics in Bari and Venice, which revealed that the relics in the two Italian cities belong to the same skeleton. Saint Nicholas was later claimed as a saint of many diverse groups, from archers, sailors. He is also the saint of both Amsterdam and Moscow. During the Middle Ages, often on the evening before his day of 6 December. So Saint Nicholas changed to Santa Claus, martin Luther first suggested the Christkind as the bringer of gifts. But Nicholas remained popular as gifts bearer for the people, Father Christmas dates back as far as 16th century in England during the reign of Henry VIII, when he was pictured as a large man in green or scarlet robes lined with fur. He typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, bringing peace, joy, good food and wine, as England no longer kept the feast day of Saint Nicholas on 6 December, the Father Christmas celebration was moved to 25 December to coincide with Christmas Day. The Victorian revival of Christmas included Father Christmas as the emblem of good cheer, in the Netherlands and Belgium the character of Santa Claus has to compete with that of Sinterklaas, Santas presumed progenitor
28.
Syracuse, New York
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Syracuse is a city in, and the county seat of, Onondaga County, New York, in the United States. It is the largest U. S. city with the name Syracuse, and is the fifth most populous city in the state of New York following New York City, Buffalo, Rochester, and Yonkers. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170 and it is the economic and educational hub of Central New York, a region with over a million inhabitants. Syracuse is also well-provided with convention sites, with a convention complex. Syracuse was named after the original Greek city Syracuse, a city on the eastern coast of the Italian island of Sicily. The city has functioned as a crossroads over the last two centuries, first between the Erie Canal and its branch canals, then of the railway network. Today, Syracuse is located at the intersection of Interstates 81 and 90, Syracuse is home to Syracuse University, a major research university, as well as Le Moyne College, a nationally recognized liberal arts college. In 2010, Forbes rated Syracuse 4th in the top 10 places in the U. S. to raise a family, the Syracuse area was first seen by Europeans when French missionaries came to the area in the 1600s. Marie de Gannentaha, on the northeast shore of Onondaga Lake, Jesuit missionaries visiting the Syracuse region in the mid 1600s reported salty brine springs around the southern end of Salt Lake, known today as Onondaga Lake. It is the north flowing brine from Tully that is the source of salt for the salty springs found along the shoreline of Onondaga lake, the rapid development of this industry in the 18th and 19th centuries led to the nicknaming of Syracuse as The Salt City. In 1847, the city was named after Syracuse, Sicily. In 1861, he developed the process for the manufacture of soda ash from brine wells dug in the southern end of Tully valley. The process was an improvement over the earlier Leblanc process, the Syracuse Solvay plant was the incubator for a large chemical industry complex owned by Allied Signal in Syracuse, the result of which made Onondaga Lake the most polluted in the nation. The salt industry declined after the Civil War, but a new manufacturing industry arose in its place, the Geneva Medical College was founded in 1834. It is now known as Upstate Medical University, one of four medical colleges in the State University of New York system. The first New York State Fair was held in Syracuse in 1841, world War II sparked significant industrial expansion in the area, specialty steel, fasteners, custom machining. After the war, two of the Big Three automobile manufacturers had major operations in the area, Syracuse was headquarters for Carrier Corporation, and Crouse-Hinds manufactured traffic signals in Syracuse. General Electric had its television manufacturing plant at Electronics Parkway in Syracuse
29.
The Maid of Arran
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It was described as A Play to Ensnare All Hearts and Leave an Impress of Beauty and Nobility Within the Sordid Mind of Man. The play resets the novel from Scotlands Outer Hebrides to Ireland and this was a well-received melodrama with elaborate stage effects, including a storm upon a ship, and an original score by Baum himself. Unfortunately, only the songbook for the windows use survives, which two of the songs referenced in the script. Baum played the character, Hugh Holcomb, originally called Frank Lavender in the novel, in its initial tour. OMara, the father, in a community theatre revival. The play heavily alters Blacks original to fit with the conventions of popular melodrama, the novels sympathetic older male takes a Gregory Maguire-like turn that exists only in the mind of the novels Frank Lavender. While Baum does not omit all of Lavenders unsympathetic qualities from Hugh, it is quite obvious who we are to read as the hero. The play opened on Baums 26th birthday, May 15,1882, and headlined Agnes Hallock as Shiela OMara and she sang the songs The Legend of Castle Arran and Ship Ahoy. the latter being lost. Oona Kearney, the character lead and equivalent of Blacks Mairi, was played by Genevieve Rogers. Her songs included Oonas Gift, A Tuft of the Old Irish Bog, Baums aunt, Katharine Gray, who ran the Syracuse Oratory School, played Harriet Holcomb, and played a smaller role created by Baum, The Prophetess, under the name Kate Roberts. Her maid, Gray was played by Cordie Aiken, John L. Morgan played Captain John Ingram, a moustache-twirling villain inspired by Blacks Edward Ingram, who wants Shiela for himself. Edward Ingram merely offers her friendship that arouses Lavenders ire, partly because hes known Lavender long enough to understand how he can hurt people. Not remarked on much at the time were John H. Nicholson as Phadrig o the Pipes and he is a friend to all the good guys and helps them out of jams, despite being a wiry old man. Mike J. Gallagher played the lead, Dennie, performing A Rollicking Irish Boy. His character has no equivalent in the novel, but has elements of Johnny Eyre. Mrs. Cecelia Lorraine comes over wholesale from the novel, but is talked about. Rounding out the original cast were C. F. Edwards as the Boatswain of the Malabar, dennison as Fetchum, a valet not mentioned in the script. The other songs were When OMara Is King Once Again, performed by Con, OMara, and Sailing performed by a chorus of sailors
30.
Melodrama
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A melodrama is a dramatic or literary work in which the plot, which is typically sensational and designed to appeal strongly to the emotions, takes precedence over detailed characterization. Characters are often drawn, and may appear stereotyped. In scholarly and historical contexts, melodramas are Victorian dramas in which orchestral music or song was used to accompany the action. The term is now applied to stage performances without incidental music, novels, movies. In modern contexts, the melodrama is generally pejorative, as it suggests that the work in question lacks subtlety, character development. By extension, language or behavior which resembles melodrama is often called melodramatic, the term originated from the early 19th-century French word mélodrame. It is derived from Greek melos, music, and French drame and this applies to both Victorian stage melodrama and 20th-century film melodrama. Movie director Sidney Lumet stressed the primacy of plot, saying in 2007 In a well-written drama, the characters in a well-written melodrama come out of the story. The relationship of melodrama to realism is complex, the protagonists of melodramatic works may either be ordinary people who are caught up in extraordinary events, or highly exaggerated and unrealistic characters. According to Singer, late Victorian and Edwardian melodrama combined a focus on realism in stage sets and props with anti-realism in character. Melodrama in this period strove for accuracy in the depiction of incredible. Novelist Wilkie Collins is noted for his attention to accuracy in detail in his works, beginning in the 18th century, melodrama was a technique of combining spoken recitation with short pieces of accompanying music. In such works, music and spoken dialogue typically alternated, although the music was also used to accompany pantomime. The earliest known examples are scenes in J. E. Eberlins Latin school play Sigismundus, the first full melodrama was Jean-Jacques Rousseaus Pygmalion, the text of which was written in 1762 but was first staged in Lyon in 1770. The overture and an Andante were composed by Rousseau, but the bulk of the music was composed by Horace Coignet, a different musical setting of Rousseaus Pygmalion by Anton Schweitzer was performed in Weimar in 1772, and Goethe wrote of it approvingly in Dichtung und Wahrheit. Pygmalion is a monodrama, written for one actor, some 30 other monodramas were produced in Germany in the fourth quarter of the 18th century. When two actors are involved the term duodrama may be used, georg Benda was particularly successful with his duodramas Ariadne auf Naxos and Medea. The sensational success of Bendas melodramas led Mozart to use two long melodramatic monologues in his opera Zaide, other later, and better-known examples of the melodramatic style in operas are the grave-digging scene in Beethovens Fidelio and the incantation scene in Webers Der Freischütz
31.
William Black (novelist)
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William Black was a novelist born in Glasgow, Scotland. During his own lifetime Blacks novels were popular, and were compared favourably with those of Anthony Trollope. However, his fame and popularity did not survive long into the twentieth century, william was born to James Black and his second wife Caroline Conning. He wrote a serial in The Graphic. During the Austro-Prussian War he acted as a war correspondent and his first novel, James Merle, appeared in 1864, and had little success. Black later disowned the novel and reputedly bought copies to destroy them and it was the publication of A Daughter of Heth in 1871 that at once established his popularity. It is the story of a girl brought up in Catholic France, who comes to live with her more austere Protestant relatives in southern Scotland. Retiring from journalism the next year he devoted himself entirely to fiction, several collections of short stories and a further 22 novels followed, the last – Wild Eelin – in 1898, just before his death on 10 December of that year. However, his fame and popularity did not survive long into the twentieth century and his works were bootlegged in the United States, not being protected by copyright laws. Baums play was written without regard to copyright courtesy when such was legal, it is uncertain if Black was even aware of its existence, friendship with actor Mary Anderson resulted in him stage acting twice, with mute roles known as thinkers, but his nervousness interrupted the performance. Black also produced the volume Goldsmith for Morleys English Men of Letters series, the building was erected in 1901 and is still in use as a lighthouse. It stands a mile or so south of Duart Castle, at the extremity of the Isle of Mull. A collection of sketch-stories, including portions of the suppressed James Merle were published posthumously as With the Eyes of Youth, Blacks first wife, Augustus Wenzel, died on 14 May 1866 of a fever contracted not long after the birth of their son, Martin. They had only been married since 8 April 1865, Martin would die on 29 March 1871. He first met his wife, Eva Simpson, daughter of Wharton Simpson. He saw her again in 1872 and used her as the basis for Bell in The Phaeton and they were married in April 1874 and she was still alive when Wemyss Reid, who had offered Black a contributors role on the Leeds Mercury, published his biography. From 1879 until his death he lived at 1 Paston Place, Brighton
32.
Musical theatre
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Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting, and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through the words, music, movement, since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals. These were followed by the numerous Edwardian musical comedies and the theatre works of American creators like George M. Cohan. Musicals are performed around the world and they may be presented in large venues, such as big-budget Broadway or West End productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller fringe theatre, Off-Broadway or regional theatre productions, musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada, the three main components of a book musical are its music, lyrics and book. The interpretation of a musical is the responsibility of its team, which includes a director. A musicals production is also characterized by technical aspects, such as set design, costumes, stage properties, lighting. The creative team, designs and interpretations generally change from the production to succeeding productions. Some production elements, however, may be retained from the production, for example. There is no fixed length for a musical, while it can range from a short one-act entertainment to several acts and several hours in length, most musicals range from one and a half to three hours. Musicals are usually presented in two acts, with one intermission, and the first act is frequently longer than the second. A book musical is usually built four to six main theme tunes that are reprised later in the show. Several shorter musicals on Broadway and in the West End have been presented in one act in recent decades, moments of greatest dramatic intensity in a book musical are often performed in song. Proverbially, when the emotion becomes too strong for speech, you sing, typically, many fewer words are sung in a five-minute song than are spoken in a five-minute block of dialogue. Therefore, there is time to develop drama in a musical than in a straight play of equivalent length. Within the compressed nature of a musical, the writers must develop the characters, the material presented in a musical may be original, or it may be adapted from novels, plays, classic legends, historical events or films. On the other hand, many musical theatre works have been adapted for musical films, such as West Side Story, My Fair Lady, The Sound of Music, Oliver
33.
Operetta
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Operetta is a genre of light opera, light in terms both of music and subject matter. By this time, the part of the genre name had become misleading. With this new connotation, opéra comique had dominated the French operatic stage since the decline of tragédie lyrique, most researchers acknowledge that the credit for creating the operetta form should go to Hervé, a singer, composer, librettist, conductor, and scene painter. In 1842 he wrote the little opérette, LOurs et le pacha, based on the vaudeville show by Scribe. In 1848, Hervé made his first notable appearance on the Parisian stage, with Don Quichotte et Sancho Pança, hervés most famous works are the Gounod-parody Le Petit Faust and Mamzelle Nitouche. Jacques Offenbach further developed and popularized operetta, giving it its enormous vogue during the Second Empire, Offenbachs earliest one-act pieces included Les deux aveugles, Le violoneux and Ba-ta-clan, and his first full-length operetta success was Orphée aux enfers. Offenbachs tradition was carried on by Robert Planquette, André Messager. What characterizes Offenbachs operettas is both the way they portray life, and the extremely frivolous way this is done. The character was modeled after Offenbachs female star Hortense Schneider. Considering how Zolas Nana describes an Offenbach-style operetta performance in Paris, it is not surprising that the mostly male, upper-class audiences in other cities like Vienna and Berlin longed to see these shows in their home towns as well, which inspired worldwide performance of Offenbachs works. The highly erotic way Offenbachs operettas were originally played, with stars like Hortense Schneider created a reaction from certain parts of the general public. Operetta was considered an art form. Indeed, together with its grotesque qualities, frivolity is one of the elements of authentic operetta à la Offenbach. It was only later, when audiences widened and became more middle and lower class, the most significant composer of operetta in the German language was the Austrian Johann Strauss II. His first operetta was Indigo und die vierzig Räuber and his third operetta, Die Fledermaus, became the most performed operetta in the world, and remains his most popular stage work. Its libretto was based on a written by Offenbachs librettists. In all, Strauss wrote 16 operettas and one opera, most with great success when first premiered, many of his lesser operettas are now largely forgotten, since his later librettists were less talented and he often composed independently of the plot. Strausss operettas, waltzes, polkas, and marches often have a strongly Viennese style, the Theater an der Wien never failed to draw huge crowds when his stage works were first performed
34.
Matilda Joslyn Gage
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Matilda Electa Gage was a suffragist, a Native American rights activist, an abolitionist, a freethinker, and a prolific author, who was born with a hatred of oppression. Matilda Gage spent her childhood in a house which was used as a station of the Underground Railroad and she faced prison for her actions under the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 which criminalized assistance to escaped slaves. Even though she was beset by financial and physical problems throughout her life, her work for womens rights was extensive, practical. Gage became involved in the womens movement in 1852 when she decided to speak at the National Womens Rights Convention in Syracuse. She served as president of the National Woman Suffrage Association from 1875 to 1876, during the 1876 convention, she successfully argued against a group of police who claimed the association was holding an illegal assembly. Gage was considered to be more radical than either Susan B, along with Stanton, she was a vocal critic of the Christian Church, which put her at odds with conservative suffragists such as Frances Willard and the Womans Christian Temperance Union. Rather than arguing that women deserved the vote because their feminine morality would then properly influence legislation, despite her opposition to the Church, Gage was in her own way deeply religious, and she joined Stantons Revising Committee to write The Womans Bible. She became a Theosophist and encouraged her children and their spouses to do so, Gage was well-educated and a prolific writer—the most gifted and educated woman of her age, claimed her devoted son-in-law, L. Frank Baum. She corresponded with numerous newspapers, reporting on developments in the suffrage movement. Each edition bore the words The Pen Is Mightier Than The Sword, Gage wrote clearly, logically, and often with a dry wit and a well-honed sense of irony. Writing about laws which allowed a man to will his children to a guardian unrelated to their mother, Gage observed, It is sometimes better to be a dead man than a live woman. As a result of the campaigning of the New York State Woman Suffrage Association under Gage, Gage ensured that every woman in her area had the opportunity to vote by writing letters making them aware of their rights, and sitting at the polls making sure nobody was turned away. In 1871, Gage was part of a group of 10 women who attempted to vote, reportedly, she stood by and argued with the polling officials on behalf of each individual woman. She supported Victoria Woodhull and Ulysses S Grant in the 1872 presidential election, in 1873 she defended Susan B. Anthony when Anthony was placed on trial for having voted in that election, in 1884, Gage was an Elector-at-Large for Belva Lockwood and the Equal Rights Party. Gage unsuccessfully tried to prevent the takeover of the womens suffrage movement. Anthony who had helped to found the National Woman Suffrage Association, was concerned with gaining the vote. Conservative suffragists were drawn into the movement believing womens vote would achieve temperance
35.
Women's suffrage
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Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them
36.
First-wave feminism
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First-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity and thought, that occurred within the time period of the 19th and early 20th century throughout the world. It focused on issues, primarily on gaining womens suffrage. Feminism has its source in the 18th century, specifically in the Enlightenment, in this cultural and philosophical movement there was a controversy over equality and gender differences. At the time appeared a new critical discourse that used the universal categories of political philosophy. Enlightenment movement therefore was not feminist at its roots, the political origins of feminism came from The French Revolution. Rousseaus political theory designed the exclusion of women from the field of property, so in the French Revolution the voice of women began to express themselves collectively. The term first-wave was coined in March 1968 by Martha Lear writing in The New York Times Magazine, at that time, the womens movement was focused on de facto inequalities, which it wished to distinguish from the objectives of the earlier feminists. According to Miriam Schneir, Simone de Beauvoir wrote that the first woman to take up her pen in defense of her sex was Christine de Pizan in the 15th century, heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and Modesta di Pozzo di Forzi worked in the 16th century. Marie Le Jars de Gournay, Anne Bradstreet and François Poullain de la Barre wrote in the 17th, Mary Wollstonecrafts most famous work, which is called Vindication, was created in 1792. Its previous feminist work was Poullain de la Barres Equality of sexes and this period was affected by Rousseaus philosophy, the Illustration. The father of the Illustration defined an ideal democratic society that was based on the equality of men, Mary Wollstonecraft based her work on the ideas of Rousseau. Although at first it seems to be contradictory, Wollstonecrafts idea was to expand Rousseaus democratic society and her later unfinished novel, Maria, or the Wrongs of Woman, earned her considerable criticism as she discussed womens sexual desires. She died young, and her widower, the philosopher William Godwin, quickly wrote a memoir of her that, contrary to his intentions, early Feminism was directly correlated with the abolitionist movements and as a result many famous feminists and activists began to have their voices heard. Some of these early activists include, Sojourner Truth, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, Jane Addams, and Dorothy Day. The first wave of feminism was led by white women in the middle class. The term Feminism was created like a political illustrated ideology at that period, Feminism emerged by the speech about the reform and correction of democracy based on equalitarian conditions. With Wollstonecrafts work, the illustrated feminist polemic was displayed, and as a result, Wollstonecraft is regarded as the grandmother of British feminism and her ideas shaped the thinking of the suffragettes, who campaigned for the womens vote. After generations of work, this was eventually achieved, in 1882, Rose Scott, a womens rights activist, began to hold a weekly salon meetings in her Sydney home, left to her by her late mother
37.
Aberdeen, South Dakota
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Aberdeen is a city in and the county seat of Brown County, South Dakota, United States, about 125 miles northeast of Pierre. The city population was 26,091 at the 2010 census, Aberdeen is the principal city of the Aberdeen Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Brown and Edmunds counties and has a population of 40,602 in 2010. Aberdeen is considered a town, being the home of both Northern State University and Presentation College. Before Aberdeen or Brown County was inhabited by European settlers, it was inhabited by the Sioux Indians from approximately 1700 to 1879, europeans entered the region for business, founding fur trading posts during the 1820s, these trading posts operated until the mid-1830s. The first settlers of this region were the Arikara Indians, the first group of Euro-American settlers to reach the area that is now Brown County was a party of four people, three horses, two mules, fifteen cattle, and two wagons. This group of settlers was later joined by another group the following spring and this town was established on June 15,1879. The town was settled in 1880, and incorporated in 1882, Aberdeen, like many towns of the Midwest, was built around the newly developing railroad systems. Mitchell, Charles Priors boss, was responsible for the choice of names, was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, after which the town of Aberdeen. Aberdeen was officially founded on July 6,1881, the date of the first arrival of a Milwaukee Railroad train, Aberdeen then operated under a city charter granted by the Territorial Legislature in March 1883. As Aberdeen grew, many businesses and buildings were constructed along Aberdeens Main Street, however, this soon became a problem due to Aberdeens periodic flooding, which led to it being referred to as The Town in the Frog Pond. When the water was gone from the basements, the city still had to deal with the mud also resulted from the heavy rains. The artesian well was designed by the city engineers to prevent flooding, however, during the digging of the well, the water stream that was found underground was too powerful to be contained. The water came blasting out with violent force and had the entire Main Street submerged in up to four feet of water. The engineers realized the previous flaws of the artesian well plan and soon added a valve to the well to control the flow of water. Aberdeen had four different railroad companies with depots built in the developing town. With these four railroads intersecting here, Aberdeen soon became known as the Hub City of the Dakotas. When looking down on Aberdeen from above, the railroad tracks converging in Aberdeen resembled the spokes of a wheel converging at a hub and these four railroad companies are the reason why Aberdeen was able to grow and flourish as it did. The only railroad still running through Aberdeen is the Burlington Northern Santa Fe, on October 25,1999, a Learjet 35 carrying golfing star Payne Stewart crashed in a field near Aberdeen
38.
Sitting Bull
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Sitting Bull was a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, Sitting Bulls leadership inspired his people to a major victory. S. A small remnant of his band under Waŋblí Ǧi decided to stay at Wood Mountain, after working as a performer with Buffalo Bills Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota. Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement and his body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota, Sitting Bull was born on land later included in the Dakota Territory. In 2007, Sitting Bulls great-grandson asserted from family tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River, south of present-day Miles City. He was named Jumping Badger at birth, and nicknamed Hunkesi, or Slow, said to describe his careful, when the boy was fourteen years old he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. Jumping Badger displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, upon returning to camp his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. The name, Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotaŋka, which in the Lakota language means Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down, thereafter, Sitting Bulls father was known as Jumping Bull. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War, the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, in 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village. The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta, the Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August. In September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a party near what is now Marmarth, North Dakota. They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the hip by a soldier. The bullet exited out through the small of his back, from 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud as a leader of the Oglala Lakota fought against US forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana. In support of him, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson, Sitting Bull also made guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region. By early 1868, the U. S. government desired a settlement to Red Clouds War. It agreed to Red Clouds demands that the US abandon forts Phil Kearny, Gall of the Hunkpapa signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2,1868 at Fort Rice
39.
Wounded Knee Massacre
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The Wounded Knee Massacre occurred on December 29,1890, near Wounded Knee Creek on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in the U. S. state of South Dakota. The remainder of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, led by Colonel James W. Forsyth, the regiment was supported by a battery of four Hotchkiss mountain guns. On the morning of December 29, the troops went into the camp to disarm the Lakota. One version of events claims that during the process of disarming the Lakota, a scuffle over the rifle ensued, causing several Lakota to draw their weapons and open fire on the cavalry regiment. The situation quickly devolved as both sides began firing indiscriminately, by the time the battle was over, more than 150 men, women, and children of the Lakota had been killed and 51 were wounded, some estimates placed the number of dead at 300. Twenty-five soldiers also died, and 39 were wounded, at least twenty soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor. In 2001, the National Congress of American Indians passed two resolutions condemning the awards and called on the U. S. government to rescind them, the site of the battlefield has been designated a National Historic Landmark. In 1990, both houses of the U. S. Congress passed a resolution expressing deep regret for the massacre. In the years leading up to the conflict, the U. S. government had continued to seize Lakota lands, the once-large bison herds had been hunted to near-extinction by European settlers. Treaty promises to protect reservation lands from encroachment by settlers and gold miners were not implemented as agreed, as a result, there was unrest on the reservations. During this time, news spread among the reservations of a Paiute prophet named Wovoka and he had a vision that the Christian Messiah, Jesus Christ, had returned to Earth in the form of a Native American. According to Wovoka, the Messiah would raise all the Native American believers above the earth and they would then return to earth to live in peace. All this would be brought about by performance of the slow and solemn Ghost Dance, performed as a shuffle in silence to a slow, single drumbeat. Lakota ambassadors to Wovoka, Kicking Bear and Short Bull taught the Lakota that while performing the Ghost Dance, Kicking Bear said the shirts had the power to repel bullets. American settlers were alarmed by the sight of the many Great Basin and Plains tribes performing the Ghost Dance, among them was the U. S. Indian agent at the Standing Rock Agency where Chief Sitting Bull lived. United States officials decided to take some of the chiefs into custody in order to quell what they called the Messiah craze, the military first hoped to have Buffalo Bill — a friend of Sitting Bull — aid in the plan, to reduce the chance of violence. Standing Rock agent James McLaughlin overrode the military and sent the Indian police to arrest Sitting Bull, on December 15,1890,40 Native American policemen arrived at Sitting Bulls house to arrest him. Crowds gathered in protest, and the first shot was fired when Sitting Bull tried to pull away from his captors, additional shots were fired, resulting in the deaths of Sitting Bull, eight of his supporters, and six policemen
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