1.
Lakehurst Maxfield Field
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It is primarily the home to Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division Lakehurst, although the airfield supports several other flying and non-flying units as well. After its consolidation with McGuire Air Force Base and Fort Dix in October 2009, however, as with all joint bases, the installation receives support services from the previous installation authorities. Thus, Lakehurst Field is also provided services from Naval Support Activity Lakehurst. Lakehurst Maxfield Fields history begins as a site for the Imperial Russian Army in 1916. It was then acquired by the United States Army as Camp Kendrick during World War I, the United States Navy purchased the property in 1921 for use as an airship station and renamed it Naval Air Station Lakehurst. The United States Navys lighter-than-air program was conducted at Lakehurst from its inception through the 1930s, NAS Lakehurst was the center of airship development in the United States and housed three of the U. S. Navys four rigid airships, Shenandoah, Los Angeles, and Akron. A number of the airship hangars built to berth these ships still survive, hangar One, in which the Shenandoah was built, held the record for the largest single room in the world. According to an article in the January,1925 issue of National Geographic Magazine, the base also housed many Navy non-rigid airships, otherwise knowns as blimps, in several squadrons before, during, and after World War II. This included the U. S. Navys ZPG-3W, which was deactivated in September 1962, a ground marker, painted black, and rimmed by a bright yellow painted chain, locates where the gondola of the German zeppelin Hindenburg hit the ground. Lakehurst conducts the unique mission of supporting and developing the Aircraft Launch and Recovery Equipment, the former NAS Lakehurst also hosted the U. S. Today the base is used for various Naval Aviation development programs, each installations major support services such as MWR, Legal, medical/dental clinics, and exchange services roles transitioned over to either Air Force or joint operation. However, both Lakehurst kept several service-specific support services for their personnel, with the disestablishment of NAES Lakehurst as a separate activity from JBMDL, NSA Lakehurst became the official sponsor for these activities. S
2.
Hindenburg-class airship
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The two Hindenburg-class airships were hydrogen-filled, passenger-carrying rigid airships built in Germany in the 1930s and named in honor of Paul von Hindenburg. They were the last such aircraft ever built, and in terms of their length and volume, the largest Zeppelins ever to fly. During the 1930s, airships like the Hindenburg class were considered the future of air travel. The destruction of this ship in a spectacular and highly publicized accident was to prove the death knell for these expectations. The second ship, LZ130 Graf Zeppelin was never operated on a passenger service. The Hindenburg class were built to an all-duralumin design, the leader of the design team was Dr. Ludwig Dürr, who had overseen the design of all Zeppelins except LZ-1, under the overall direction of Hugo Eckener, the head of the company. They were 245 m long and 41 m in diameter, longer than three Boeing 747s placed end-to-end, longer than four Goodyear GZ-20 blimps end-to-end, and only 24 m shorter than the RMS Titanic. The previous largest civilian airship, with a length of 237 m and a width of 40 m, was the British R101, the US Navys Akron and Macon were 239 m long and 44 m wide. The design originally called for cabins for 50 passengers and a complement of 40. Construction of the first ship, LZ129, later named Hindenburg, began in 1931 and this led Eckener to make a deal with the Nazi Party which came to power in 1933. He needed money to build the airship, but in return he was forced to display the swastikas on the tail fins. The keel of the ship, LZ130 Graf Zeppelin was laid on June 23,1936. As the second Zeppelin to carry the name Graf Zeppelin, she is referred to as Graf Zeppelin II. The duralumin frame was covered by cotton cloth varnished with iron oxide, the aluminium was added to reflect both ultraviolet, which damaged the fabric, and infrared light, which caused heating of the gas. This was an innovation that was first used on the LZ126 which was taken as war reparations by the US, the rigid structure was held together by many large rings up to the size of a Ferris wheel,15 of which were gas cell boundaries which formed bulkheads. These bulkheads were braced by wires which connected up into the axial catwalk. The longitudinal duralumin girders connected all the rings together and formed panels, the 16 gas cells were made of cotton and a gas-tight material. On Graf Zeppelin, the cells were lightened and one was made of silk instead of cotton
3.
Luftschiffbau Zeppelin
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Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH is a German company which, during the early 20th century, was a leader in the design and manufacture of rigid airships, specifically of the Zeppelin type. The company was founded by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Luftschiffbau is a German word meaning building of airships. Count von Zeppelin had been working on various guidable rigid airship prototypes from as early as 1885, initially finance for the research was supplied by the count himself, by private donations, and even a lottery. With the growing success of flight, public interest also grew. In 1908, the Zeppelin LZ4 was destroyed during a high-profile test flight and this proved fortunate, since it caused a flood of public support. The ensuing donation campaign collected over 6 million German marks which was used to set up both Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH and the Zeppelin foundation, Luftschiffbau Zeppelin manufactured many Zeppelin airships for both civilian and military use over the next few decades. However, with the rise of the Nazis in 1933, focus shifted to heavier than air aircraft, by the onset of World War II, demand for the Zeppelins had waned. The last active vessel was decommissioned early in the war and salvaged for its precious aluminium, the partnership ended after World War II began, but the American company continued to build blimps under the Goodyear name. Officially, Hugo Eckener was the head of both, but in practice Ernst Lehmann, who was opposed to the Nazi regime. Luftschiffbau Zeppelin stopped manufacturing in 1938 and operations by 1940, in the autumn of 1941, the company had accepted contracts to produce V-2 rocket propellant tanks and fuselage sections. Previously in June 1943, Allied bombing during Operation Bellicose had hit the Zeppelin V-2 facility, the company continued during the war and disappeared sometime around 1945. Almost 50 years later, the company re-emerged in Germany, the parent group company of the current Zeppelin maker was re-established in 1993 and the operating company producing the current Zeppelins was created in 2001. Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH still exists as of 2010, and is a shareholder in the company ZLT Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH which is developing and producing the Zeppelin NT
4.
Deutsche Zeppelin Reederei
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The Deutsche Zeppelin Reederei, abbreviated DZR, is a limited-liability company that operates commercial passenger zeppelin flights. The current incarnation of the DZR was founded in 2001 and is based in Friedrichshafen and it is a subsidiary of Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik and operates Zeppelin NT Next Generation airships. By 2009 the DZR had transported over 55,000 passengers, as of 2012 the DZR flies a schedule of 12 tour routes between March and November in Southern Germany. The company also operates flights to selected cities as well as charter flights. In the mid-1930s, the DZR was a airline based in Frankfurt that operated zeppelins in regular transatlantic revenue service. Following the Hindenburg disaster in 1937 the DZR stopped transatlantic service, plans for more operations ended at the outbreak of World War II and its zeppelins were scrapped in 1940. Todays DZR sees itself as the successor of this original airline and is incorporated under the same name, DELAG was founded on 16 November 1909 as a subsidiary of the Luftschiffbau Zeppelin Corporation to commercialize airship travel. It became the worlds first passenger airline in revenue service with the launch of LZ7 Deutschland in 1910, while DELAGs initial flights were primarily sightseeing tours, by 1919 it was operating a regular schedule between Berlin and Friedrichshafen with a stop at Munich. Between 1910 and the outbreak of World War I DELAG transported over 34,028 passengers on 1,588 commercial flights, the creation of the DZR as successor to DELAG occurred for both political and business reasons. Luftschiffbau Zeppelin chairman Hugo Eckener, who had intended to run against Hitler in the 1932 presidential election, was disliked by the Nazis. A personal rivalry between Göring and Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels also played a role, to complicate matters further, the Luftschiffbau was a loss-making concern and needed cash investment, in particular to complete construction of the Hindenburg. Deutsche Zeppelin-Reederei was therefore incorporated on 22 March 1935 as a joint venture between Zeppelin Luftschiffbau, the Ministry of Aviation, and Deutsche Luft Hansa. The LZ Groups capital contribution came primarily from its two airships LZ127 Graf Zeppelin and LZ129 Hindenburg, the latter of which was not yet complete on the date of incorporation, nearly all of the rest was an infusion of cash by the Air Ministry and DLH. Despite Nazi pressure, the DZRs operating routine was businesslike, the board of directors included Albert Hofmann Mühlig, Carl August Freiherr von Gablenz and Martin Vronsky. One of their first tasks was a reorganization of the transatlantic travel agency system in Germany. The DZR took over the South American service of the LZ127 Graf Zeppelin on 22 March 1935, on 19 March 1936 the airship LZ129 Hindenburg was licensed to carry passengers and handed over to the DZR, allowing the airline to maintain regular South and North American routes. Construction began at the new Frankfurt Airport on an airship hangar as well as special housing for employees. On 30 June 1936 the DZR ordered a ship to the Hindenburg, LZ130 Graf Zeppelin II
5.
Hindenburg disaster
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Of the 97 people on board, there were 35 fatalities. One worker on the ground was killed, raising the final death toll to 36. The disaster was the subject of spectacular newsreel coverage, photographs, and Herbert Morrisons recorded radio eyewitness reports from the landing field, a variety of hypotheses have been put forward for both the cause of ignition and the initial fuel for the ensuing fire. The incident shattered public confidence in the giant, passenger-carrying rigid airship, the American Airlines company had contracted with the operators of the Hindenburg to shuttle the passengers from Lakehurst to Newark for connections to airplane flights. Although carrying only half its capacity of passengers and crewmen for the accident flight. Many of the passengers tickets to Germany were planning to attend the coronation of King George VI. The airship was hours behind schedule when she passed over Boston on the morning of May 6, after passing over the field at 4,00 p. m. Captain Pruss took passengers on a tour over the seasides of New Jersey while waiting for the weather to clear. After finally being notified at 6,22 p. m. that the storms had passed, around 7,00 p. m. local time, at an altitude of 650 feet, the Hindenburg made its final approach to the Lakehurst Naval Air Station. This was to be a landing, known as a flying moor, because the airship would drop its landing ropes and mooring cable at a high altitude. This type of landing maneuver would reduce the number of ground crewmen, although the high landing was a common procedure for American airships, the Hindenburg had only performed this maneuver a few times in 1936 while landing in Lakehurst. At 7,09, the made a sharp full-speed left turn to the west around the landing field because the ground crew was not ready. At 7,11, it turned back toward the landing field, all engines idled ahead and the airship began to slow. Captain Pruss ordered aft engines full astern at 7,14 while at an altitude of 394 ft, at 7,17, the wind shifted direction from east to southwest, and Captain Pruss ordered a second sharp turn starboard, making an s-shaped flightpath towards the mooring mast. At 7,18, as the turn progressed, Pruss ordered 300,300 and 500 kg of water ballast in successive drops because the airship was stern-heavy. The forward gas cells were also valved, as these measures failed to bring the ship in trim, six men were then sent to the bow to trim the airship. At 7,21, while the Hindenburg was at an altitude of 295 feet, the lines were dropped from the bow. The port line was overtightened as it was connected to the post of the ground winch, the starboard line had still not been connected
6.
Aircraft registration
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In accordance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation, all civil aircraft must be registered with a national aviation authority using procedures set by each country. Every country, even those not party to the Chicago Convention, has a NAA whose functions include the registration of civil aircraft, an aircraft can only be registered once, in the one jurisdiction. The registration identifier must be displayed prominently on the aircraft, most countries also require the registration identifier to be imprinted on a permanent fireproof plate mounted on the fuselage in case of a post-fire/post-crash aircraft accident investigation. Military aircraft typically use tail codes and serial numbers, although each aircraft registration identifier is unique, some countries allow it to be re-used when the aircraft has been sold, destroyed or retired. For example, N3794N is assigned to a Mooney M20F and it had been previously assigned to a Beechcraft Bonanza. Also note that an aircraft may be assigned different registrations during its existence. This can be because the aircraft ownership, jurisdiction of registration. The first use of aircraft registrations was based on the radio callsigns allocated at the London International Radiotelegraphic Conference in 1913, the format was a single letter prefix followed by four other letters. The major nations operating aircraft were allocated a letter prefix. Smaller countries had to share a single letter prefix, but were allocated exclusive use of the first letter of the suffix and this was modified by agreement by the International Bureau at Berne and published on April 23,1913. The agreement stipulated that the nationality marks were to be followed by a then a group of four letters that must include a vowel. This system operated until the adoption of the system in 1928. The International Radiotelegraph Convention at Washington in 1927 revised the list of markings and these were adopted from 1928 and are the basis of the currently used registrations. The markings have been amended and added to over the years, upon registration, the aircraft receives its unique registration, which must be displayed prominently on the aircraft. Annex 7 to the Chicago Convention describes the definitions, location, the aircraft registration is made up of a prefix selected from the countrys callsign prefix allocated by the International Telecommunication Union and the registration suffix. Depending on the country of registration, this suffix is a numeric or alphanumeric code, a supplement to Annex 7 provides an updated list of approved nationality and common marks used by various countries. When painted on the fuselage, the prefix and suffix are usually separated by a dash, when entered in a flight plan, the dash is omitted. In some countries use a number suffix rather than letters, like the United States, South Korea, and Japan
7.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
8.
Rigid airship
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Rigid airships are often commonly called Zeppelins, though this technically refers only to airships built by the Luftschifbau Zeppelin company. Rigid airships were produced and relatively successfully employed from the beginning of the 1900s to the end of the 1930s, Rigid airships consist of a structural framework usually covered in doped fabric containing a number of gasbags or cells containing a lifting gas. The noble gas helium was used by American airships in the 1920s and 30s and is used in all modern airships, similarly, by flying nose-down down-force can be generated, this may be done to prevent the airship rising above its pressure height. Typically airships start a flight with their gasbags inflated to about 95% capacity, by 1874 several people had conceived of a rigid dirigible. The Frenchman Joseph Spiess had patented a rigid airship design in 1873, Count Zeppelin had outlined his thoughts of a rigid airship in diary entries from 25 March 1874 through to 1890 when he resigned from the military. David Schwarz had thought about building an airship in the 1880s and had started design work in 1891. It was not until after Schwarzs death in 1897 that his airship, built with help from the industrialist Carl Berg. With Bergs aluminium, Zeppelin was able to start building his first airship in 1899, ferdinand von Zeppelin completed his first airship, the LZ1 in July 1900. Constructed in a shed on Lake Constance, it was 128.02 m long,11.73 m in diameter with a volume of 11,298 m3 and was powered by two 11 kW Daimler engines. The first flight, lasting 20 minutes, was made on 2 July, after repairs and modifications two further flights were made in October 1900. These experiments failed to attract any investors, and Count Zeppelin did not complete his design, LZ2. This made only a flight on 17 January 1906. After both engines failed it made a landing in the Allgäu mountains, where a storm subsequently damaged it beyond repair. A similar design, the LZ3 was soon completed and this performed well enough to interest the German Army, but they required an airship capable of flying for 24 hours. This was beyond the capability of LZ3, so a larger craft and this was 136 m long,12.95 m in diameter and powered by two Daimler engines delivering a total of 156 kW. LZ4 first flew on 20 June 1908, and on 1 July made a spectacular 12 hour cross-country flight during which it was flown over Switzerland to Zürich, the 24-hour trial was started on 4 August, but was interrupted by the failure of one of the engines. It was moored near Echterdingen in order to make repairs but a storm arose and it away from its moorings, was blown into some trees. The disaster took place in front of an estimated 40 to 50 thousand spectators, seven were operated by DELAG, the first airline in the world
9.
Lead ship
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The lead ship, name ship, or class leader is the first of a series or class of ships all constructed according to the same general design. The term is applicable to ships and larger civilian craft. Large ships are complicated internally and may take as much as five to ten years to construct, any changes or advances that are available when building a ship are likely to be included, so it is rare to have two that are identical. Constructing one ship is likely to reveal better ways of doing things. The second and later ships are often started before the first one is completed, launched and tested, the improvements will sometimes be retrofitted to the lead ship. Larger civilian craft, such as Sun Princess, the ship of the Sun-class cruise ships. The same custom is followed in fiction, the Constitution-class cruiser is the basis for the Enterprise of Star Trek. Example of a lead ship announcement from US Navy USS Pennsylvania BB-38
10.
Lake Constance
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Lake Constance is a lake on the Rhine at the northern foot of the Alps, and consists of three bodies of water, the Obersee, the Untersee, and a connecting stretch of the Rhine, called the Seerhein. The lake is situated in Germany, Switzerland and Austria near the Alps and its shorelines lie in the German states of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg, the Austrian state of Vorarlberg, and the Swiss cantons of Thurgau, St Gallen and Schaffhausen. Freshwater Lake Constance is central Europes third largest, after Lake Balaton and it is 63 km long, and at its widest point, nearly 14 km. It covers approximately 571 km2, and is 395 m above sea level, the greatest depth is 252 metres in the middle of the eastern part. Its volume is approximately 10×10^9 m3, the regulated Rhine flows into the lake in the southeast, through the Obersee, the city of Konstanz and the Untersee, and flows out near Stein am Rhein. The lake itself is an important drinking water source for southwestern Germany, the culminating point of the lakes drainage basin is the Tödi at 3,614 metres above sea level. Car ferries link Romanshorn to Friedrichshafen, and Konstanz to Meersburg, Lake Constance was formed by the Rhine Glacier during the ice age and is a zungenbecken lake. The Rhine, the Bregenzer Ache, and the Dornbirner Ache carry sediments from the Alps to the lake, thus decreasing the depth. Lake Constance was first mentioned by the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela about 43 AD and he noted that the Rhine flows through two lakes, and gave them the Latin names Lacus Venetus and Lacus Acronius. Pliny the Elder used the name Lacus Brigantinus, after the Roman city of Brigantium, the lake is also colloquially known as the Swabian Sea. The lake was frozen in the years 1077,1326,1378,1435,1465,1477,1491,1517,1571,1573,1600,1684,1695,1709,1795,1830,1880, and 1963. Approximately 1,000 tonnes of fish were caught by 150 professional fishermen in 2001 which was below the ten year average of 1,200 tonnes per year. The Lake Constance trout was almost extinct in the 1980s due to pollution, Lake Constance is the home of the critically endangered species of trout Salvelinus profundus, and formerly also the now extinct Lake Constance whitefish. After the Council of Constance, the Latin-speaking Catholic world gave the lake its current international name and it was derived from the city of Konstanz, that, in turn, was named after a Roman emperor. The German name, Bodensee, derives from the town of Bodman, Lake Constance is the only area in Europe where no borders exist, because there is no legally binding agreement as to where the borders lie between Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Legal questions pertaining to transport and fishing are regulated in separate treaties. One concerns a houseboat which was moored in two states, another concerns the rights to fish in the Bay of Bregenz, in relation to the latter, an Austrian family was of the opinion that it alone had the right to fish in broad portions of the bay. However, this was accepted neither by the Austrian courts nor by the organs, a 100-year flood around June 1999 raised the level about 2 metres above normal, flooding harbors and many shoreline buildings and hotels
11.
Friedrichshafen
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Friedrichshafen is an industrial city on the northern shoreline of Lake Constance in Southern Germany, near both the borders of Switzerland and Austria. It is the capital of the Bodensee district in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg. Friedrichshafen has a population of c, Friedrichshafen was established in 1811 as part of the new Kingdom of Württemberg, an ally of France during the Napoleonic Wars. It was named for King Frederick I of Württemberg, who privileged it as a free port, Friedrichshafen was created from the former city of Buchhorn, whose coat of arms it adopted. The new city incorporated the former village of Hofen, whose monastery was refurbished to serve as the summer residence of the Württemberger kings. King William I continued improving the city, including the purchase of the steamship Wilhelm, ministers and senior officials built villas around the royal castle, and many foreign tourists visited the city as well, including Tsar Alexander II of Russia. The first track laid by the Royal Württemberg State Railways connected the port to Ravensburg in 1847, heilbronn was connected in 1850, and a ferry to Romanshorn, Switzerland, began operating in 1869. Ferdinand von Zeppelin established his famous dirigible factory at the end of the 19th century, the 128m-long LZ1 airship rose from its mooring on July 2,1900. Other aviation companies, including Maybach, also arose in Friedrichshafen to help service the industry, the 1937 Hindenburg disaster and a subsequent embargo of American helium to Germany, however, effectively ended the production of German dirigibles. As of 2012,12 scheduled routes were offered with additional flights to selected cities, presently, a yearly aviation conference hosts the latest in European aircraft designs. AERO Friedrichshafen hosted an attendance of 33,400 in 2011, aero 2013 took place on 24–27 April 2013 at Friedrichshafen Airport. Friedrichshafen served the Nazis as a resort for workers, the presence of Zeppelin, Maybach, Dornier, and Zahnradfabrik also made it an important industrial center for Germany during World War II. Between 1942 and 1945, these factories employed hundreds of concentration camp prisoners from Dachau and Dora-Mittelbau and they were housed first at Zeppelins hangar and then, following its destruction during a raid, the V-2 factory Raderach. The prisoners were used to dig underground tunnels near Friedrichshafen to protect production sites from the repeated bombing. Between June 1943 and February 1945, the city was the site for eleven Allied bombing attacks, the most serious took place on April 28,1944, and destroyed most of the old town center. Approximately two-thirds of the city was destroyed over the course of the war, following World War II, Friedrichshafen was part of the French occupation zone before its incorporation into Baden-Württemberg, West Germany. The German aeronautics industry was again banned for years after the war. The citys principal recovery dates to its establishment as the seat of the Bodenseekreis district of, West Germany
12.
Manchester Township, New Jersey
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Manchester Township is a township in Ocean County, New Jersey, United States. The township is noted for containing the Lakehurst Naval Air Station, the 2010 population was the highest recorded in any decennial census. Manchester Township was incorporated as a township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on April 6,1865, portions of the township were taken to form Lakehurst on April 7,1921. The township was named by William Torrey for Manchester, England, according to the United States Census Bureau, the township had a total area of 82.694 square miles, including 81.620 square miles of land and 1.074 square miles of water. Leisure Village West-Pine Lake Park had been a combined CDP through the 2000 United States Census and was split as of the 2010 enumeration. The township completely surrounds the independent borough of Lakehurst, making it part of 21 pairs of doughnut towns in the state, manchesters largest development, Pine Lake Park, is known for its man-made lake, Pine Lake, built in the 1970s. As of the census of 2010, there were 43,070 people,22,840 households, the population density was 527.7 per square mile. There were 25,886 housing units at a density of 317.2 per square mile. [[Hispanic |Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 79% of the population,45. 4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 36. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.85 and the family size was 2.55. In the township, the population was out with 10. 3% under the age of 18,3. 7% from 18 to 24,12. 6% from 25 to 44,23. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 65.1 years, for every 100 females there were 74.5 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 71.9 males, the Census Bureaus 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that median household income was $37,942 and the median family income was $54,114. Males had an income of $51,366 versus $39,427 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $27,264, about 4. 2% of families and 7. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9. 9% of those under age 18 and 6. 2% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2000 United States Census there were 38,928 people,20,688 households, the population density was 471.3 people per square mile. There were 22,681 housing units at a density of 274.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the township was 94. 34% White,3. 06% African American,0. 12% Native American,0. 87% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 69% from other races, and 0. 91% from two or more races
13.
R38-class airship
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The R38 class of rigid airships was designed for Britains Royal Navy during the final months of the First World War, intended for long-range patrol duties over the North Sea. On 23 August 1921, R-38 was destroyed by a failure while in flight over the city of Hull. It crashed into the Humber estuary, killing 44 out of the 49 crew aboard, at the time of its first flight it was the worlds largest airship. A heavy load of armaments was specified, to allow the airship to be used to surface vessels. Design work was carried out by an Admiralty team led by Constructor-Commander C. I. R. Campbell, the construction contract was awarded to Short Brothers in September 1918 but cancelled on 31 January 1919 before work had been started. Construction of R38 started at Cardington in February 1919 and it was intended to follow R. Later in 1919, several orders were cancelled as a peacetime economy measure. In a further round of cutbacks, the cancellation of the unfinished R38 also appeared imminent, the hull contained 14 hydrogen-filled gasbags. The 13-sided mainframes were 49 ft apart and were made up of diamond-shaped trusses connected by 13 main and 12 secondary longitudinal girders, there were two secondary ring frames between each pair of mainframes. The forward-mounted control car was attached to the hull. The cruciform tail surfaces were unbraced cantilevers and carried balanced elevators and rudders. The six Sunbeam Cossack engines, each driving a pusher propeller, were housed in individual cars arranged as three pairs, one pair aft of the control car. One pair amidships and the third pair aft, with the news that R38 had been cancelled, the possibility of buying it was investigated. An agreement was reached in October 1919 for its purchase for £300,000, the airship was to be given a curtailed series of tests before being handed over to the U. S. Navy, who would fly it across the Atlantic. However the Air Ministry ruled that 50 hours would be sufficient, with the balance area of the top rudder reduced, a second test flight was carried out on 17–18 July. The control balance problem remained, and on return to Cardington all the surfaces were reduced in area. The highly experienced Pritchard took over the controls from the American coxswain and reduced the oscillation, R.38 returned to Howden at reduced speed and work on reinforcing these girders was carried out and completed by 30 July at Howden. There were increasing doubts being expressed about the design, including made by Air Commodore E. M. Maitland
14.
Roma (airship)
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Roma was an Italian semi-rigid airship, originally designated the T-34. It was purchased by the United States from the Italian government for $250,000 in 1921 and it served in the US Army until February 21,1922, when it crashed in Norfolk, Virginia, killing 34 people. It was the last hydrogen filled airship flown by the US military, the Roma was designed by Celestino Usuelli, the engineers Eugenio Prassone, Umberto Nobile and Colonel Gaetano Arturo Crocco. It was the first project of the Stabilimento Costruzioni Aeronautiche, as the partnership of Umberto Nobile, Usuelli, Giuseppe Valle, the T-34 was designed for trans-Atlantic crossings. It was the largest semi-rigid airship in the world, as a semi-rigid design it was built about a rigid keel - though the keel was partially articulated to allow some flexibility. The passenger spaces and control cabin were within the keel, the engines,400 hp Ansaldos, were mounted outside, angled such that the slipstreams would not interfere with each other. In September 1920 Roma made a trial flight, after purchase by the US, in March 1921 the Roma flew the 300 miles from Rome to Naples and back carrying the US Ambassador. After transportation to the US, Roma flew on 15 November 1921 with minor problems, the Roma crashed in Norfolk, Virginia during test flights on February 21,1922. The crash was believed to be caused by failure of the Romas box rudder system, the ship contacted high voltage lines, and burst into flames. A total of 34 were killed,8 were injured, and 3 escaped unharmed, among the dead was the airships pilot, Captain Dale Mabry. The event marked the greatest disaster in American aeronautics history at the time, new York Times, February 22,1922. Photo, Trial Flight Of The Dirigible Roma At Langley Field, the Airship ROMA Disaster in Hampton Roads
15.
R101
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It was designed and built by an Air Ministry-appointed team and was effectively in competition with the government-funded but privately designed and built R100. When built it was the worlds largest flying craft at 731 ft in length, among the deceased passengers were Lord Thomson, the Air Minister who had initiated the programme, senior government officials, and almost all the dirigibles designers from the Royal Airship Works. The crash of R101 effectively ended British airship development, and was one of the worst airship accidents of the 1930s and this led to the nicknames the Socialist Airship and the Capitalist Airship. These called for airships of not less than five million cubic feet capacity, with the necessary allowance of about 20 tons for the service load consisting of a crew of approximately 40, stores and water ballast this meant a possible fuel and passenger load of 42 tons. Accommodation for 100 passengers and tankage for 57 hours flight was to be provided, in wartime, the airships would be expected to carry 200 troops or possibly five parasite fighter aircraft. Vickers design team was led by Barnes Wallis, who had experience of rigid airship design and later became famous for the geodetic framework of the Wellington bomber. Shute later admitted that many of his criticisms of the R101 team were unjustified, in fact, the extensive experimentation that was carried out delayed the start of production of R101 until early 1927. R100 was also delayed, and neither flew until late 1929, the whole airship programme was under the direction of the Director of Airship Development, Group Captain Peregrine Fellowes, with Colmore acting as his deputy. H. Scott, who had developed the design of the masts that were to be built. It had been nationalised in 1919 but after the loss of the R38 naval airship development was stopped and it had placed on a care. R101 was to be only after an extensive research and test programme was complete. This was carried out by the National Physical Laboratory, as part of this programme, the Air Ministry funded the costs of refurbishing and flying R33 in order to gather data about structural loads and the airflow around a large airship. This data was made available to Vickers, both airships had the same elongated tear-drop shape, unlike previous airship designs. This shape had been found to produce the amount of drag. Safety was a concern and this would have an important influence on the choice of engines. An early decision had made to construct the primary structure largely from stainless steel rather than lightweight alloys such as duralumin. Working to a design prepared with the help of data supplied by the NPL. This information was supplied to J. D. North and his team at Boulton and Paul
16.
USS Akron (ZRS-4)
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USS Akron was a helium-filled rigid airship of the U. S. Navy which operated between September 1931 and April 1933. She was the worlds first purpose-built flying aircraft carrier, carrying F9C Sparrowhawk fighter planes which could be launched and recovered while she was in flight, with an overall length of 785 ft, the Akron and her sister ship the Macon were among the largest flying objects ever built. The Akron was destroyed in a thunderstorm off the coast of New Jersey on the morning of 4 April 1933, killing 73 of the 76 crewmen and this accident involved the greatest loss of life in any airship crash. The airships skeleton was built of the new lightweight alloy duralumin 17-SRT, the frame introduced several novel features compared with traditional Zeppelin designs. Rather than being single-girder diamond trusses with radial wire bracing, the rings of the Akron were self-supporting deep frames. The inherent strength of these frames allowed Chief Designer, Dr Karl Arnstein, instead, the fins of the Akron were cantilevered, mounted entirely externally to the main structure. Each keel provided a walkway running almost the length of the ship. The main rings were spaced at 22.5 m and between each pair were three intermediate rings of lighter construction, in keeping with conventional practice, station numbers on the airship were measured in meters from zero at the rudder post, positive forward and negative aft. Thus the tip of the tail was at station -23.75, each ring frame formed a polygon with 36 corners and these were numbered from 1 to 18 port and starboard. Thus a position on the hull could be referred to, for example, while Germany, France and Britain used goldbeaters skin to gas-proof their gasbags, the Akron used Goodyear Tire and Rubbers rubberised cotton, heavier but much cheaper and more durable. Half the gas cells used an experimental cotton-based fabric impregnated with a gelatin-latex compound and this was more expensive than the rubberised cotton but lighter than goldbeaters skin. It was so successful all the gasbags of the Macon were made from it. There were 12 gas cells, numbered 0 to XI, using Roman numerals, while the air volume of the hull was 7,401,260 cu ft, the total volume of the gas cells at 100 percent fill was 6,850,000 cu ft. At a normal 95 percent fill with helium of standard purity, each engine turned a two-bladed,16 ft 4 in diameter, fixed pitch, wooden propeller via a driveshaft and bevel gearing which allowed the propeller to swivel from the vertical plane to the horizontal. With the engines ability to reverse, this allowed thrust to be applied forward, aft and it appears from photographs that the four propellers on each side were contra-rotating, each one turning the opposite way to the one ahead of it. Thus it would appear that the designers were aware that running the propellers in the air disturbed by the one ahead was not ideal and this was to prove problematical in service, inducing considerable vibration, especially noticeable in the emergency control position in the lower fin. By 1933, the Akron had two of her propellers replaced by advanced, ground-adjustable, three-bladed, metal propellers. These promised an increase and were adopted as standard for the Macon
17.
Field marshal
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Field marshal is a very senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually it is the highest rank in an army, and when it is and it is considered as a five-star rank in modern-day armed forces in many countries. The origin of the dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the kings horses. Promotion to the rank of marshal in many countries historically required extraordinary military achievement by a general. However, the rank has also used as a divisional command rank. The traditional attribute distinguishing a field marshal is a baton, the baton nowadays is purely ornamental, and as such may be richly decorated. That said, it is not necessary for the insignia to be a baton, the exact wording of the titles used by field marshals varies, examples include marshal and field marshal general. The air force equivalent in Commonwealth and many Middle Eastern air forces is marshal of the air force. Navies, which usually do not use the nomenclature employed by armies or air forces, use titles such as fleet admiral, Field marshal Mohammad Qasim Fahim was a politician in Afghanistan who served as Vice President from June 2002 until December 2004 and from November 2009 until his death. Between September 2001 and December 2004, he served as Defense Minister under the Afghan Transitional Administration. As military commander of the Northern Alliance, Fahim captured the Afghan capital Kabul in the fall of 2001 from the Taliban government, in 2004 President Hamid Karzai provided Fahim the honorary title Marshal and a year later he became member of the House of Elders. He later became a recipient of the Ahmad Shah Baba Medal, Fahim was a member of Afghanistans Tajik ethnic group. He was affiliated with the Jamiat Islami party of Afghanistan, Sir Thomas Blamey was the first and is the only Australian-born field marshal. He was promoted to the rank on the insistence of the Australian prime minister, Sir Robert Menzies, Blamey was, at the time of his promotion, seriously ill and mostly bed-ridden in the Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital. He was presented with his marshals baton at a ceremony held in the sunroom at the Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital by the Governor-General of Australia. Blameys field marshals baton is on display in the Second World War galleries at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. Currently, the only Australian field marshal is HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, during Imperial rule in China, different dynasty gave different titles to generals. A very similar title is 司馬 in Eastern Han dynasty, which means master of horse
18.
Paul von Hindenburg
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Hindenburg retired from the army for the first time in 1911, but was recalled shortly after the outbreak of World War I in 1914. He first came to attention at the age of 66 as the victor of the decisive Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914. As Germanys Chief of the General Staff from August 1916, Hindenburgs reputation rose greatly in German public esteem. He and his deputy Erich Ludendorff then led Germany in a de facto military dictatorship throughout the remainder of the war, in line with Lebensraum ideology, he advocated sweeping annexations of territories in Poland, Ukraine, and Russia in order to resettle Germans there. Hindenburg retired again in 1919, but returned to life in 1925 to be elected the second President of Germany. In 1932, Hindenburg was persuaded to run for re-election as German president, although 84 years old and in poor health, Hindenburg was re-elected in a runoff. He was opposed to Hitler and was a player in the increasing political instability in the Weimar Republic that ended with Hitlers rise to power. He dissolved the Reichstag twice in 1932 and finally, under pressure, in February, he signed off on the Reichstag Fire Decree, which suspended various civil liberties, and in March he signed the Enabling Act of 1933, which gave Hitlers regime arbitrary powers. Hindenburg died the year, after which Hitler declared the office of President vacant. Hindenburg was embarrassed by his mothers non-aristocratic background and hardly mentioned her at all in his memoirs and his paternal lineage was considered highly distinguished, in fact, he was descended from one of the most respected ancient noble families in Prussia. His paternal grandfather was Otto Ludwig von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg, Hindenburg was also a descendant of Martin Luther and his wife Katharina von Bora through their daughter Margareta Luther. Hindenburgs younger brothers and sister were Otto, Ida and Bernhard, Hindenburg was proud that one of his ancestors, Colonel Otto Frederich von Hindenburg had lost a leg at the Battle of Torgau in 1760 and had been awarded an estate at Neudeck by Frederich the Great. Hindenburg received a typical Junker upbringing, being taught the virtues of duty, discipline, obedience to authority and loyalty to Prussia, Hindenburgs governess was known to shout Quiet in the ranks. Before entering the Prussian Cadet Corps in 1859, the 12-year old Hindenburg soberly wrote up his last will and testament in case he should die, Hindenburgs favorite reading materials were war and adventure stories with The Pathfinder by James Fenimore Cooper being his favorite. As a cadet, Hindenburg was admired for his commitment to duty, obsession with details, however, he was considered of mediocre intelligence and utterly lacking in a sense of humor, a dedicated if somewhat dull cadet. After his education at schools in Berlin and Wahlstatt, Hindenburg was commissioned as a lieutenant in 1866. He fought in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, during the Seven Weeks War of 1866, Hindenburg wrote his parents, I rejoice in this bright-colored future. For the soldier war is the state of things…If I fall, it is the most honorable
19.
Lakehurst Hangar No. 1
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Hangar No.1 is an airship hangar located at Naval Air Engineering Station Lakehurst in Manchester Township, in Ocean County, New Jersey, United States. It is best known as the destination of the rigid airship LZ129 Hindenburg prior to the Hindenburg disaster on May 6,1937. In 1921 the US Navy established Lakehurst Naval Air Station to serve as its headquarters for lighter-than-air flight, the new base became the center for experimentation and development of rigid airships for strategic and commercial purposes as well as the control station for all Naval lighter-than-air flights. Hangar No.1 was the first major facility built at Lakehurst to house the huge helium-filled dirigibles, the hangar was completed in 1921 by the Lord Construction Company, with trusses erected by the Bethlehem Steel Company. The hangar is 966 feet long,350 feet wide and 224 feet high, the hangar is typical of airship hangar designs of World War I, utilizing counterbalanced doors similar to hangars built in Great Britain. At each end are two pairs of steel doors, mounted on railroad tracks. These double doors are structurally separate from the hangar itself, each counterbalanced door weighs 1,350 tons and is powered by two,20 horsepower motors, although provisions were made to open the doors manually, which required the assembled manpower of nine men. Service mezzanines are located on side of the hangar. The hangar also had a system of tracks that led to the mooring areas outside the hangar. The hangar was large enough to house two rigid airships as well as additional non-rigid airships, the hangar was used to construct the USS Shenandoah from 1922 to 1923. On September 4,1923, the made a brief maiden flight in the vicinity of Lakehurst and was christened on October 10,1923. In 1924 the US Navy obtained its second rigid airship built in Germany, the USS Los Angeles shared Hangar No.1 with the USS Shenandoah. The hangar also provided service and storage for other airships including the Graf Zeppelin, USS Macon, today the hangar holds a mock aircraft carrier flight deck, used as a training facility for aircraft carrier flight deck personnel. Since 1994, Ocean County Vocational Technical School has operated its Career & Technical Institute in the hangar, in addition to Hangar No.1 there are five other hangars at Lakehurst, which today are used for training, testing and storage. Building the Navys Bases in World War II, History of the Bureau of Yards and Docks and this article incorporates public domain material from the National Park Service document Hangar No
20.
Duralumin
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Duralumin is the trade name of one of the earliest types of age-hardenable aluminium alloys. Its use as a name is obsolete, and today the term is mainly used to describe aluminium–copper alloys. In addition to aluminium, the main materials constituting duralumin are copper, manganese, composition of Duralumin are as follows, - Aluminium-95% Copper-4% Magnesium-0. 5% Manganese-0. 5% Duralumin was developed by the German metallurgist Alfred Wilm at Dürener Metallwerke AG. In 1903, Wilm discovered that after quenching, an alloy containing 4% copper would slowly harden when left at room temperature for several days. Further improvements led to the introduction of duralumin in 1909. S, navy airships USS Los Angeles, USS Akron and USS Macon. Its composition and heat treatment were a wartime secret, Duralumin also is popular for use in precision tools such as levels because of its light weight and strength. Duralumin, its composition and heat treatment, was published in the German scientific literature before World War I. Despite this, it was not adopted beyond Germany until after World War I, reports of German use during World War I, even in such erudite technical journals as Flight, could still mis-identify its key alloying component as magnesium rather than copper. Only after the war did interest begin in its use in the UK, only the covered wings and tubular fuselage framework of the J3 were ever completed, before the project was abandoned. The slightly later Junkers J. I low-wing monoplane fighter, introducing all-duralumin aircraft structural technology to German military aviation in 1918, although the addition of copper improves strength, it also makes these alloys susceptible to corrosion. For sheet products, corrosion resistance can be enhanced by metallurgical bonding of a high-purity aluminium surface layer. These sheets are referred to as alclad, and are used by the aircraft industry. Aluminium alloyed with copper, which can be hardened, are designated by the International Alloy Designation System as the 2000 series. Typical uses for wrought Al-Cu alloys include,2011, Wire, rod, applications where good machinability and good strength are required. 2014, Heavy-duty forgings, plate, and extrusions for aircraft fittings, wheels, applications requiring high strength and hardness including service at elevated temperatures. 2017 or Avional, Around 1% Si, acceptable resistance to corrosion in air and mechanical properties. Used for aircraft applications between the wars in France and Italy, also saw some use in motor-racing applications from the 1960s, as it is a tolerant alloy that could be press-formed with relatively unsophisticated equipment. 2024, Aircraft structures, rivets, hardware, truck wheels, screw machine products,2036, Sheet for auto body panels
21.
Ferris wheel
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Some of the largest modern Ferris wheels have cars mounted on the outside of the rim, with electric motors to independently rotate each car to keep it upright. These wheels are sometimes referred to as wheels and their cars referred to as capsules. The original Ferris Wheel was designed and constructed by George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. as a landmark for the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The generic term Ferris wheel is now used for all such structures, since the original 1893 Chicago Ferris wheel there have been nine worlds tallest-ever Ferris wheels. The current record holder is the 167. 6-metre High Roller in Las Vegas, US, pleasure wheels, whose passengers rode in chairs suspended from large wooden rings turned by strong men, may have originated in 17th-century Bulgaria. A Frenchman, Antonio Manguino, introduced the idea to America in 1848, a much earlier description of a Ferris-type wheel can be seen in The Death of Arthur, a volume of the Vulgate Cycle dating from around 1220. The text describes King Arthur in a dream being approached by Fortuna, the following year he was granted the first U. S. patent for a Roundabout. George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. rode on Somers wheel in Atlantic City prior to designing his wheel for the Worlds Columbian Exposition, the original Ferris Wheel, sometimes also referred to as the Chicago Wheel, was designed and constructed by George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. With a height of 80.4 metres it was the largest attraction at the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois and it was intended to rival the 324-metre Eiffel Tower, the centerpiece of the 1889 Paris Exposition. Ferris was a graduate of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and a Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and he began his career in the railroad industry and then pursued an interest in bridge building. Ferris understood the growing need for steel and founded G. W. G. Ferris & Co. in Pittsburgh, a firm that tested and inspected metals for railroads, the wheel rotated on a 71-ton,45. There were 36 cars, each fitted with 40 revolving chairs and able to accommodate up to 60 people, the Exposition ended in October 1893, and the wheel closed in April 1894 and was dismantled and stored until the following year. It was then rebuilt on Chicagos North Side, near Lincoln Park and this prompted William D. Boyce, then a local resident, to file a Circuit Court action against the owners of the wheel to have it removed, but without success. The Wiener Riesenrad is an example of nineteenth-century Ferris wheels. A demolition permit for the Riesenrad was issued in 1916, but due to a lack of funds with which to carry out the destruction, following the demolition of the 100-metre Grande Roue de Paris in 1920, the Riesenrad became the worlds tallest extant Ferris wheel. Still in operation today, it is one of Viennas most popular tourist attractions, chronology of worlds tallest-ever wheels 1893, the original Ferris Wheel was 80.4 metres tall. Built for the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois, it was moved to St. Louis, Missouri, in 1904 for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, and demolished there in 1906
22.
Bulkhead (partition)
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A bulkhead is an upright wall within the hull of a ship or within the fuselage of an aeroplane. Other kinds of elements within a ship are decks and deckheads. The word bulki meant cargo in Old Norse, sometime in the 15th century sailors and builders in Europe realized that walls within a vessel would prevent cargo from shifting during passage. In shipbuilding, any vertical panel was called a head, so walls installed abeam in a vessels hull were called bulkheads. Now, the term applies to every vertical panel aboard a ship. Bulkhead partitions are considered to have been a feature of Chinese junks, song Dynasty author Zhu Yu wrote in his book of 1119 that the hulls of Chinese ships had a bulkhead build. The 5th-century book Garden of Strange Things by Liu Jingshu mentioned that a ship could allow water to enter the bottom without sinking, texts written by Western writers such as Marco Polo, Niccolò Da Conti, and Benjamin Franklin describe the bulkhead partitions of East Asian shipbuilding. Bulkhead partitions became widespread in Western shipbuilding during the early 19th century, a 19th century book on shipbuilding attributes the introduction of watertight bulkheads to Charles Wye Williams, known for his steamships. Some bulkheads and decks are fire-resistance rated to achieve compartmentalisation, a fire protection measure. On an aircraft, bulkheads divide the cabin into multiple areas, openings in fire-resistance rated bulkheads and decks must be firestopped to restore the fire-resistance ratings that would otherwise be compromised, if the openings were left unsealed. The authority having jurisdiction for such measures varies depending upon the flag of the ship, merchant vessels are typically subject to the regulations and inspections of the Coast Guards of the flag country. Combat ships are subject to the set out by the navy of the country that owns the ship. The term was applied to other vehicles, such as railroad cars, hopper cars, trams, automobiles, aircraft or spacecraft, as well as to containers, intermediate bulk containers. In some of these cases bulkheads are airtight to prevent air leakage or the spread of a fire, the term may also be used for the end walls of bulkhead flatcars. Mechanically, a partition or panel through which pass, or a connector designed to pass through a partition. In architecture the term is used to denote any boxed in beam or other downstand from a ceiling. Head strikes on these elements are commonplace hence in architecture any overhead downstand element comes to be referred to as a bulkhead
23.
Cotton
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Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersal of the seeds. The plant is a native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa. The greatest diversity of wild species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds, the fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, China is the worlds largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years, in the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic meters and weigh 226.8 kilograms. Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton became widespread across much of India, for example, it has been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from around 1000 BC. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC, the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum in Mexico is dated between 3400 and 2300 BC. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and this may be a reference to tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum, which is a native of the Indian subcontinent. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia, Cotton has been spun, woven and it clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era, cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, in Iran, the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era, however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran, in Persian poets poems, especially Ferdowsis Shahname, there are references to cotton. Marco Polo refers to the products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, during the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt, and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops
24.
Girder
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A girder is a support beam used in construction. It is the main support of a structure which supports smaller beams. Girders often have an I-beam cross section composed of two load-bearing flanges separated by a web, but may also have a box shape, Z shape. A girder is used to build bridges. In traditional timber framing a girder is called a girt, small steel girders are rolled into shape. Larger girders are made as plate girders, welded or bolted together from pieces of steel plate. The Warren type girder replaces the solid web with a latticework between the flanges. This truss arrangement combines strength with economy of materials and can therefore be relatively light and it is an improvement over the Neville truss which uses a spacing configuration of isosceles triangles. Song W, Ma Z, Vadivelu J, Burdette E, transfer Length and Splitting Force Calculation for Pretension Concrete Girders with High-Capacity Strands. Chen X, Wu S, Zhou J. ”Compressive Strength of Concrete Cores with Different Lengths. ”
25.
Aircraft dope
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Aircraft dope is a plasticised lacquer that is applied to fabric-covered aircraft. It tightens and stiffens fabric stretched over airframes, which renders them airtight, typical doping agents include nitrocellulose, cellulose acetate and cellulose acetate butyrate. Liquid dopes are highly flammable, nitrocellulose, for instance, is known as the explosive propellant guncotton. Dopes often include colouring pigments to facilitate even application, and are available in a range of colors. Dope has been applied to various fabrics, including madapolam. Accidents have occurred when dope is not used correctly, for example mixed with other chemicals, used on the wrong fabrics. In the 1930 R101 disaster, improper doping caused the fabric of the airship to become brittle and easily torn
26.
Radiation
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In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. Radiation is often categorized as either ionizing or non-ionizing depending on the energy of the radiated particles, Ionizing radiation carries more than 10 eV, which is enough to ionize atoms and molecules, and break chemical bonds. This is an important distinction due to the difference in harmfulness to living organisms. A common source of ionizing radiation is radioactive materials that emit α, β, or γ radiation, consisting of helium nuclei, electrons or positrons, gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of ultraviolet light constitute the ionizing part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The lower-energy, longer-wavelength part of the spectrum including visible light, infrared light, microwaves and this type of radiation only damages cells if the intensity is high enough to cause excessive heating. Ultraviolet radiation has some features of both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation and these properties derive from ultraviolets power to alter chemical bonds, even without having quite enough energy to ionize atoms. The word radiation arises from the phenomenon of waves radiating from a source and this aspect leads to a system of measurements and physical units that are applicable to all types of radiation. This law does not apply close to a source of radiation or for focused beams. Radiation with sufficiently high energy can ionize atoms, that is to say it can knock electrons off atoms, ionization occurs when an electron is stripped from an electron shell of the atom, which leaves the atom with a net positive charge. Because living cells and, more importantly, the DNA in those cells can be damaged by this ionization, thus ionizing radiation is somewhat artificially separated from particle radiation and electromagnetic radiation, simply due to its great potential for biological damage. While an individual cell is made of trillions of atoms, only a fraction of those will be ionized at low to moderate radiation powers. If the source of the radiation is a radioactive material or a nuclear process such as fission or fusion. Particle radiation is subatomic particles accelerated to relativistic speeds by nuclear reactions, because of their momenta they are quite capable of knocking out electrons and ionizing materials, but since most have an electrical charge, they dont have the penetrating power of ionizing radiation. The exception is neutron particles, see below, there are several different kinds of these particles, but the majority are alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and protons. Roughly speaking, photons and particles with energies above about 10 electron volts are ionizing, particle radiation from radioactive material or cosmic rays almost invariably carries enough energy to be ionizing. The radiation is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses, as a result, in some cases, it may lead to secondary emission of visible light upon its interaction with matter, as in the case of Cherenkov radiation and radio-luminescence. Ionizing radiation has many uses in medicine, research and construction. Ultraviolet, of wavelengths from 10 nm to 125 nm, ionizes air molecules, causing it to be absorbed by air
27.
Ultraviolet
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Ultraviolet is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation constitutes about 10% of the light output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as lamps, tanning lamps. Consequently, the effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects. Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure, along with risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earths atmosphere. More-energetic, shorter-wavelength extreme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground, Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum thus has both beneficial and harmful to human health. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans, the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher, and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm, near-UV radiation is visible to some insects, mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays, this gives birds true UV vision, reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears, who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow. UV also allows mammals to see urine trails, which is helpful for animals to find food in the wild. The males and females of some species look identical to the human eye. Ultraviolet means beyond violet, violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light, Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light. He called them oxidizing rays to emphasize chemical reactivity and to them from heat rays. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, in 1878 the effect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm, in 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established. The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it is absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann
28.
Infrared
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It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers, to 1000000 nm. Most of the radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Like all EMR, IR carries radiant energy, and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle, the photon, slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an effect on Earths climate. Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements and it excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range, Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected, Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatuses. Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes, military applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm, Infrared radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz. Below infrared is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Sunlight, at a temperature of 5,780 kelvins, is composed of near thermal-spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared. At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level, of this energy,527 watts is infrared radiation,445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Nearly all the radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 micrometers. On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, thermal infrared radiation also has a maximum emission wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of object, in accordance with Wiens displacement law. Therefore, the band is often subdivided into smaller sections. Due to the nature of the blackbody radiation curves, typical hot objects, such as exhaust pipes, the three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space
29.
Pullman Company
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Its workers initially lived in a planned worker community named Pullman. Pullman developed the car, which carried his name into the 1980s. Pullman did not just manufacture the cars, he also operated them on most of the railroads in the United States, the labor union associated with the company, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, which was founded and organized by A. Philip Randolph, was one of the most powerful African-American political entities of the 20th century, the company also built thousands of streetcars and trolley buses for use in cities. During the day, the berth was folded up somewhat like a modern airliners overhead luggage compartment. At night the upper berth folded down and the two facing seats below it folded over to provide a relatively comfortable bunk for the night, although this was somewhat spartan accommodation by todays standards, it was a great improvement on the previous layout. Curtains provided privacy, and there were washrooms at each end of the car for men and women, once a household name due to their large market share, the Pullman Company is also known for the bitter Pullman Strike staged by their workers and union leaders in 1894. During an economic downturn, Pullman reduced hours and wages but not rents, workers joined the American Railway Union, led by Eugene V. Debs. After George Pullmans death in 1897, Robert Todd Lincoln, son of Abraham Lincoln, the company closed its factory in the Pullman neighborhood of Chicago in 1955. Pullman purchased the Standard Steel Car Company in 1930 amid the Great Depression, the company ceased production after the Amtrak Superliner cars in 1982 and its remaining designs were purchased in 1987 when it was absorbed by Bombardier. The original Pullman Palace Car Co. had been organized on February 22,1867, on January 1,1900, after buying numerous associated and competing companies, it was reorganized as The Pullman Co. characterized by its trademark phrase, Travel and Sleep in Safety and Comfort. In 1924, Pullman Car & Manufacturing Co. was organized from the previous Pullman manufacturing department, the parent company, The Pullman Co. was reorganized as Pullman, Inc. on June 21,1927. The best years for Pullman were the mid-1920s, in 1925, the fleet grew to 9800 cars. Twenty-eight thousand conductors and twelve thousand porters were employed by the Pullman Co. Pullman built its last standard heavyweight sleeping car in February 1931, Pullman-Standard remained in the rail car manufacturing business until 1982. The government sought to separate the companys sleeping car operations from its manufacturing activities, in 1944, the court concurred, ordering Pullman Incorporated to divest itself of either the Pullman Company or the Pullman-Standard Car Manufacturing Company. After three years of negotiations, the Pullman Company was sold to a consortium of fifty-seven railroads for around US$40 million, in 1943, Pullman Standard established a shipbuilding division and dived into wartime small ship design and construction. The yard was on Lake Calumet, on the side of 130th Street. Pullman built the boats in 40-ton blocks, the blocks being assembled in a fab shop on 111th Street and moved to the yard on gondola cars
30.
German Navy
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The German Navy is the navy of Germany and part of the unified Bundeswehr, the German Armed Forces. The German Navy was originally known as the Bundesmarine from 1956 until 1995 when Deutsche Marine became the name with respect to the 1990 incorporation of the East German Volksmarine. It is deeply integrated into the NATO alliance and its primary mission is protection of Germanys territorial waters and maritime infrastructure as well as sea lines of communication. Apart from this, the German Navy participates in peacekeeping operations and they also participate in Anti-Piracy operations. The German Navy traces its roots back to the Reichsflotte of the era of 1848–52. The Reichsflotte was the first German navy to sail under the black-red-gold flag, in 1956, with West Germanys accession to NATO, the Bundesmarine, as the navy was known colloquially, was formally established. In the same year the East German Volkspolizei See became the Volksmarine, during the Cold war the all of the German Navys combat vessels were assigned to NATOs Allied Forces Baltic Approachess naval command NAVBALTAP. With the accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990 the Volksmarine along with the whole National Peoples Army became part of the Bundeswehr. Since 1995 the name German Navy is used in international context, as of 16 December 2016, the strength of the navy is 16,137 men and women. A number of forces have operated in different periods. The German Navy is also engaged in operations against international terrorism such as Operation Enduring Freedom, presently the largest operation the German Navy is participating in is UNIFIL off the coast of Lebanon. The German contribution to this operation is two frigates, four fast attack craft, and two auxiliary vessels, the naval component of UNIFIL has been under German command. The navy is operating a number of development and testing installations as part of an inter-service, among these is the Centre of Excellence for Operations in Confined and Shallow Waters, an affiliated centre of Allied Command Transformation. The COE CSW was established in April 2007 and officially accredited by NATO on 26 May 2009 and it is co-located with the staff of the German Flotilla 1 in Kiel whose Commander is double-hatted as Director, COE CSW. The displacement of the navy is 220,000 tonnes, in addition, the German Navy and the Royal Danish Navy are in cooperation in the Ark Project. This agreement made the Ark Project responsible for the strategic sealift of German armed forces where the charter of three roll-on-roll-off cargo and troop ships are ready for deployments. In addition, these ships are kept available for the use of the other European NATO countries. The three vessels have a displacement of 60,000 tonnes
31.
Helium
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Helium is a chemical element with symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas and its boiling point is the lowest among all the elements. Its abundance is similar to figure in the Sun and in Jupiter. This is due to the high nuclear binding energy of helium-4 with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium-4 binding energy also accounts for why it is a product of nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Most helium in the universe is helium-4, and is believed to have formed during the Big Bang. Large amounts of new helium are being created by fusion of hydrogen in stars. Helium is named for the Greek god of the Sun, Helios and it was first detected as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by French astronomer Jules Janssen. Janssen is jointly credited with detecting the element along with Norman Lockyer, Janssen observed during the solar eclipse of 1868 while Lockyer observed from Britain. Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element, the formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in gas fields in parts of the United States. Liquid helium is used in cryogenics, particularly in the cooling of superconducting magnets, a well-known but minor use is as a lifting gas in balloons and airships. As with any gas whose density differs from that of air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre, on Earth it is relatively rare—5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements. Previously, terrestrial helium—a non-renewable resource, because once released into the atmosphere it readily escapes into space—was thought to be in short supply. The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18,1868, the line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India. This line was assumed to be sodium. He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth, Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος
32.
Hydrogen
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Hydrogen is a chemical element with chemical symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard weight of circa 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. Its monatomic form is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium, has one proton, the universal emergence of atomic hydrogen first occurred during the recombination epoch. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, nonmetallic, since hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most nonmetallic elements, most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds. Hydrogen plays an important role in acid–base reactions because most acid-base reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, hydrogen can take the form of a charge when it is known as a hydride. The hydrogen cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the reaction of acids on metals. Industrial production is mainly from steam reforming natural gas, and less often from more energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water. Most hydrogen is used near the site of its production, the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market, Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks. Hydrogen gas is flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume. The enthalpy of combustion is −286 kJ/mol,2 H2 + O2 →2 H2O +572 kJ Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74%, the explosive reactions may be triggered by spark, heat, or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C, the detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector, such leaks can be very dangerous. Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue, resembling blue natural gas flames, the destruction of the Hindenburg airship was a notorious example of hydrogen combustion and the cause is still debated. The visible orange flames in that incident were the result of a mixture of hydrogen to oxygen combined with carbon compounds from the airship skin. H2 reacts with every oxidizing element, the ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, however, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. The most complicated treatments allow for the effects of special relativity
33.
Lifting gas
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Because of Archimedes principle, a lifting gas is required for aerostats to create buoyancy. Its density is lower than that of air, only certain lighter than air gases are suitable as lifting gases. Heated air is used in recreational ballooning. According to the Ideal gas law, an amount of gas expands as it is heated, as a result, a certain volume of gas has a lower weight as the temperature is higher. The average temperature of air in a hot air balloon is about 212 °F. Hydrogen, being the lightest existing gas, but hydrogen has several disadvantages, Hydrogen is extremely flammable. Some countries have banned the use of hydrogen as a gas for commercial vehicles but it is allowed for recreational free ballooning in the US, UK. The Hindenburg disaster is frequently cited as an example of the safety risks posed by hydrogen. Because the hydrogen molecule is very small, it can diffuse through many materials. Thats one reason why many hydrogen or helium filled balloons are constructed out of Mylar, Helium is the second lightest gas. For that reason, it is a gas for lifting as well. A major advantage is that gas is noncombustible. But the use of helium has some disadvantages, too, The same diffusion problem as described with hydrogen. Although abundant in the universe, helium is very scarce on Earth, the only commercially viable reserves are a few natural gas wells, mostly in the US, that trapped it from the slow alpha decay of radioactive materials within Earth. By human standards helium is a resource that cannot be practically manufactured from other materials. When released into the atmosphere, e. g. when a helium-filled balloon leaks or bursts, the gaseous state of water is lighter than air, incombustible and much cheaper than helium. The concept of using steam for lifting is therefore already 200 years old, the biggest challenge has always been to make a material that can resist it. In 2003, a university team in Berlin, Germany, has made a 150 °C steam lifted balloon. However, such a design is impractical due to high boiling point
34.
Hugo Eckener
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He was also responsible for the construction of the most successful type of airships of all time. An anti-Nazi who was invited to campaign as a moderate in the German presidential elections, he was blacklisted by that regime, Eckener was born in Flensburg as the first child of Johann Christoph Eckener from Bremen and Anna Lange, daughter of a shoemaker. As a youth he was judged an indifferent student, and he spent summers sailing, nevertheless, by 1892 under Professor Wilhelm Wundt, Eckener had earned a doctorate magna cum laude in what today might be deemed experimental psychology. Eckener then began his service in the Infantry Regiment 86 in Flensburg. Eckeners early career was as a journalist and editor, by August 1893 he was working for the Flensburger Nachrichten, in October 1897 he married Johanna, daughter of the publisher family Maaß. He later became a correspondent for the Frankfurter Zeitung in 1905 and 1906, asked to cover the first flights of the Zeppelins LZ1 and LZ2, Eckener was critical of both airships marginal performances, but praised Count Ferdinand von Zeppelins dedication to his cause. He became extremely interested in airships, and joined the company on a full-time basis and his aptitude at flying was noticed early on in his career, and he became an airship captain, obtaining his airship license in 1911. Nonetheless, he became a very successful airshipman, Eckener was responsible for training most of Germanys airship pilots both during and after World War I. Despite his protestations, he was not allowed on operational missions due to his value as an instructor, after the War, Eckener succeeded Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, who had died on 8 March 1917. Colsman left the company soon afterwards, the Treaty of Versailles had forbidden Germans to construct airships of the size needed to operate the profitable trans-Atlantic service that was Eckeners goal. Eckener himself captained the airship on its flight to Lakehurst. The Los Angeles became the rigid airship ever operated by the US Navy. The first flight to America was fraught with drama, near Bermuda on the outbound flight the airship was nearly lost after becoming caught in a severe storm during which fabric was ripped off the left fin. The ship was saved only by Eckeners skilled piloting and the courage of his son, Knut Eckener, upon arrival in America, a country which Eckener grew to love, he and the crew were subject to the first of two New York ticker tape parades. A master of publicity as well as an airship captain, Eckener used the Graf Zeppelin to establish the Zeppelin as a symbol of German pride. After these flights the public treated Eckener as a national hero, during the early 1930s, Eckener was one of the most well-known and respected figures in Weimar Republic Germany. However, his candidacy had already angered the Nazi party. In supposed anger and fear of Eckener, Hitlers de facto deputy, Hermann Esser, once called him the director of the flying weisswurst, the Nazis came to power in January 1933
35.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
36.
Olympic symbols
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The Olympic symbols are icons, flags and symbols used by the International Olympic Committee to elevate the Olympic Games. Some—such as the flame, fanfare, and theme—are more commonly used during Olympic competition, the Olympic motto is the hendiatris Citius, Altius, Fortius, which is Latin for Faster, Higher, Stronger. It was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin upon the creation of the International Olympic Committee in 1894, Coubertin borrowed it from his friend Henri Didon, a Dominican priest who was an athletics enthusiast. Coubertin said These three words represent a programme of moral beauty, the aesthetics of sport are intangible. The motto was introduced in 1924 at the Olympic Games in Paris, a more informal but well-known motto, also introduced by Coubertin, is The most important thing is not to win but to take part. Coubertin got this motto from a sermon by the Bishop of Pennsylvania during the 1908 London Games, the rings are five interlocking rings, colored blue, yellow, black, green and red on a white field, known as the Olympic rings. The symbol was designed in 1912 by Baron Pierre de Coubertin. He appears to have intended the rings to represent the five participating continents, Africa, Asia, America, Australia, according to Coubertin, the colors of the rings together with the white of the background included the colors composing every competing nations flag at the time. Upon its initial introduction, Coubertin stated the following in the August 1912 edition of Olympique, the six colors combined in this way reproduce the colours of every country without exception. This, truly, is an international emblem, the 1914 Congress was suspended due to the outbreak of World War I, but the symbol and flag were later adopted. They would first officially debut at the Games of the VII Olympiad in Antwerp, the symbols popularity and widespread use began during the lead-up to the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. The ceremony was celebrated but the stone was never removed and this has become known as Carl Diems Stone. This created a myth that the symbol had an ancient Greek origin, the rings would subsequently be featured prominently in Nazi images in 1936 as part of an effort to glorify the Third Reich. The current view of the International Olympic Committee is that the symbol reinforces the idea that the Olympic Movement is international and welcomes all countries of the world to join. As can be read in the Olympic Charter, the Olympic symbol represents the union of the five continents of the world, however, no continent is represented by any specific ring. Nevertheless, the logo of the Association of National Olympic Committees places the logo of each of its five continental associations inside the ring of the corresponding color, the Olympic flag was created by Pierre de Coubertin in 1914. There are specific Olympic flags that are displayed by cities that will be hosting the next Olympic games and these flags should not be confused with the larger Olympic flags designed and created specifically for each games, which are flown over the host stadium and then retired. The first Olympic flag was presented to the IOC at the 1920 Summer Olympics by the city of Antwerp, at the end of the Games, the flag could not be found and a new Olympic flag had to be made for the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris
37.
1936 Summer Olympics
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The 1936 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event that was held in 1936 in Berlin, Germany. Berlin won the bid to host the Games over Barcelona, Spain, on 26 April 1931 and it marked the second and final time the International Olympic Committee gathered to vote in a city that was bidding to host those Games. To outdo the Los Angeles games of 1932, Adolf Hitler had built a new 100, 000-seat track and field stadium, six gymnasiums, the games were the first to be televised, and radio broadcasts reached 41 countries. Filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl was commissioned by the German Olympic Committee to film the Games for $7 million and her film, titled Olympia, pioneered many of the techniques now common in the filming of sports. When threatened with a boycott of the Games by other nations, total ticket revenues were 7.5 million Reichsmark, generating a profit of over one million marks. The official budget did not include outlays by the city of Berlin or outlays of the German national government and these were the final Olympics under the presidency of Henri de Baillet-Latour and the final Olympic Games for 12 years because of World War II. The next Olympic Games would be held in 1948, the bidding for these Olympic Games was the first to be contested by IOC members casting votes for their own favorite host cities. The vote occurred in 1931, during the Weimar Republic, before Adolf Hitler, many other cities around the world also wanted to host the Summer Olympics for that year, but except for Barcelona they did not receive any IOC votes. The other cities competing to hold the games were Alexandria, Buenos Aires, Cologne, Dublin, Frankfurt, Helsinki, Lausanne, Nuremberg, Rio de Janeiro, Budapest, and Rome. The selection procedure marked the second and final time that the International Olympic Committee would gather to vote in a city which was bidding to host those Games, the only other time this occurred was at the inaugural IOC Session in Paris, France, on 24 April 1894. Then, Athens and Paris were chosen to host the 1896 and 1900 Games, after the Nazis took control and began instituting anti-Semitic policies, the IOC held private discussions among its delegates about changing the decision to hold the Games in Berlin. However, Hitlers regime gave assurances that Jewish athletes would be allowed to compete on a German Olympic team, in September 1934, the US Olympic committee publicly accepted the invitation to go to the Berlin games, halting any further IOC attempts to quietly revise the decision. The next scheduled games in 1940 were awarded to Tokyo, the Japanese military even demanded that venues should be built from wood because metal was needed for its wars in Manchuria. The Olympic torch relay – itself pioneered as part of the 1936 Summer Games – was to fly the Olympic flame from Olympia to Tokyo in a specially-designed long-range aircraft. In 1938 the Japanese rejected hosting the games because they saw the Olympics and he promoted the idea that the use of sports would harden the German spirit and instill unity among German youth. At the same time he believed that sports was a way to weed out the weak, Jewish. Among Diems ideas for the Berlin Games was the introduction of the Olympic torch relay between Greece and the host nation, the 1936 Summer Olympics torch relay was the first of its kind, following on from the reintroduction of the Olympic Flame at the 1928 Games. It pioneered the modern convention of moving the flame via a system from Greece to the Olympic venue
38.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
39.
Karl Fiehler
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Karl Fiehler was a German politician of the Nazi Party and Mayor of Munich from 1933 until 1945. Fiehler was born in Braunschweig, German Empire, as a child, he attended a secondary modern school in Munich and afterwards he began a merchant apprenticeship, which he continued in Schleswig-Holstein in 1914. Fiehler served in World War I and was decorated with the Iron Cross, in 1919 he entered the local government of the City of Munich as an administration trainee and in 1922 successfully passed the examination for the administrative and clerical grade. By 1920 he had joined the Nazi-Party with the membership number 37. On 8 and 9 November 1923 he participated actively in the failed Beer Hall Putsch, for his participation Fiehler was sentenced to 15 months confinement in Landsberg fortress. During the 1930s he published on several occasions concerning local politics in Germany from a National Socialist point of view, from 1927 until 1930 he was Ortsgruppenleiter of the Nazi Party in Munich. Following the Machtergreifung of January 1933, Fiehlers rise in the party continued. From 1935 until the end of the Third Reich in 1945 he held the rank of a Reichsleiter of the NSDAP, at first as a secretary and afterwards as the Head of the Main Office for Local Politics. From 1933 until 1945 Karl Fiehler was also a member of the Nazi Reichstag which existed after the Enabling Act of 1933, on 30 January 1942, Fiehler was promoted to SS-Obergruppenführer and was immediately assigned to the Stab Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler where he remained until 9 November 1944. On 9 March 1933 the SA occupied the Munich town hall, all parties and organizations opposing the political Gleichschaltung were forbidden as a result of the National Socialist takeover, in Munich as well as throughout Germany. Thomas Mann and his family did not return from a journey abroad, on 22 March 1933 the Provisional Chief Constable of Munich, Heinrich Himmler, inaugurated the Dachau concentration camp. In 1933 the German Association of Cities was forced to merge with other municipal umbrella organizations to form the Deutscher Gemeindetag, Karl Fiehler, the influential Lord Mayor of Munich, was appointed chairman of this unity organization. The administrative office was situated on Alsenstraße in the Berlin-Tiergarten district, on 2 August 1935 a memorable conversation took place between Adolf Hitler and Karl Fiehler in the course of which Munich received a new epithet, Hauptstadt der Bewegung. This title was given to remind the Germans of the NSDAP origins in Bavarias metropolis, a radical remodelling of Munich was intended, which Karl Fiehler wanted to illustrate as editor of the pictorial book München baut auf. Ein Tatsachen- und Bildbericht über den nationalsozialistischen Aufbau in der Hauptstadt der Bewegung, by amalgamations on a grand scale, particularly in the west, the Munich population figure increased considerably from 746,000 to 889,000. Nevertheless, major projects like the relocation of the Munich Central Station to Laim district, Munich under Karl Fiehler became the vanguard wherever it concerned actions against Jews. In the spring of 1933 the first systematic boycott against Jewish shops was very zealously carried out by Fiehler, on 30 March he decreed this sanction with anticipatory obedience, as the official date was actually 1 April. The SA and SS had been terrorising Jewish businessmen since the beginning of March and had been taking them into Schutzhaft
40.
Logo
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A logo is a graphic mark, emblem, or symbol commonly used by commercial enterprises, organizations, and even individuals to aid and promote instant public recognition. There are purely graphic emblems, symbols, icons and logos, in the days of hot metal typesetting, a logotype was one word cast as a single piece of type. By extension, the term was used for a uniquely set. At the level of communication and in common usage, a companys logo is today often synonymous with its trademark or brand. The arts were expanding in purpose—from expression and decoration of an artistic, storytelling nature, to a differentiation of brands, consultancies and trades-groups in the commercial arts were growing and organizing, by 1890, the US had 700 lithographic printing firms employing more than 8,000 people. Artistic credit tended to be assigned to the company, as opposed to the individual artists who usually performed less important jobs. Playful children’s books, authoritative newspapers, and conversational periodicals developed their own visual and editorial styles for unique, as printing costs decreased, literacy rates increased, and visual styles changed, the Victorian decorative arts led to an expansion of typographic styles and methods of representing businesses. A renewal of interest in craftsmanship and quality also provided the artists and companies with a greater interest in credit, leading to the creation of unique logos and marks. By the 1950s, Modernism had shed its roots as an artistic movement in Europe to become an international, commercialized movement with adherents in the United States. Modernist-inspired logos proved successful in the era of mass visual communication ushered in by television, improvements in printing technology, the current era of logo design began in the 1870s with the first abstract logo, the Bass red triangle. As of 2014, many corporations, products, brands, services, agencies, as a result, only a few of the thousands of ideograms in circulation are recognizable without a name. Ideograms and symbols may be effective than written names, especially for logos translated into many alphabets in increasingly globalized markets. For instance, a written in Arabic script might have little resonance in most European markets. By contrast, ideograms keep the general nature of a product in both markets. In non-profit areas, the Red Cross exemplifies a well-known emblem that does not need an accompanying name, the red cross and red crescent are among the best-recognized symbols in the world. National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and their Federation as well as the International Committee of the Red Cross include these symbols in their logos, branding can aim to facilitate cross-language marketing. Consumers and potential consumers can identify the Coca-Cola name written in different alphabets because of the standard color, the text was written in Spencerian Script, which was a popular writing style when the Coca Cola Logo was being designed. Since a logo is the visual entity signifying an organization, logo design is an important area of graphic design, a logo is the central element of a complex identification system that must be functionally extended to all communications of an organization
41.
Fraktur
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Fraktur is a calligraphic hand of the Latin alphabet and any of several blackletter typefaces derived from this hand. From this, Fraktur is sometimes contrasted with the Latin alphabet in northern European texts, similarly, the term Fraktur or Gothic is sometimes applied to all of the blackletter typefaces. Besides the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, Fraktur includes the ß, vowels with umlauts, and the ſ. Some Fraktur typefaces also include a variant form of the letter r known as the r rotunda, most older Fraktur typefaces make no distinction between the majuscules I and J, even though the minuscules i and j are differentiated. One difference between the Fraktur and other blackletter scripts is that in the lower case o, the part of the bow is broken. In Danish texts composed in Fraktur, the letter ø was already preferred to the German, Fraktur types for printing were established by the Augsburg publisher Johann Schönsperger at the issuance of a series of Maximilians works such as his Prayer Book or the illustrated Theuerdank poem. In the 18th century, the German Theuerdank Fraktur was further developed by the Leipzig typographer Johann Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf to create the typeset Breitkopf Fraktur, while over the succeeding centuries, most Central Europeans switched to Antiqua, German-speakers remained a notable holdout. Some books at that time used related blackletter fonts such as Schwabacher, however, the predominant typeface was the Normalfraktur and this move was hotly debated in Germany, where it was known as the Antiqua–Fraktur dispute. The shift affected mostly scientific writing in Germany, whereas most belletristic literature, the press was scolded for its frequent use of Roman characters under Jewish influence and German émigrés were urged to use only German script. This radically changed on January 3,1941, when Martin Bormann issued a circular to all public offices which declared Fraktur to be Judenlettern, German historian Albert Kapr has speculated that the régime had realized that Fraktur would inhibit communication in the territories occupied during World War II. Even with the abolition of Fraktur, some publications include elements of it in headlines, very occasionally, academic works still used Fraktur in the text itself. Notably, Joachim Jeremiass work Die Briefe an Timotheus und Titus was published in 1963 using Fraktur, more often, some ligatures ch, ck from Fraktur were used in antiqua-typed editions. That continued mostly up to the offset type period, Fraktur saw a brief resurgence after the War, but quickly disappeared in a Germany keen on modernising its appearance. In this modern decorative use, the rules about the use of long s and short s. Individual Fraktur letters are used in mathematics, which often denotes associated or parallel concepts by the same letter in different fonts. For example, a Lie group is denoted by G. A ring ideal might be denoted by a while an element is a ∈ a, the Fraktur c is also used to denote the cardinality of the continuum, that is, the cardinality of the real line. In model theory, A is used to denote an arbitrary model, in Unicode, Fraktur is treated as a font of the Latin alphabet, and is not encoded separately
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