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Tabloid (newspaper format)
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A tabloid is a newspaper with a compact page size smaller than broadsheet. There is no standard size for this newspaper format, the term tabloid journalism refers to an emphasis on such topics as sensational crime stories, astrology, celebrity gossip and television, and is not a reference to newspapers printed in this format. Some small-format papers with a standard of journalism refer to themselves as compact newspapers. Larger newspapers, traditionally associated with higher-quality journalism, are called broadsheets, in common usage, tabloid and broadsheet are frequently more descriptive of a newspapers market position than physical format. The Berliner format used by many prominent European newspapers is sized between the tabloid and the broadsheet, in a newspaper context, the term Berliner is generally used only to describe size, not to refer to other qualities of the publication. The word tabloid comes from the name given by the London-based pharmaceutical company Burroughs Wellcome & Co. to the compressed tablets they marketed as Tabloid pills in the late 1880s, the connotation of tabloid was soon applied to other small compressed items. A1902 item in Londons Westminister Gazette noted, The proprietor intends to give in tabloid form all the news printed by other journals, thus tabloid journalism in 1901 originally meant a paper that condensed stories into a simplified, easily absorbed format. The term preceded the 1918 reference to smaller sheet newspapers that contained the condensed stories, a tabloid is defined as roughly 17 by 11 inches and commonly half the size of a broadsheet. Tabloid newspapers, especially in the United Kingdom, boast a very high degree of variation as far as target market, political alignment, editorial style, thus, various terms have been coined to describe the subtypes of this versatile paper format. There are, broadly, two types of tabloid newspaper, red top and compact. The distinction is largely of editorial style, both red top and compact tabloids span the width of the spectrum from socialism to capitalist conservatism. The red top tabloid is, for many, the example of the format. Red tops tend to be written with a simplistic, straightforward vocabulary and grammar, their layout, more often than not, in the extreme case, red top tabloids have been accused of lying or misrepresenting the truth to increase circulation. Poll results are often predicted by red top papers, examples of British red top newspapers include The Sun, the Daily Star, the Daily Mirror and the Daily Sport. In contrast to red top tabloids, compacts use a style more closely associated with broadsheet newspapers. In fact, most compact tabloids formerly used the paper size. The term compact was coined in the 1970s by the Daily Mail, one of the newspapers to make the change. The purpose behind this was to avoid the association of the word tabloid with the flamboyant, the early converts from broadsheet format made the change in the 1970s, two notable British papers that took this step at the time were the Daily Mail and the Daily Express
2.
Broadsheet
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A broadsheet is the largest newspaper format and is characterized by long vertical pages. The term derives from types of popular prints usually just of a sheet, sold on the streets and containing various types of material. The first broadsheet newspaper was the Dutch Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, other common newspaper formats include the smaller Berliner and tabloid/compact formats. Many broadsheets measure approximately 29 1⁄2 by 23 1⁄2 inches per full broadsheet spread, australian and New Zealand broadsheets always have a paper size of A1 per spread. South African broadsheet newspapers have a spread sheet size of 820 by 578 mm or 32.3 by 22.8 in. Others measure 22 inches or 560 millimetres vertically, in the United States, the traditional dimensions for the front page half of a broadsheet are 15 inches wide by 22 3⁄4 inches long. However, in efforts to save newsprint costs many U. S. newspapers have downsized to 12 inches wide by 22 3⁄4 inches long for a folded page. Many rate cards and specification cards refer to the size with dimensions representing the front page half of a broadsheet size, rather than the full. Some quote actual page size and others quote the area size. The two versions of the broadsheet are, Full broadsheet – The full broadsheet typically is folded vertically in half so that it forms four pages, the four pages are called a spread. Half broadsheet – The half broadsheet is usually a page that is not folded vertically and just includes a front. In uncommon instances, an entire newspaper can be a two-page half broadsheet or four-page full broadsheet, totally self-contained advertising circulars inserted in a newspaper in the same format are referred to as broadsheets. Broadsheets typically are also folded horizontally in half to accommodate newsstand display space, the horizontal fold however does not affect the page numbers and the content remains vertical. The most important newspaper stories are placed above the fold and this contrasts with tabloids which typically do not have a horizontal fold. The broadsheet has since emerged as the most popular format for the dissemination of printed news, historically, broadsheets developed after the British in 1712 placed a tax on newspapers based on the number of their pages. The original purpose of the broadsheet, or broadside, was for the purpose of posting royal proclamations, acts, eventually the people began using the broadsheet as a source for political activism by reprinting speeches, ballads or narrative songs originally performed by bards. With the early mechanization of the 19th century came an increase in production of printed materials including the broadside as well as the penny dreadful. In this period all over Europe began to print their issues on broadsheets
3.
Buenos Aires
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Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
4.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
5.
Conservatism
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Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that promotes retaining traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization. The term, historically associated with right-wing politics, has since used to describe a wide range of views. There is no set of policies that are universally regarded as conservative, because the meaning of conservatism depends on what is considered traditional in a given place. Thus conservatives from different parts of the world—each upholding their respective traditions—may disagree on a range of issues. In contrast to the definition of conservatism, political theorists such as Corey Robin define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defense of social. In Great Britain, conservative ideas emerged in the Tory movement during the Restoration period, Toryism supported a hierarchical society with a monarch who ruled by divine right. Tories opposed the idea that sovereignty derived from the people, and rejected the authority of parliament, Robert Filmers Patriarcha, or the Natural Power of Kings, published posthumously in 1680 but written before the English Civil War of 1642–1651, became accepted as the statement of their doctrine. However, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 destroyed this principle to some degree by establishing a government in England. Faced with defeat, the Tories reformed their movement, now holding that sovereignty was vested in the three estates of Crown, Lords, and Commons rather than solely in the Crown, Toryism became marginalized during the long period of Whig ascendancy in the 18th century. Conservatives typically see Richard Hooker as the father of conservatism, along with the Marquess of Halifax, David Hume. Halifax promoted pragmatism in government, whilst Hume argued against political rationalism and utopianism, Burke served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and as official pamphleteer to the Rockingham branch of the Whig party. Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom, Burkes views were a mixture of liberal and conservative. He supported the American Revolution of 1765–1783 but abhorred the violence of the French Revolution and he insisted on standards of honor derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition, and saw the aristocracy as the nations natural leaders. That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive and he favored an established church, but allowed for a degree of religious toleration. Burke justified the order on the basis of tradition, tradition represented the wisdom of the species and he valued community. Burke was a leading theorist in his day, finding extreme idealism an endangerment to broader liberties, despite their influence on future conservative thought, none of these early contributors were explicitly involved in Tory politics. Hooker lived in the 16th century, long before the advent of toryism, whilst Hume was an apolitical philosopher, Burke described himself as a Whig. Shortly after Burkes death in 1797, conservatism revived as a political force as the Whigs suffered a series of internal divisions
6.
Miguel de Unamuno
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Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo was a Spanish essayist, novelist, poet, playwright, philosopher, professor of Greek and Classics, and later rector at the University of Salamanca. His major philosophical essay was The Tragic Sense of Life, and his most famous novel was Abel Sánchez, The History of a Passion, Miguel de Unamuno was born in Bilbao, a port city of Basque Country, the son of Félix de Unamuno and Salomé Jugo. As a young man, he was interested in the Basque language, the contest was finally won by the Basque scholar Resurrección María de Azkue. Unamuno worked in all genres, the essay, the novel, poetry, and theater. Unamuno would have preferred to be a professor, but was unable to get an academic appointment. Instead he became a Greek professor, in 1901 Unamuno gave his well-known conference on the scientific and literary inviability of the Basque. According to Azurmendi, Unamuno went against the Basque language once his political views changed along his reflection on Spain, in addition to his writing, Unamuno played an important role in the intellectual life of Spain. He served as rector of the University of Salamanca for two periods, from 1900 to 1924 and 1930 to 1936, during a time of social and political upheaval. Unamuno was removed from his two university chairs by the dictator General Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1924, over the protests of other Spanish intellectuals. He lived in exile until 1930, first banished to Fuerteventura, one of the Canary Islands, his house there is now a museum, from Fuerteventura he escaped to France, as related in his book De Fuerteventura a Paris. After a year in Paris, Unamuno established himself in Hendaye, Unamuno returned to Spain after the fall of General Primo de Riveras dictatorship in 1930 and took up his rectorship again. It is said in Salamanca that the day he returned to the University, as Fray Luis de León had done in the same place in 1576, after four years of imprisonment by the Inquisition. It was as though he had not been absent at all, after the fall of Primo de Riveras dictatorship, Spain embarked on its Second Republic. He was a candidate for the small intellectual party Agrupación al Servicio de la República and he always was a moderate and refused all political and anticlerical extremisms. Thus he initially welcomed Francos revolt as necessary to rescue Spain from the excesses of the Second Republic, however, the harsh tactics employed by the Francoists in the struggle against their republican opponents caused him to oppose both the Republic and Franco. He called the cry of the elite armed forces group named La Legión—Long live death. —repellent. One historian notes that his address was an act of moral courage. Shortly afterwards, Unamuno was effectively removed for a time from his university post
7.
Eduardo Mallea
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Eduardo Mallea was an Argentine essayist, cultural critic, writer and diplomat. In 1931 he became editor of the magazine of La Nación. Buenos Aires,2006 Fundación Eduardo Mallea
8.
Alfonso Reyes
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Alfonso Reyes Ochoa was a Mexican writer, philosopher and diplomat. Alfonso Reyes parents were Bernardo Reyes and Aurelia Ochoa and his father was in important government positions during the government of Porfirio Díaz, such as the governorship of Nuevo León and the Secretary of War and Navy. Alfonso Reyes was educated primarily in Mexico City, at the age of 21, Reyes published his first book, Cuestiones estéticas. The following year,1912, he wrote a story, La Cena, considered a forerunner of surrealism. In that year he was also named Secretary of the Escuela Nacional de Altos Estudios at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, Reyes obtained his law degree in 1913, the same year that his father would die participating in an attempted coup détat against the then president Francisco Madero. Alfonso Reyes was posted to Mexicos diplomatic service in France in 1913, after Germany invaded France in 1914, he moved to Madrid, Spain, and pursued a literary career as journalist, investigator, translator, critic, and writer. Reyes was reinstated in the service in 1920. He was the secretary in Spain in 1920, was in Paris from 1924 to 1927. He was the Mexican ambassador to Brazil from 1930 to 1935, in 1939, he retired from the diplomatic corps and returned to Mexico, where he organized what is today El Colegio de México and dedicated himself to writing and teaching. During his time in Spain, where he resided from 1914 till 1924, it was considered his best creative period, in 1919 he was named the Mexican commission secretary Francisco del Paso y Troncoso, the same year that Cantar de mio Cid was put to prose. Many of his friends insisted that he was a natural in Spanish and should pursue a career in politics, one time he was presented with an offer to teach, but he rejected it too. He was more interested in the aesthetics of Benedetto Croce, from 1917 he produced Cartones de Madrid, his small masterpiece, Visión de Anáhuac, El suicida, and in 1921, El cazador. He was a collaborator of the magazines of Revista de Filología Española, Revista de Occidente and his works about Spanish literature, older classical literature and aesthetics are notable, and among the more notable of that time, Cuestiones estéticas. In Spain he organized a ceremony on September 11,1923 in the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid to honor the memory of the symbolic poet Stéphane Mallaramé, after 1924 he developed a diplomatic and social life in Paris, Buenos Aires and Río de Janeiro. He translated a Mallarmé and edited his own literary mail, Monterrey and he wrote friends abroad in every part of the world and gave discourses, spoke at conferences and contributed to homages and cultural reunions. He published among others, Cuestiones gongorinas, Capítlos de literatura espanñola and his poetic works reveal a profound knowledge of the formal means, notably Ifigenia cruel, Pausa,5 casi sonetos, Otra voz and Cantata en la tumba de Federico García Lorca. He left a left a legacy of work as a translator, content in this edited section is translated from the existing Spanish Wikipedia article at es, Alfonso Reyes Ochoa, see its history for attribution. The Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges referred to Reyes as the greatest prose writer in the Spanish language of any age, at least five avenues in Monterreys metropolitan area, three in the municipality and one in Mexico City are named after Reyes
9.
Jorge Luis Borges
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Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo KBE was an Argentine short-story writer, essayist, poet and translator, and a key figure in Spanish-language literature. Borges works have contributed to literature and the fantasy genre. However, some critics consider Borges to be a predecessor and not actually a magical realist and his late poems dialogue with such cultural figures as Spinoza, Camões, and Virgil. In 1914, Borges family moved to Switzerland, where he studied at the Collège de Genève, the family travelled widely in Europe, including Spain. On his return to Argentina in 1921, Borges began publishing his poems and he also worked as a librarian and public lecturer. In 1955, he was appointed director of the National Public Library and he became completely blind by the age of 55, as he never learned braille, he became unable to read. Scholars have suggested that his progressive blindness helped him to create innovative literary symbols through imagination, in 1961, he came to international attention when he received the first Formentor prize, which he shared with Samuel Beckett. In 1971, he won the Jerusalem Prize and his work was translated and published widely in the United States and Europe. Borges himself was fluent in several languages and he dedicated his final work, The Conspirators, to the city of Geneva, Switzerland. Writer and essayist J. M. Coetzee said of him, He, more than anyone, renovated the language of fiction, Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo was born into an educated middle-class family on 24 August 1899. They were in comfortable circumstances but not wealthy enough to live in downtown Buenos Aires so the family resided in Palermo, Borgess mother, Leonor Acevedo Suárez, came from a traditional Uruguayan family of criollo origin. Her family had been involved in the European settling of South America and the Argentine War of Independence. His 1929 book, Cuaderno San Martín, includes the poem Isidoro Acevedo, commemorating his grandfather, Isidoro de Acevedo Laprida, a soldier of the Buenos Aires Army. A descendant of the Argentine lawyer and politician Francisco Narciso de Laprida, de Acevedo Laprida fought in the battles of Cepeda in 1859, Pavón in 1861, de Acevedo Laprida died of pulmonary congestion in the house where his grandson Jorge Luis Borges was born. Borgess own father, Jorge Guillermo Borges Haslam was a lawyer, Borges Haslam was born in Entre Rios of Spanish, Portuguese, and English descent, the son of Francisco Borges Lafinur, a colonel, and Frances Ann Haslam, an Englishwoman. Borges Haslam grew up speaking English at home, the family frequently traveled to Europe. Borges Haslam wed Leonor Acevedo Suarez and was father of the painter Norah Borges. At age nine, Jorge Luis Borges translated Oscar Wildes The Happy Prince into Spanish and it was published in a local journal, but his friends thought the real author was his father
10.
Mario Vargas Llosa
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Vargas Llosa is one of Latin Americas most significant novelists and essayists, and one of the leading writers of his generation. He writes prolifically across an array of genres, including literary criticism and journalism. His novels include comedies, murder mysteries, historical novels, several, such as Captain Pantoja and the Special Service and Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter, have been adapted as feature films. Many of Vargas Llosas works are influenced by the perception of Peruvian society. Increasingly- however- he has expanded his range, and tackled themes that arise from other parts of the world, in his essays, Vargas Llosa has made many criticisms of nationalism in different parts of the world. Another change over the course of his career has been a shift from a style and approach associated with literary modernism, while he initially supported the Cuban revolutionary government of Fidel Castro, Vargas Llosa later became disenchanted with his policies. He ran for the Peruvian presidency in 1990 with the center-right Frente Democrático coalition, advocating classical liberal reforms, Mario Vargas Llosa was born to a middle-class family on March 28,1936, in the Peruvian provincial city of Arequipa. He was the child of Ernesto Vargas Maldonado and Dora Llosa Ureta. Shortly after Marios birth, his father revealed that he was having an affair with a German woman, consequently, Vargas Llosa lived with his maternal family in Arequipa until a year after his parents divorce, when his maternal grandfather was named honorary consul for Peru in Bolivia. With his mother and her family, Vargas Llosa then moved to Cochabamba, Bolivia and his maternal family, the Llosas, were sustained by his grandfather, who managed a cotton farm. As a child, Vargas Llosa was led to believe that his father had died—his mother and her family did not want to explain that his parents had separated, while in Piura, Vargas Llosa attended elementary school at the religious academy Colegio Salesiano. In 1946, at the age of ten, he moved to Lima and his parents re-established their relationship and lived in Magdalena del Mar, a middle-class Lima suburb, during his teenage years. While in Lima, he studied at the Colegio La Salle, when Vargas Llosa was fourteen, his father sent him to the Leoncio Prado Military Academy in Lima. At the age of 16, before his graduation, Vargas Llosa began working as an amateur journalist for local newspapers, in 1953, during the government of Manuel A. Odría, Vargas Llosa enrolled in Limas National University of San Marcos, to study law and literature. He married Julia Urquidi, his maternal uncles sister-in-law, in 1955 at the age of 19, Vargas Llosa began his literary career in earnest in 1957 with the publication of his first short stories, The Leaders and The Grandfather, while working for two Peruvian newspapers. Upon his graduation from the National University of San Marcos in 1958, despite Mario and Julias unexpected financial status, the couple decided to remain in Paris where he began to write prolifically. Their marriage lasted only a few years, ending in divorce in 1964. As of 2015, he is in a relationship with Filipina Spanish socialite and TV personality Isabel Preysler, Vargas Llosas first novel, The Time of the Hero, was published in 1963
11.
Museo Mitre
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The Museo Mitre in Buenos Aires, Argentina, is a museum dedicated to Argentine history, as well as to the legacy of President Bartolomé Mitre. The museum building is a Spanish colonial house built in 1785 and it first appears in Argentine history as the refuge of the last Viceroy of Río de la Plata, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, following the May Revolution of 1810. In 1860 the house was rented by General Bartolomé Mitre in 1860, la Nación, one of the nations oldest and most influential dailies, was published here from its establishment in 1870, until 1895. The house was purchased by the National Government via Law 4.943, in June of that year, and on June 3,1907, the museum was declared a National Historic Monument on May 21,1942, and is maintained by the National Secretariat of Culture. The museum can be seen on some Argentine two peso bills, List of museums in Argentina List of National Historic Monuments of Argentina Official website
12.
Plateresque
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It is a modification of Gothic spatial concepts and an eclectic blend of Mudéjar, Flamboyant Gothic and Lombard decorative components, as well as Renaissance elements of Tuscan origin. Examples of this syncretism are the inclusion of shields and pinnacles on facades, columns built in the Renaissance neoclassical manner, Plateresque has been considered down to current times a Renaissance style by many scholars. To others, it is its own style, and sometimes receives the designation of Protorenaissance, some even call it First Renaissance in a refusal to consider it as a style in itself, but to distinguish it from non-Spanish Renaissance works. The style is characterized by decorative facades covered with floral designs, chandeliers, festoons, fantastic creatures. The spatial arrangement, however, is more clearly Gothic-inspired and this fixation on specific parts and their spacing, without structural changes of the Gothic pattern, causes it to be often classified as simply a variation of Renaissance style. In New Spain the Plateresque acquired its own configuration, clinging tightly to its Mudéjar heritage, in the 19th century with the rise of historicism, the Plateresque architectural style was revived under the name of Monterrey Style. The name Plateresque came from the silversmith trade, Diego Ortiz de Zúñiga used it for the first time, applying it to the Royal Chapel of the Cathedral of Seville in the 17th century. Typical Plateresque facades, like those of altarpieces, were made as carefully as if they were the works of goldsmiths, and decorated as profusely. The decoration, although of various inspirations, was mainly of plant motifs, Plateresque utilized a wealth of materials, gold plates on crests and roofs, vases, etc. The proliferation of decoration for all architectural surfaces led to the creation of new surfaces and subspaces, italian elements were also being developed progressively as decoration, rustications, classical capitals, Roman arches and especially grotesques. The decoration had specific meanings and can not be read as merely decorative, thus laurels, military shields, in a similar vein, Greek and Roman myths were depicted elsewhere to represent abstract humanist ideals, so that the decorative became a means to express and disseminate Renaissance ideals. Plataresque implemented and preferred new spatial aspects, so caustrales, or stairs of open boxes, however, there were few spatial changes with respect to the Gothic tradition. In America, especially in todays Mexico, various indigenous cultures were in stages of development that can be considered Baroque when the Spanish brought with them the Plateresque style. We can speak of Plateresque that retains Gothic forms as a basis until 1530, after that date, although it continued to be used and Plateresque ornaments were still evolving, it became part of an architecture that was beginning to incorporate Renaissance ideas. But in Mexico it was not forgotten, leading to a Neo-Plateresque style in the 18th century, in any case the Plateresque, considered or not as a style, and whether exclusively Spanish or more broadly European, represents the transition between Gothic and Renaissance styles. These ornaments, which were of progressive complexity, did not influence the structure of the buildings. Something similar happened in the period in Portugal, resulting in what became known as the Manueline style. This is the period in which the Renaissance had taken hold on the Iberian Peninsula and that event occurred with the amendments by Juan de Herrera and Philip II of Spain to the design of the monastery of El Escorial, whose construction began in 1563
13.
Florida Street
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Florida Street is an elegant shopping street in Downtown Buenos Aires, Argentina. A pedestrian street since 1971, some stretches have been pedestrianized since 1913, the pedestrian section as such starts at the intersection of Perú Street and Avenida de Mayo, a block north of the Plaza de Mayo, Perú Street crosses Rivadavia Avenue, and becomes Florida Street. Florida Street runs northwards for approximately one kilometer to Plaza San Martín and it intersects Buenos Airess other pedestrian street, Lavalle, at the heart of the former cinema district. Florida is one of the leading tourist attractions. Florida Street bustles with shoppers, vendors, and office workers alike because of its proximity to the financial district, by evening, the pace relaxes as street performers flock to the area, including tango singers and dancers, living statues, and comedy acts. Its variety of stores, shopping arcades, and restaurants is of great interest to foreign tourists. The beginnings of Florida Street date back to the founding of Buenos Aires in 1580 and its first official name was San José, enacted by Governor Miguel de Salcedo in 1734. In the late eighteenth and early centuries, the street was known popularly as Calle del Correo in reference to the post office located on what later became Perú Street. It was also known as Empedrado. Improved with boulders brought from Montevideo beginning in 1789, it became the first paved street in the city, the street was first named Florida in 1821. The name was designated in honor of the battle fought in 1814 in Upper Peru against the royalists during the Argentine War of Independence, Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas renamed the street Perú in 1837, and in 1857, the name was returned to the present one. The Argentine National Anthem was first performed in 1813 at the Florida Street home of Mariquita Sánchez de Thompson, Argentine elites began to leave the central and southern wards of the city mainly due to epidemics, especially the 1871 yellow fever outbreak. They decided to move to ground in the city and chose the area known as Retiro. Numerous private mansions were built along Florida Street in the 1880s and 1890s. The Civic Youth Union, was organized in 1889 at the intersection with the Avenida Córdoba and this organization would foment the Revolution of the Park in 1890, and from its ranks the Radical Civic Union would be established in 1891. A tram was installed along Florida Street in the 1890s, vehicular traffic was barred during business hours in 1911 by request of the growing number of shop owners along Florida, and in 1913 the tram was dismantled to pedestrianize a section of the street. The 1914 inaugural of the Gath & Chaves department store coincided with the inaugural of Harrods Buenos Aires, the overseas branch of Harrods. The merger of Gath & Chaves and Harrods in 1922 created two of the most ornate institutions of their kind in the Americas
14.
Bouchard Plaza
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Bouchard Plaza is an architecturally significant office building in the San Nicolás ward of Buenos Aires, Argentina. The site of the building, on 557 Bouchard Street, was occupied by the printing house of La Nación. The daily newspaper, founded by President Bartolomé Mitre, remains among the most widely circulated in Argentina, the company contracted SEPRA Arquitectos for the design of new editorial offices in 1960, while retaining its Plateresque Florida Street headquarters. Flanked by leafy Roma Square to the south, the shipping and receiving department was shifted to the opposite. The publisher was joined by industrial conglomerate Techint and Banco Santander Río in a US$40 million investment for the construction of a new office building. Designed by Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum in 2000, the Postmodern addition was built on columns around the existing building. La Nación relocated its printing house to the southern Barracas district and it retained its corporate headquarters in Bouchard Plaza, however, and shares the building with the Argentine offices of Techint and Price Waterhouse Coopers, among others. The property was acquired by real estate developer IRSA in 2007
15.
Papel Prensa
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Papel Prensa is the largest Argentine manufacturer of newsprint, furnishing 58% of the local market in the staple. The public–private partnership became the focus of one of a series of controversies between Clarín and Kirchnerism in 2010, the fund stipulated the enactment of a 10% excise tax on all imported newsprint for a ten-year period, during which the state would retain a share in the company. A bidding process was launched in 1971 for the development, though none met capacity requirements. Civita and Editorial Abril sold their shares in late 1973 to a consortium led by banker and developer David Graiver who, through partner Rafael Ianover, secretly, however, Graiver acted as the investment banker for the Montoneros guerrilla group. He reportedly laundered US$17 million in funds that the Montoneros had received from illicit activities, Graiver contracted US$67 million in debts, however, and reportedly died in a plane crash near Acapulco on August 7,1976. He was indicted for embezzlement in 1978 by Manhattan district attorney Robert Morgenthau and his widow, Lidia Papaleo, returned to Argentina on September 16, and was enjoined by the newly installed dictatorship to sell her familys stake in Papel Prensa, as was Ianover. She was also coerced by the Montoneros, who sought to recover the US$17 million investment managed by Graiver, a military tribunal sentenced Papaleo and Graivers brother and father to 15 years imprisonment, though an appeals court later cleared the defendants of all charges. Papaleo and the other private partners negotiated the sale of their shares on November 2 with the three most important Argentine newspaper publishers at the time. Papaleo, however, had collected but U$S7,000 when, on March 14,1977, the private shareholders of Papel Prensa, including Graivers widow, were ultimately indemnified by President Raúl Alfonsíns administration in 1985. The Clarín Media Group acquired La Razón and its shares in Papel Prensa in 2000, raising its stake to 49 percent. Clarín and La Nación together accounted for 71% of the sales in 2011. Production at Papel Prensa, moreover, continued to decline, the San Pedro facility produced 170,000 tons of newsprint in 2009, and 145,000 tons by 2011. Papaleo, however, recanted her testimony within days, affirming simply that she had been pressured to sell her shares and this latter assertion was echoed by Isidoro Graiver and by María Sol Graiver. Her brother, Osvaldo Papaleo, reiterated claims that the sale of Graivers Papel Prensa shares was arranged under pain of death, the courts at the time found no link between the Gravier kidnapping and the sale, nor any irregularities in the sale itself. Lidia and Osvaldo Papaleo and Rafael Ianover testified in court at the regarding the abuses made against them by the dictatorship. These controversies coincided with a highly politicized six-month work stoppage at the San Pedro plant amid accusations of high pay for managerial staff. The strike ended following wage increases agreed to in early December, magnetto, Mitre and Noble were declared innocent in 2016. Judge Julián Ercolini ruled that there was not enough evidence of any wrongdoing to accuse them, the FPV won the 2011 election by a wide margin, and obtained a majority of both houses of Congress
16.
Newsprint
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Newsprint is a low-cost non-archival paper consisting mainly of wood pulp and most commonly used to print newspapers and other publications and advertising material. Invented in 1844 by Charles Fenerty of Nova Scotia, Canada, it usually has an off white cast and it is designed for use in printing presses that employ a long web of paper rather than individual sheets of paper. Newsprint is favored by publishers and printers as it is low cost, strong. Charles Fenerty began experimenting with wood pulp around 1838, making his discovery in 1844, World demand of newsprint in 2006 totaled about 37.2 million metric tonnes, according to the Montreal-based Pulp & Paper Products Council. This was about 1. 6% less than in 2000, between 2000 and 2006, the biggest changes were in Asia—which saw newsprint demand grow by about 20%—and North America, where demand fell by about 25%. Demand in China virtually doubled during the period, to about 3.2 million metric tonnes, about 35% of global newsprint usage in 2006 was in Asia, with approximately 26% being in North America and about 25% in Western Europe. Latin America and Eastern Europe each represented about 5% of world demand in 2006, according to PPPC, with smaller shares going to Oceania, according to NAA, daily ad revenues reached their all-time peak in 2000, and by 2007 had fallen by 13%. Newsprint demand has also affected by attempts on the part of newspaper publishers to reduce marginal printing costs through various conservation measures intended to cut newsprint usage. According to the World Association of Newspapers, in 2007 Asia was the home to 74 of the world’s 100 highest-circulation dailies, with millions of Chinese and Indians entering the ranks of those with disposable income, newspapers have gained readers along with other news media. Newsprint is used worldwide in the printing of newspapers, flyers, in the U. S. about 80% of all newsprint that is consumed is purchased by daily newspaper publishers, according to PPPC. Dailies use a majority of total demand in most other regions as well. In such cases the press owner might also purchase newsprint from the mill for such contract printing jobs, the biggest inputs to the newsprint manufacturing process are energy, fiber, and labor. Mill operating margins have been affected in the 2006–2008 time-frame by rising energy costs. Many mills fiber costs have also been affected during the U. S, another consideration in the newsprint business is delivery, which is affected by energy cost trends. Newsprint around the world may be delivered by rail or truck, or by barge, the cost-competitiveness of each freight mode for a specific mill’s business may depend on local infrastructure issues, as well as the degree of truck-vs-freight competition in the mills region. The appropriate freight mode for delivery from a mill to a specific pressroom can also depend on the press ability to accept enough trucks or rail cars. A newspaper rolls width is called its web width and is defined by how many front pages it can print, a full roll prints four front pages with four back pages behind it. Modern printing facilities most efficiently print newspapers in multiples of eight pages on a newsprint roll in two sections of four pages each
17.
Conflict between Kirchnerism and the media
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The Argentine Governments of Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner had several conflicts with major media groups. Kirchner accused the Clarín Group, La Nación, Perfil, large media groups, particularly the Clarín Group, in turn oppose anti-trust laws enacted during her administration. Critics maintain that new legislation passed by the Congress will be applied against dissenting media and journalists. The conflict started in 2008, during a period in which the government was in confrontation with the agricultural sector over a propose hike in oilseed export taxes. The Clarín Group, led by CEO Héctor Magnetto, strongly supported the sector, at least one writer who worked for one of the conglomerates dailies was dismissed for submitting an op ed opposing the landowners lockout of April 2008. The president reacted with criticism of the role of media. The television broadcasting rights for all Argentine football league matches had been held by the Clarín Group cable channel TyC Sports since 1992 and that contract was terminated by the Argentine Football Association in August 2009, and broadcasts of all league matches were made freely available as Fútbol para Todos. These broadcasts has since used to provide advertising for the government. In October 2009, the Argentine National Congress approved Law 26.522, known as the Audiovisual Media Law, the new law served to deregulate the television and radio industries which until then were still limited to the few channels created by the media law enacted in 1980. A series of five judicial appeals and injunctions prevented it coming into force for almost a year. The antitrust provisions of the law remained in blocked subsequently via injunctions, the Argentine government claims the Clarín Group has over 200 licenses, Grupo Clarín claims the number is 158. The Supreme Court ultimately upheld the constitutionality of the Audiovisual Media Law in its entirety on October 29,2013, a majority of journalist respondents in a 2011 Argentine Journalism Forum survey considered the new law a partial or even substantial progress compared to the previous one. Marcela and Felipe Noble Herrera are adopted children of Ernestina Herrera de Noble and it was suspected that they may be children of people murdered during the Dirty War. The President pledged to go to international courts to seek justice done if Argentine judges did not rule on the case. Estela Barnes de Carlotto also considered that the case will remain open, the Noble Herrera lawyers motioned instead that the case against Ernestina Herrera de Noble be closed, as happened with all the similar cases when the DNA tests gave negative results. The case was closed in January 2016. Cable television reaches two out of three Argentine households, and is at the center of debate over the 2009 Audiovisual Media Law, subsequently, in August 2010, a Federal Judge supported the government decision and prevented the two companies from changing their basic rates. A court ruling in June 2013 enjoined Cablevisión to reorganize its channel lineup, Papel Prensa is the largest Argentine producer of newsprint
18.
Web analytics
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Web analytics is the measurement, collection, analysis and reporting of web data for purposes of understanding and optimizing web usage. However, Web analytics is not just a process for measuring web traffic but can be used as a tool for business and market research, Web analytics applications can also help companies measure the results of traditional print or broadcast advertising campaigns. It helps one to estimate how traffic to a website changes after the launch of a new advertising campaign, Web analytics provides information about the number of visitors to a website and the number of page views. It helps gauge traffic and popularity trends which is useful for market research, most web analytics processes down to four essential stages or steps, which are, Collection of data, This stage is the collection of the basic, elementary data. Usually, this data is counts of things, the objective of this stage is to gather the data. Processing of data into information, This stage usually take counts and make them ratios, the objective of this stage is to take the data and conform it into information, specifically metrics. Developing KPI, This stage focuses on using the ratios and infusing them with business strategies, many times, KPIs deal with conversion aspects, but not always. Formulating online strategy, This stage is concerned with the goals, objectives. These strategies are related to making money, saving money. Each stage impacts or can impact the stage preceding or following it, so, sometimes the data that is available for collection impacts the online strategy. Other times, the online strategy affects the data collected, there are at least two categories of web analytics, off-site and on-site web analytics. Off-site web analytics refers to web measurement and analysis regardless of whether you own or maintain a website and it includes the measurement of a websites potential audience, share of voice, and buzz that is happening on the Internet as a whole. On-site web analytics, the most common, measure a visitors behavior once on your website and this includes its drivers and conversions, for example, the degree to which different landing pages are associated with online purchases. On-site web analytics measures the performance of your website in a commercial context and this data is typically compared against key performance indicators for performance, and used to improve a website or marketing campaigns audience response. Historically, web analytics has been used to refer to on-site visitor measurement, however, this meaning has become blurred, mainly because vendors are producing tools that span both categories. Many different vendors provide on-site web analytics software and services, there are two main technical ways of collecting the data. The first and traditional method, server log file analysis, reads the logfiles in which the web server records file requests by browsers, both collect data that can be processed to produce web traffic reports. The fundamental goal of web analytics is to collect and analyze data related to web traffic, the data mainly come from four sources, Direct HTTP request data, directly comes from HTTP request messages
19.
Alexa Internet
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Alexa Internet, Inc. is a California-based company that provides commercial web traffic data and analytics. It is an owned subsidiary of Amazon. com. Founded as an independent company in 1996, Alexa was acquired by Amazon in 1999 and its toolbar collects data on browsing behavior and transmits them to the Alexa website, where they are stored and analyzed. This is the basis for the web traffic reporting. According to its website, Alexa provides traffic data, global rankings, as of 2015, its website has been visited by over 6.5 million people monthly. Alexa Internet was founded in April 1996 by American web entrepreneurs Brewster Kahle, Alexa initially offered a toolbar that gave Internet users suggestions on where to go next, based on the traffic patterns of its user community. The company also offered context for each site visited, to whom it was registered, how many pages it had, how other sites pointed to it. Alexas operations grew to include archiving of web pages as they are crawled and this database served as the basis for the creation of the Internet Archive accessible through the Wayback Machine. In 1998, the company donated a copy of the archive, Alexa continues to supply the Internet Archive with Web crawls. In 1999, as the company moved away from its vision of providing an intelligent search engine. Alexa began a partnership with Google in early 2002, and with the web directory DMOZ in January 2003, in May 2006, replaced Google with Bing as a provider of search results. In December 2006, Amazon released Alexa Image Search, built in-house, it was the first major application built on the companys Web platform. In December 2005, Alexa opened its extensive search index and Web-crawling facilities to third-party programs through a set of Web services. These could be used, for instance, to construct vertical search engines that could run on Alexas own servers or elsewhere. In May 2007, Alexa changed their API to limit comparisons to three websites, reduce the size of embedded graphs in Flash, and add mandatory embedded BritePic advertisements. In April 2007, the company filed a lawsuit, Alexa v. Hornbaker, in the lawsuit, Alexa alleged that Ron Hornbaker was stealing traffic graphs for profit, and that the primary purpose of his site was to display graphs that were generated by Alexas servers. Hornbaker removed the term Alexa from his name on March 19,2007. Thereafter, Alexa became a purely analytics-focused company, on March 31,2009, Alexa launched a major website redesign
20.
SimilarWeb
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SimilarWeb Ltd. is a digital market intelligence company co-founded in 2007 by Or Offer. It sells a software as a product, an API product, custom reports. The company was founded in 2007 by Or Offer in Tel-Aviv,2009 SimilarWeb won the first Israeli SeedCamp, attracting the attention of international media and investors. The company raised its Series A round of $1.1 million the investment led by Yossi Vardi, similarSites, a browser extension to help users find sites similar to the one they are visiting, was launched later that year. 2013 On January 29,2013, SimilarWeb raised another $2.5 million, on February 24,2014, South Africa media giant Naspers invested $18 million into SimilarWeb by funding a Series C. In November 2014, SimilarWeb announced that it had collected funds for its expansion and enhancement of its mobile insights. To this initiative, Naspers and Lord David Alliance contributed $15 million in a series D investment, SimilarWebs most notable clients include PayPal, eBay Inc. On December 10,2015, SimilarWeb announced it had acquired Quettra, founded by ex-Google Play executive, Ankit Jain, Quettra provided personalization tools to developers in return for detailed mobile telemetry data. The Quettra team will serve as the basis of SimilarWebs newly established Silicon Valley headquarters, alexa Internet comScore Compete. com Quantcast Nielsen N. V
21.
Che Guevara
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Ernesto Che Guevara was an Argentine Marxist revolutionary, physician, author, guerrilla leader, diplomat, and military theorist. A major figure of the Cuban Revolution, his stylized visage has become a ubiquitous symbol of rebellion. As a young student, Guevara traveled throughout South America and was radicalized by the poverty, hunger. Guevara soon rose to prominence among the insurgents, was promoted to second-in-command, following the Cuban Revolution, Guevara performed a number of key roles in the new government. Additionally, he was a writer and diarist, composing a seminal manual on guerrilla warfare. Guevara left Cuba in 1965 to foment revolution abroad, first unsuccessfully in Congo-Kinshasa and later in Bolivia, Guevara remains both a revered and reviled historical figure, polarized in the collective imagination in a multitude of biographies, memoirs, essays, documentaries, songs, and films. In accordance with the flexibility allowed in Spanish naming customs, his name will sometimes appear with de la Serna and/or Lynch accompanying it. Referring to Ches restless nature, his father declared the first thing to note is that in my sons veins flowed the blood of the Irish rebels, very early on in life, Ernestito developed an affinity for the poor. Growing up in a family with leftist leanings, Guevara was introduced to a spectrum of political perspectives even as a boy. His father, a supporter of Republicans from the Spanish Civil War. He was a rugby union player, and played at fly-half for Club Universitario de Buenos Aires. His rugby playing earned him the nickname Fuser—a contraction of El Furibundo and his mothers surname, Guevara learned chess from his father and began participating in local tournaments by age 12. He could also recite Rudyard Kiplings If— and José Hernándezs Martín Fierro by heart. Additionally, he enjoyed the works of Jawaharlal Nehru, Franz Kafka, Albert Camus, Vladimir Lenin, and Jean-Paul Sartre, as well as Anatole France, Friedrich Engels, H. G. Wells, and Robert Frost. As he grew older, he developed an interest in the Latin American writers Horacio Quiroga, Ciro Alegría, Jorge Icaza, Rubén Darío, many of these authors ideas he cataloged in his own handwritten notebooks of concepts, definitions, and philosophies of influential intellectuals. These included composing analytical sketches of Buddha and Aristotle, along with examining Bertrand Russell on love and patriotism, Jack London on society, sigmund Freuds ideas fascinated him as he quoted him on a variety of topics from dreams and libido to narcissism and the Oedipus complex. His favorite subjects in school included philosophy, mathematics, engineering, political science, sociology, history, in 1948, Guevara entered the University of Buenos Aires to study medicine. The first expedition in 1950 was a 4, 500-kilometer solo trip through the provinces of northern Argentina on a bicycle on which he installed a small engine
22.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
23.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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