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La Raza

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This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (January 2017)

Hispanic and Latino Americans
National origin groups Argentine Americans Bolivian Americans Brazilian Americans Chilean Americans Colombian Americans Costa Rican Americans Cuban Americans Dominican Americans Ecuadorian Americans Guatemalan Americans Honduran Americans Mexican Americans Nicaraguan Americans Panamanian Americans Paraguayan Americans Peruvian Americans Puerto Ricans (stateside) Salvadoran Americans Spanish Americanss Uruguayan Americans Venezuelan Americans
History History of Hispanic and Latino Americans History of Mexican Americans
Colonial casta system castizo cholo criollo mestizo mulato pardo/moreno zambo
Political movements Chicano Movement Hispanic and Latino American politics
Organizations Association of Hispanic Arts Congressional Hispanic Caucus Congressional Hispanic Conference LULAC MALDEF MEChA NALEO NALFO National Council of La Raza National Hispanic Institute RNHA SHPE UFW USHCC
Culture Literature Music Religion Studies
Related national groups Belizean Americans Brazilian Americans Filipino Americans Guyanese Americans Haitian Americans Portuguese Americans Spanish Americans Surinamese Americans
Languages English Spanglish Spanish Cuban Spanish United States New Mexican Puerto Rican
Ethnic groups Californio Chicano Hispano Isleño Nuevomexicano Nuyorican Tejano
Lists Communities with Hispanic majority Hispanic and Latino Americans Puerto Rico Related topics
v t e

The Spanish term raza translates as "race" or "people", Spanish raza having the meaning of "race, ethnicity; breed, strain, lineage".

History[edit]

The term originated in the 1925 book, La Raza Cósmica (English: The Cosmic Race) by the Mexican writer José Vasconcelos. He described la Raza Cósmica as the product of gradual racial mixing that was already underway in the Latin world. Vasconcelos believed that eventually all of the people within the former Spanish Empire would be completely mixed into a new race.

The term expresses ethnic or racial pride, and is used with somewhat different shades of meaning in Spain and in Latin America; in Spain, raza denotes specifically Spanish or European Christian (Roman Catholic) heritage. Francisco Franco wrote a novel under the pen name "Jaime de Andrade" which was turned into the film Raza of 1944. The film, which celebrates ideally Spanish national qualities, exemplifies this usage; in Central America and Mexico, la Raza emphasizes an Amerindian or mestizo heritage, or it may express Latino identity (La Raza being short for La Raza hispánica). In the Southern Cone, it denotes a Spanish or European origin. Día de la Raza marks the arrival of Christopher Columbus to America.

The term became popular in the United States during the 1970s as part of the Chicano Movement. Various Hispanic groups in the United States use the term.^[1]

References[edit]

^ Romero, Dennis (7 June 2016). "Dear Trump Fans: La Raza Is Not a Racist Term". L.A. Weekly. Retrieved 7 June 2016.

v t e Chicano and Mexican American topics
Terms	Chicano Hispanic La Raza Hispanic and Latino Americans Mexican American Tejano
Pre-Chicano Movement	History of Mexican Americans Mexican–American War Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Mexican Repatriation Sleepy Lagoon trial Zoot Suit Riots
Chicano Movement	Aztlán Católicos por La Raza Chicanismo Chicana feminism Chicano Blowouts Chicano Moratorium PCUN Plan Espiritual de Aztlán Plan de Santa Bárbara Farm workers rights campaign Land grant struggle Colegio César Chávez
Supreme Court cases	Botiller v. Dominguez Hernandez v. Texas San Antonio I.S.D. v. Rodriguez Espinoza v. Farah Manufacturing Co. U.S. v. Brignoni-Ponce Plyler v. Doe Medellín v. Texas Flores-Figueroa v. U.S. Leal Garcia v. Texas Mendez v. Westminster Bernal v. Fainter
Culture	Chicano films Chicano literature Chicano poetry Chicano rock Chicano rap Mexican muralism Skull art Teatro Campesino Tortilla art Chicano Park Estrada Courts murals Cholo Pachuco Paño Tejano music Tex-Mex cuisine Zoot suit Lowrider
By city	Arizona (Tucson) California (Los Angeles) Illinois (Chicago) Michigan (Detroit) Nebraska (Omaha) Texas Dallas-Fort Worth Houston
Lists	Caló Chicano poets U.S. communities with Hispanic majority Mexican Americans Writers List of Hispanic and Latino Americans Bibliography
Category:American people of Mexican descent Category:Mexican-American organizations

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Hispanic and Latino Americans – Hispanic Americans and Latino Americans, are Americans who are descendants of the peoples of Spain, Portugal, or the Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries of Latin America. More generally, it includes all persons in the United States who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino, other U. S. government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term, including Brazilians and other Portuguese-speaking groups. The Census Bureau uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably, origin can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the persons parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race, as the only specifically designated category of ethnicity in the United States, Hispanics form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic Americans are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran

1. Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, 16th century Spanish admiral who founded the first European settlement in North America (Saint Augustine, Florida).

2. Percent of Hispanic and Latino population by state in 2012.

3. Castillo de San Marcos in Saint Augustine, Florida. Built in 1672 by the Spanish, it is the oldest masonry fort in the United States.

4. Miami 's Brickell neighborhood is known for its large concentration of wealthy Hispanics, largely of South American descent.

Argentine Americans – Argentine Americans are Americans whose full or partial origin is in Argentina. Prior to the 1970s, the Argentines that emigrated to the United States were classified in the category of Other Hispanics, therefore, early Argentines who settled in the United States arrived primarily in the 1960s, looking for greater economic possibilities. The majority of them held academic degrees, and many were medical doctors, however, immigrants in the late 1970s arrived fleeing the political persecution of the Dirty War. This new immigrant group had a level lower than earlier immigrants. The majority of Argentine immigrants are directed to areas, especially New York City. In the 1980s, that increased to just over 23 percent. Immigration to New York City was popular because of the existing Argentine and Italian communities, the 1990 U. S. Census recorded 92,563 Argentines, evidencing that nearly half of the Argentine immigrants arrived in the last two decades alone. After the nineties, Southern Calif

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4. Albert Hammond, Jr.

Bolivian American – A Bolivian American is an American of Bolivian descent. Bolivian Americans are identified as Indigenous, European, Afro Bolivian, additionally, there are Bolivian Americans of Japanese descent, albeit, in small numbers. Bolivians compose the third smallest Hispanic group in the United States, the highest concentration resides in the Washington Metropolitan Area, which accounts for 38% of the total Bolivian population in the US. Additional areas of concentration include the New York City borough of Queens, Miami-Dade County, Bolivian immigration into the United States occurred in two significant phases. The first phase occurred during and subsequent to the 1952 National Revolution, most of these immigrants consisted of middle- to upper-middle income occupational professionals or political dissidents, and identify with Bolivias White or Criollo society. The second notable phase of Bolivian immigration was a result of Bolivias fiscal policies in the 1970s which gave way to the hyperinflat

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2. 117,842 2014 Us surveys 0.04% of the U.S. population (2014)

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4. Marco Etcheverry

Brazilian Americans – Brazilian Americans are Americans who are of full or partial Brazilian ancestry. There were an estimated 371,529 Brazilian Americans as of 2012, other U. S. Previously, Brazilians were not identified separately from other South Americans. Of approximately 234,761 South American emigres arrived in the United States between 1820 and 1960, at least some of them were Brazilian, the 1960 United States Census report recorded 27,885 Americans of Brazilian ancestry. From 1960 until the mid-1980s, between 1,500 and 2,300 Brazilian immigrants arrived in the United States each year, during the mid-1980s, economic crisis struck Brazil. As a result, between 1986 and 1990 approximately 1.4 million Brazilians emigrated to parts of the world. It was not until this time that Brazilian emigration reached significant levels, thus, between 1987 and 1991, an estimated 20,800 Brazilians arrived in the United States. A significant number of them,8,133 Brazilians, arrived in 1991, the 1990 U. S. Census Bureau

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4. Benny Feilhaber

Chilean American – Chilean Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from Chile. The Chilean population at the 2010 US Census was 126,810, in the United States, Chileans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group from South America and the fifth smallest overall amongst all Hispanic groups. Most Chileans migrating to the United States settle in metropolitan areas, in recent history, it is for economic or academic rather than political reasons that Chileans emigrate. Chileans and other South Americans have been present in the state of California since the 1850s gold rush, not all Chileans made it to the gold fields. Some remained in San Francisco, San Jose, Sacramento, and Stockton where they worked as bricklayers, bakers. Some with capital established themselves in various businesses, particularly the importation of flour, in the cities most tended to congregate and live in specific areas in the poorer sections of town. In the gold fields they lived in camp sites. In the summer of 1849 Chileans

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2. 140,045 0.05% of the U.S. population (2012)

3. Isabel Allende

4. Cote de Pablo

Colombian American – Colombian Americans are Americans who trace their full or partial nationality or heritage to Colombia. They are the largest South American ethnic group in the United States, the first Colombians immigrants who settled in the United States likely arrived in the 1800s. However, the Colombian presence in United States would not be known with certainty since the census did not specify the country of origin for South Americans until 1960. These immigrants did not maintain any relation with their countries, just until a few generations after. Most immigrants settled in Jackson Heights, a neighborhood in the borough of Queens in New York City. The growth of the Colombian American population was slow until 1940, most Colombians who arrived after the mid-1960s wanted to stay in the United States temporarily. Therefore, the number of Colombian illegal immigrants increased, from 250,000 to 350,000 people in the mid 1970s, despite a succession of immigration laws, the Colombian population in the U

1. 1,039,923 0.34% of the U.S. population (2012)

Costa Rican American – Costa Rican Americans are Americans of Costa Rican descent. The Costa Rican population at the 2010 Census was 126,418, Costa Ricans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the smallest Central American population. Costa Rican populations are prominent in the New York Metropolitan Area, additional areas with significant Costa Rican residents include New York City, Suffolk County, New York, and Fairfield County, Connecticut. There are also groups of Costa Ricans in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, South Florida metropolitan area. There have never been waves of migration from Costa Rica to the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service records indicate that very few Costa Ricans have actually tried to enter the country illegally. This is because, unlike other Hispanic groups, they have not been forced to emigrate to the U. S. for political oppression or extreme economic circumstances. Most Costa Ricans living in the United States have settled in th

1. Franklin Chang Díaz

2. 140,152 0.05% of the U.S. population (2012)

3. Sonia Chang-Díaz

4. Candice Michelle

Cuban American – Cuban Americans are Americans who trace their ancestry to Cuba. Cuban Americans are the third largest Latino group in the United States, many communities throughout the United States have significant Cuban American populations. Florida has the highest concentration of Cuban Americans in the US, standing out in part because of its proximity to Cuba, followed by California, New Jersey, New York and Texas. South Florida is followed by New York City, Tampa, Union County and North Hudson, New Jersey areas, particularly Union City, Elizabeth, with a population of 141,250, the New York metropolitan areas Cuban community is the largest outside of Florida. Nearly 70% of all Cuban Americans live in Florida, thousands of Cuban settlers also immigrated to Louisiana between 1778 and 1802 and Texas during the period of Spanish rule. Since 1820, the Cuban presence was more than 1,000 people. In 1870 the number of Cuban immigrants increased to almost 12,000, of which about 4,500 resided in New York Ci

1. Desi Arnaz

2. 2,013,155 0.63% of the U.S. population (2013)

3. Andy García

4. Marco Rubio

Dominican American – Dominican Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from the Dominican Republic. Although their emigration began in the century, thousands of Dominicans passed through the gates of Ellis Island in the 19th. The most recent movement of emigration to the United States began in the 1960s, in 2010, there were approximately 1.41 million people of Dominican descent in the US, including both native and foreign-born. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic group in the United States, the first recorded person of Dominican descent to migrate into what is now known as the United States, outside of New Spain, was sailor-turned-merchant Juan Rodriguez. He arrived on Manhattan in 1613 from his home in Santo Domingo and he also became the first Dominican, the first Latino and the first person with European and African ancestry to settle in what is present day New York City. Dominican emigration to the United States continued throughout the centuries, recent research from the

Ecuadorian American – Ecuadorian Americans are Americans of full or partial Ecuadorian ancestry. Ecuadorian Americans can be Mestizo, White Spaniard, Afro-Ecuadorian, Indigenous, Mulato, some Ecuadorians are also of Lebanese, Sephardic and Japanese descent. Until the 1960s, very few Ecuadorians migrated to the United States, in the late 1960s, several waves of migration started. Most Ecuadorian immigration to the United States has occurred since the early 1970s and this emigration was because of several reasons, The first of them was that United States immigration law changed. Before 1965, national quotas on immigrants favored more European immigration than Latin American immigration, after 1965, changes in immigration law made it easier for Latin Americans and other foreign groups to emigrate to United States. In addition, the price of air travel lowered making immigration more accessible to Latin Americans and they were drawn to the U. S. for economic opportunities and political freedoms. Ecuadorian immig

1. Emanuel Xavier

2. Ecuadorian 662,633 0.22% of the U.S. population (2012)

3. Michael Steger

4. Gerardo

Guatemalan American – Guatemalan Americans are Americans of full or partial Guatemalan descent. The Guatemalan American population at the 2010 Census was 1,044,209, Guatemalans are the fifth largest Latino group in the United States and the second largest Central American population after Salvadorans. Half of the Guatemalan population is situated in two parts of the country, the Northeast and Southern California, Guatemalans have emigrated to the USA since the 1930s and 1940s. Along with other Central Americans they first arrived by way of Mexico and settled in areas like Chicago, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Houston, New York City. Guatemalan refugees became an important political and economic influence on seeking an end to the civil war, during the Guatemalan civil war, there was massive destruction of rural villages and farmlands. In the 1996 peace accords, there was an exchange of civilian land to favor the rise of corporate agribusinesses with the drop of prices of local agricultural products. This heavil

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2. 1,241,560 0.40% of the U.S. population (2012)

3. Héctor Tobar

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Honduran American – Honduran Americans are Americans of Honduran descent. Honduran Americans are a group of people who may descend from Spanish, Honduran Native, Garifuna, African, Palestinian and Chinese people, the Honduran population at the 2015 Census was 837,694. Hondurans are the eighth largest Hispanic group in the United States, all periods of conflict have led to minor waves of Honduran emigration to the United States. This was the case after the 1956 military coup, Hondurans immigrated to the United States in the 1960s, primarily to Miami, New York City, and Los Angeles. The main reason for Hondurans to leave their country was to escape poverty, many Honduran-Americans are migrant farm laborers who first established themselves in the largest U. S. cities, in which they had support networks from the Honduran-American communities. In the late 1980s and 1990s, most Honduran Americans lived in New York City, Los Angeles, in 2000, Hondurans grew to be the third largest immigrant from Central America.

1. Roger Espinoza

2. 837,694 0.24% of the U.S. population (2014)

3. Brina Palencia

Mexican American – Mexican Americans are Americans of full or partial Mexican descent. As of July 2015, Mexican Americans made up 11. 1% of the United States population, as of July 2015, Mexican Americans comprised 63. 4% of all Hispanics and Latinos in the United States. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world, second only to Mexico itself, canada is a distant third, with a small Mexican Canadian population of 96,055 as of 2011. Over 60% of all Mexican Americans reside in the states of California, in 2015, the United States admitted 157,227 Mexican immigrants, and as of November 2016,1.31 million Mexicans were on the waiting list to immigrate to the United States through legal means. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their fir

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2. 35,320,579 10.94% of total U.S. population, 2014

3. Selena Gomez

4. Romualdo Pacheco

Nicaraguan American – A Nicaraguan American is an American of Nicaraguan descent. The Nicaraguan American population at the 2010 Census was 348,202, Nicaraguans are the eleventh largest Hispanic group in the United States and the fourth largest Central American population. More than two-thirds of the Nicaraguan population in the US resides in California or Florida, in California, Nicaraguans are more dominant in the Greater Los Angeles Area and San Francisco Bay Area. Large populations also reside in the Inland Empire and the cities of Sacramento, San Diego, in Florida, 90% of Nicaraguans reside in the Miami Metropolitan Area. Miami-Dade County is home to 30% of Nicaraguans residing in the US, Nicaraguans have immigrated to the United States in small groups since the early 1900s, but their presence was especially felt over the last three decades of the 20th century. The Nicaraguan community is concentrated in three major urban areas, Metropolitan Miami, Greater Los Angeles, and San Francisco Bay Area. A mor

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2. 405,601 0.13% of the U.S. population (2012)

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Panamanian American – A Panamanian American are Americans of Panamanian descent. The Panamanian population at the 2010 Census was 165,456, Panamanians are the sixth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the second smallest Central American population. The largest population of Panamanians reside in Brooklyn and South Florida, since 1820, more than one million immigrants from Central and South America migrated to the United States. Until 1960, the U. S. Census Bureau did not produce statistics that separated the Panamanian immigrants, the Panamanian Americans increased slowly in the United States. Since the 1830s, only 44 arrivals were recorded in this country, after World War II the flow of immigrants from Panama remained small even though there were no immigration restrictions on the people from the Western Hemisphere. However, the Panamanian immigration increased dramatically after the 1965 Immigration Act and its increase immigration was such that by 1970, Panamanians were able to be one of th

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2. 183,743 0.06% of the U.S. population (2012)

3. Melissa De Sousa

4. Hulk Hogan

Paraguayan American – A Paraguayan American are Americans of Paraguayan descent. The Paraguayan population at the 2010 Census was 20,023, Paraguayans are the smallest Hispanic group in the United States. The Paraguayan population is concentrated mainly in Queens, NY, Westchester County, NY, additional areas of concentration include Miami-Dade County and Montgomery County, MD. The highest concentration of Paraguayans in the US reside in Somerset County and it is estimated that the first Paraguayans arrived to the United States between the years of 1841 and 1850. At that time, Paraguayans were not coming directly to the United States from Paraguay, but through others countries such as Brazil, Argentina, the Paraguayan residents in the U. S. were included in the early records in the group of other South Americans. During those years,3,579 other immigrants arrived, in the 1960s, one-fourth of all Paraguayans were registered as living in countries outside Paraguay, with a majority in Argentina, Brazil, and Urugu

1. 24,933

Peruvian American – Peruvian Americans are Americans of Peruvian descent. Among Peruvian Americans there are those of White, mestizo, Amerindian, and Afro-Peruvian descent, as well as others, including British, Italian, French, German, a significant number are of pure or mixed Chinese and/or Japanese heritage. Peruvians have emigrated mainly due to turmoil and economic hardships the country had faced during the 1980s. Peruvian Americans are a relatively recent ethnic group, as most of them have moved to the United States since 1990, according to the U. S. Census Bureau,594,418 U. S. residents identify themselves as being of Peruvian origin. Small but significant waves of immigration occurred in San Francisco during the gold rush, however, the majority of Peruvians that have emigrated to the United States have arrived since the 90s. Peruvians typically emigrate due to economic reasons, to escape poverty, significant demographics of Peruvians are found in Northern New Jersey, the New York City Metropolitan

1. Carlos I. Noriega

2. 626,789 0.19% of the U.S. population (2014)

3. Marie Arana

4. Carmen Giménez Smith

Puerto Ricans in the United States – Puerto Ricans, either born in the island or in the states, are American citizens. At 10 percent of the Latino population in the United States, Puerto Ricans are the second largest Latino group nationwide, and comprise 1. 5% of the entire population of the United States. Although the 2010 Census counted the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States at 4.6 million, more recent estimates show the Puerto Rican population to be over 5 million, as of 2012. The portmanteau Nuyorican refers to Puerto Ricans and their descendants in the New York City metropolitan area, important Puerto Rican institutions have emerged from this long history. ASPIRA was established in New York City in 1961 and is now one of the largest national Latino nonprofit organizations in the United States, the government of Puerto Rico has a long history of involvement with the stateside Puerto Rican community. In July 1930, Puerto Ricos Department of Labor established an employment service in New York City. The

1. José Ferrer

2. 5,266,738 1.7% of the U.S. population (2014)

3. Sonia Sotomayor

4. Nicholas Estavillo

Salvadoran American – Salvadoran Americans are Americans of full or partial Salvadoran descent. As of 2010, there are 1,648,968 Salvadoran Americans in the United States, recent estimates put the Salvadoran population as high as 2 million, as of 2013. Salvadorans are the largest group of Central Americans of the Central American Isthmus community in the U. S, among the Hispanic groups, Salvadorans are also the largest group of Spanish speakers in the United States who use voseo. Salvadoran is the accepted and used term for naming people of Salvadoran ancestry, however both Salvadorian and Salvadorean are equally the most widely used terms in daily life by English speaking Salvadoran citizens living in the U. S and other English speaking countries. Salvadorian and Salvadorean in their spelling and pronunciation can be seen in most restaurant and other El Salvador related signs in the U. S. This is because the sounds ia and ea, in Salvadorian and Salvadorean sound more closely to the ñ sound in the Spanish te

1. Christy Turlington

2. 2,102,160 (2014 US Community Survey) 0.64% of the U.S. population (2014)

3. Allison Iraheta

4. Dustin Corea

Spanish Americans – Spanish Americans is a term with multiple meanings. The term can also extend to mean those who share a language and culture rooted in Spain, Spanish Americans are the longest-established European-American group with a continuous presence in Florida since 1565 and are the eighth-largest Hispanic group in the United States of America. Throughout the colonial times, there were a number of settlements of Spanish populations in the present–day United States of America with governments answerable to Madrid. The first settlement was at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565, followed by others in New Mexico, California, Arizona, Texas, and Louisiana. In 1598, San Juan de los Caballeros was established, near present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico, by Juan de Oñate, Spanish immigrants also established settlements in San Diego, California, San Antonio, Texas and Tucson, Arizona. By the mid-1600s the Spanish in America numbered more than 400,000 and these Spanish settlers expanded European influence in the Ne

1. El Centro Español de Tampa is a cultural house built in 1912 in the Ybor City neighborhood of Tampa, Florida.

2. Spanish children from the SS Heliopolis after arriving in Hawaii.

3. Anita Page was a New York-born actress of paternal Spanish descent.

4. Santa Barbara, California ’s annual Old Spanish Days Fiesta celebration.

Uruguayan American – Uruguayan Americans are Americans of Uruguayan ancestry or birth. The American Community Survey of 2006 estimated the Uruguayan American population to number 50,538, similar to neighboring country Argentina, Uruguay took in many immigrants from Europe beginning in the late 19th century and lasting until the mid 20th century. As it stands, approximately 93% of Uruguays population is of European descent with Italians, Spaniards, French, because of this, many Uruguayan Americans identify both with their nationality and their familys country of origin. The history of Uruguayan emigration to the United States is very recent, before 1960, the Uruguayan living conditions were favorable, with many job opportunities, good education and a good healthcare system. The few Uruguayans that left the country migrated to other Hispanic countries such as Argentina, for this reason the Uruguayan emigration to the United States was low during that period. Moreover, Uruguay was ruled by a military regime f

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2. Uruguayan 626,789

Venezuelan American – Venezuelan Americans are Americans who trace their heritage, or part of their heritage, to the nation of Venezuela. Venezuelan Americans are one of 20 Latin American groups in the United States and this includes influences from Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, Germans, and the French, along with influences from African and indigenous Amerindian elements. Venezuelan Spanish is the spoken form of the Spanish language. Until the 20th century, there was no record of the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to the United States. From 1910 to 1930, it is estimated that over 4,000 South Americans each year emigrated to the United States, however, there are not many specific figures that indicate the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to this country. Many Venezuelans settled in the United States with hopes of receiving a better education and they are frequently joined by relatives. In recent years, more Venezuelans opposing the economic and political policies of president Hugo Chávez are migrat

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3. Fred Armisen

4. Carlos Pena, Jr.

History of Hispanic and Latino Americans – The history of Latinos and Hispanics in the United States is wide-ranging, spanning more than four hundred years and varyingday United States, too. Hispanics became the first American citizens in the newly acquired Southwest territory after the Mexican–American War, as late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War, Spain held claim to roughly half of todays continental United States. In the Treaty of Paris France ceded Louisiana to Spain from 1763 until it was returned in 1800 by the Treaty of San Ildefonso, in 1775, Spanish ships reached Alaska. The first confirmed landing in the continental US was by a Spaniard, Juan Ponce de León, within three decades of Ponce de Leóns landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast, penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine, coronado travelled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic

1. California is shown as an island on this 1650 map. The smaller islands located in the "channel" were mentioned in an early myth and subsequently included by mapmakers over the centuries who took it on faith that region had actually been explored.

2. A portrait of Junípero Serra.

3. An early map illustrating the route of "El Camino Real" in 1821, along with the 21 Franciscan Alta California missions. The road at this time was merely a horse and mule trail.

History of Mexican Americans – Large-scale new migration augmented their numbers during the 1910s, as Mexico was torn by a high-casualty civil war. Until the 1960s, most lived within a few hundred miles of the border, more recently, Mexican Americans have diffused throughout the U. S. especially in the Midwest and Southeast, with the largest numbers in California and Texas. In the past hundred years Mexican-Americans have campaigned for voting rights, stood against educational, employment, at the same time many Mexican-Americans have struggled with defining and maintaining their communitys identity. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. When Mexico took over control from Spain in the early 1820s, when Texas seemed too i

1. Dolores Huerta speaking at a rally in Santa Barbara, California on September 24, 2006.

2. César Chávez at a United Farmworkers rally, 1974

Castizo – Castizo is a Spanish word with a general meaning of pure, genuine or representative of its race. From this meaning it evolved other meanings, such as typical of an area and it was used for one of the colonial Spanish race categories, the castas. In Latin America Castizo is used to describe the individuals with an admixture of 75% European, during this era, various other terms were also used. The word cuarterón usually denotes someone whose racial origin is three-quarters White and one-quarter Black, under the colonial caste system, the offspring of a Spaniard and a Castiza was classified as a criollo, thus the offspring regained his or her purity of blood. For castizos whose residual quarter of Amerindian ancestry was not apparent at all, many simply consolidated themselves within the criollos, some countries, however, have recently reintroduced voluntary and anonymous declarations of race in recent population censuses for statistical purposes, with no legal consequence to the individu

1. Union of castizo (left) and mestiza (right): chamizo

Cholo – Its use has migrated from the initial negative ethnic designation as originated by Hispanic criollos in the 16th century. In sociological literature, it is one of castas, and refers to Mexican American gangsters, the precise usage of cholo has varied widely in different times and places. In modern American usage, it most often applies to the low-rider sub-culture manner of dress, the terms use is first recorded in a Peruvian book published in 1609 and 1616, the Comentarios Reales de los Incas by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. He writes The child of a Black male and an Indian female, or of an Indian male and Black female, they call mulato, the children of these they call cholo. Cholo is a word from the Windward Islands, it means dog, not of the variety, but of very disreputable origin. In Colonial Mexico, the terms cholo and coyote co-existed, indicating mixed Mestizo, other terms were used to denote other ratios of smaller or greater Spanish-to-Amerindian ancestry. During the War of the Pa

1. An example of "cula de Castas" which classified people by their ancestry, admixture, and degree of admixture. Within this representation of Cholos during the Latin American colonial period one can read "De mestizo e india, sale coiote" (from Mestizo and Amerindian, begotten a Coyote).

2. Typical dress of a chola cuencana

Criollo people – Although Criollos were legally Spaniards, in practice, they ranked below the Iberian-born Peninsulares. Nevertheless, they had preeminence over all the populations, Amerindians, enslaved Africans. According to the Casta system, a criollo could have up to 1/8 Amerindian ancestry without losing social place, in the 18th and early 19th centuries, changes in the Spanish Empires policies towards its colonies led to tensions between Criollos and Peninsulares. Criollos were the supporters of the Spanish American wars of independence. The word criollo and its Portuguese cognate crioulo are believed to come from the Spanish/Portuguese verb criar, in Spanish colonies, an español criollo was an ethnic Spaniard who had been born in the colonies, as opposed to an español peninsular born in Spain. Whites in colonial Brazil, born in the Iberian Peninsula, were known as mazombos, limpieza de sangre or cleanness of blood was a legal concept in use since the Spanish Reconquista, and introduced to the Sp

1. Clockwise from top left: Agustín de Iturbide

2. Criollos rejoice upon learning about the declaration of independence from Spain on September 15, 1821.

Mestizo – The term was used as an ethnic/racial category in the casta system that was in use during the Spanish Empires control of their New World colonies. Mestizos are usually considered to be mixed Spaniards by the crown of Spain, the term mestizaje - taking as its root mestizo or mixed - is the Spanish word for miscegenation, the general process of mixing ancestries. To avoid confusion with the usage of the term mestizo. In colonial Venezuela, pardo was more commonly used instead of mestizo, pardo means being mixed without specifying which mixture, it was used to describe anyone born in the Americas whose ancestry was a mixture of European, Amerindian, and Black African. In colonial Brazil most of the population was mestiço in the original Iberian definition of the word. In the Philippines, which was a colony of Spain, the term came to refer to a Filipino with any foreign ancestry especially whites. In Canada, the Métis people is a community composed of those who possess combined European, i

1. A painting of a Spanish man and a Peruvian indigenous woman with Mestizo child, 1770.

2. Las castas. 18th century, Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán, Mexico.

3. A representation of a Mestizo, in a Pintura de Castas from New Spain during the late colonial period. The painting's caption states "Spanish and Indian produce Mestizo", 1780.

4. A statue of Gonzalo Guerrero, who adopted the Maya way of life and fathered the first mestizo children of Mexico, but not of the Americas, since the first mestizos were born in the Caribbean, by Spanish men and indigenous Caribbean women.

Mulatto – Mulatto is a term used to refer to persons born of one white parent and one black parent or to persons born of a mulatto parent or parents. In English, the term is generally confined to historical contexts. English speakers of mixed white and black ancestry seldom choose to identify themselves as mulatto. Some residents of Latin America, Spain America, the Caribbean, in Latin America, most mulattoes have descended from multi-ethnic relationships dating to the slavery period, rather than from recent ethnic mixing. This is especially true in Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Haiti, Cape Verde, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. The etymology of the term is believed to derive from the Spanish and Portuguese mulato, which comes from mula, meaning mule, the hybrid offspring of a horse. Some dictionaries and scholarly works trace the origins to the Arabic term muwallad. Muwallad literally means born, begotten, produced, generated, brought up, with the implication of being born and rais

1. Juan de Pareja by Diego Velázquez, 1650

2. The Christmas Bands are a popular Cape Coloured cultural tradition in Cape Town

3. Don Miguel Enríquez, a Puerto Rican privateer, is the only known mulatto knighted by the Monarchy of Spain. After being born illegitimate, he became a shoemaker and privateer, ultimately one of the wealthiest men of the New World.

4. Portrait "A Redenção de Cam" (1895), showing a Brazilian family.

Zambo – Zambo and cafuzo are racial terms used in the Spanish and Portuguese Empires and occasionally today to identify individuals in the Americas who are of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry. Historically, the cross between African slaves and Amerindians was referred to as a zambaggoa, then zambo, then sambo. In the United States, the word sambo is thought to refer to the cross between a black slave and a white person. The meaning of the term however is contested in North America. The word most likely originated from one of the Romance languages, or Latin, under the casta system of Spanish colonial America, the term originally applied to the children of one African and one Amerindian parent, or the children of two zambo parents. During this period, many other terms denoted individuals of African-Amerindian ancestry in ratios smaller or greater than the 50,50 of zambos, today, zambo refers to all people with significant amounts of both African and Amerindian ancestry, though it is frequen

1. 16th century painting of Zambo Caciques from Esmeraldas, Ecuador.

2. A representation of an infant zambo, in an 18th-century "Pintura de Castas" from New Spain. The painting illustrates "from a Black and an Amerindian produces a lobo ", here a synonym for zambo.

3. "From a black man with a mulata produces a Sambo ", Indian school, 1770.

Chicano Movement

1. Cesar Chavez with demonstrators

2. Casa Aztlán. A mural in Pilsen, Chicago for the Chicano Movement

Congressional Hispanic Caucus

1. Hispanic Caucus meeting at the White House in 2009

Congressional Hispanic Conference

1. CHC members in 2005 with Attorney General Alberto Gonzales

League of United Latin American Citizens

1. League of United Latin American Citizens

2. The LULAC No. 7 hall (established 1929) at 1613 Hidalgo Street in Laredo, Texas; in 2013 Laredo LULAC was named the "National Council of the Year" at the annual convention in Las Vegas, Nevada. From 2012 to 2013, the council raised $35,000 in scholarships.

MEChA

1. An illustration depicting mass-produced versions of Metal Gear REX on a conventional battlefield.

2. Illustration of a Tripod walker from the 1906 French edition of The War of the Worlds

3. The Imperial AT-AT Walkers in The Empire Strikes Back

4. Strike Suit Zero is a 2013 space combat video game featuring mecha designs by Junji Okubo.

National Council of La Raza

1. National Council of La Raza

National Hispanic Institute

1. NHI Original Logo

2. Ernesto Nieto

Republican National Hispanic Assembly

1. Republican National Hispanic Assembly

2. President Ford with Raul Espinoza, RNHA's first executive director, at the 1976 banquet

Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers

1. The SHPE Logo

United Farm Workers

1. UFW Flag

LIST OF IMAGES

1. Hispanic and Latino Americans – Hispanic Americans and Latino Americans, are Americans who are descendants of the peoples of Spain, Portugal, or the Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries of Latin America. More generally, it includes all persons in the United States who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino, other U. S. government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term, including Brazilians and other Portuguese-speaking groups. The Census Bureau uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably, origin can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the persons parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race, as the only specifically designated category of ethnicity in the United States, Hispanics form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic Americans are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, the predominant origin of regional Hispanic populations varies widely in different locations across the country. Hispanic Americans are the second fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States after Asian Americans, hispanic/Latinos overall are the second-largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic Whites. Hispanics have lived within what is now the United States continuously since the founding of St. Augustine by the Spanish in 1565, after Native Americans, Hispanics are the oldest ethnic group to inhabit much of what is today the United States. Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, the terms Hispanic and Latino refer to an ethnicity, people of this group may be of any race. Hispanic people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, according to the Smithsonian Institution, the term Latino includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians, as well as those of Spanish-language origin. In the United States, many Hispanics and Latinos are of both European and Native American ancestry, others are wholly or predominately of European ancestry, or wholly or predominantly of Amerindian ancestry. Many Hispanics and Latinos from the Caribbean, as well as regions of Latin America where African slavery was widespread. The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is confusing to some, the U. S. Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas. The term Latino has developed a number of definitions, one definition of Latino is a Latin male in the United States. This is the oldest and the definition used in the United States. This definition encompasses Spanish speakers from both Europe and the Americas, under this definition, immigrants from Spain and immigrants from Latin America are both Latino. This definition is consistent with the 21st-century usage by the U. S. Census Bureau and OMB, a later definition of Latino is as a condensed form of the term Latino-Americano, the Spanish word for Latin-American, or someone who comes from Latin America. Under this definition a Mexican American or Puerto Rican, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino, a Brazilian American is also a Latino by this definition, which includes those of Portuguese-speaking origin from Latin America. An immigrant from Spain, however, would be classified as Hispanic, while the U. S. Census Bureaus definition of Hispanic is limited to Spain and Spanish-speaking Latin America, other government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term

Hispanic and Latino Americans – Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, 16th century Spanish admiral who founded the first European settlement in North America (Saint Augustine, Florida).
Hispanic and Latino Americans – Percent of Hispanic and Latino population by state in 2012.
Hispanic and Latino Americans – Castillo de San Marcos in Saint Augustine, Florida. Built in 1672 by the Spanish, it is the oldest masonry fort in the United States.
Hispanic and Latino Americans – Miami 's Brickell neighborhood is known for its large concentration of wealthy Hispanics, largely of South American descent.

2. Argentine Americans – Argentine Americans are Americans whose full or partial origin is in Argentina. Prior to the 1970s, the Argentines that emigrated to the United States were classified in the category of Other Hispanics, therefore, early Argentines who settled in the United States arrived primarily in the 1960s, looking for greater economic possibilities. The majority of them held academic degrees, and many were medical doctors, however, immigrants in the late 1970s arrived fleeing the political persecution of the Dirty War. This new immigrant group had a level lower than earlier immigrants. The majority of Argentine immigrants are directed to areas, especially New York City. In the 1980s, that increased to just over 23 percent. Immigration to New York City was popular because of the existing Argentine and Italian communities, the 1990 U. S. Census recorded 92,563 Argentines, evidencing that nearly half of the Argentine immigrants arrived in the last two decades alone. After the nineties, Southern California and Florida became leading destinations for new immigrants from Argentina, the profile of the Argentine American population is generally similar to the overall U. S. populations. Among the key differences, however, is educational attainment, Argentine Americans exhibit a rate of 39. 5% of holders of bachelors, graduate, or professional degrees, contrasted with the 27. 5% of the overall U. S. population. The difference is marked among women,40. 2% for Argentine American females. Another major difference is that 69. 1% of Argentine Americans are immigrants, Argentine Americans had a median household income of $55,044. Again, this is higher than the figure, which was $50,740. The most noticeable Argentine American populations are in the areas of Florida, Texas, California, Illinois, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut. Minority have Amerindian ancestors, Chinese ancestors, Indian/Indo-Caribbean ancestors, only data for immigrant Argentine Americans are available

Argentine Americans – Fernando Caldeiro
Argentine Americans – Carlos Alazraqui
Argentine Americans – Ariel Dorfman
Argentine Americans – Albert Hammond, Jr.

3. Bolivian American – A Bolivian American is an American of Bolivian descent. Bolivian Americans are identified as Indigenous, European, Afro Bolivian, additionally, there are Bolivian Americans of Japanese descent, albeit, in small numbers. Bolivians compose the third smallest Hispanic group in the United States, the highest concentration resides in the Washington Metropolitan Area, which accounts for 38% of the total Bolivian population in the US. Additional areas of concentration include the New York City borough of Queens, Miami-Dade County, Bolivian immigration into the United States occurred in two significant phases. The first phase occurred during and subsequent to the 1952 National Revolution, most of these immigrants consisted of middle- to upper-middle income occupational professionals or political dissidents, and identify with Bolivias White or Criollo society. The second notable phase of Bolivian immigration was a result of Bolivias fiscal policies in the 1970s which gave way to the hyperinflation throughout most of the 1980s, most of these immigrants consisted of lower-income Mestizo and Indigenous Bolivians obtaining work posts as service and manual laborers. Many Bolivians who emigrated to the United States came as tourists, however, many remained indefinitely in the country, setting with family and friends. This made it difficult to know the number of Bolivians living in the United States, between 1984 and 1993, only 4,574 Bolivians got U. S. citizenship. In this period about 457 were naturalized each year, Bolivians have settled throughout the United States, mainly in Washington D. C. Maryland, and Virginia, there are large groups of Bolivian immigrants in Texas, New York City, New Jersey, South Florida, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Chicago. The number of Bolivians in the U. S. in 2006 was estimated at 82,322, slater - singer/songwriter Alberto Torrico - member of the California Unemployment Insurance Appeals Board. Kori Udovički, politician Raquel Welch, actress, author Marcelo Claure, CEO of Sprint Wireless, and Brightstar Corporation Jacob Thalacker - local celebrity, public interest

Bolivian American – Jaime Escalante
Bolivian American – 117,842 2014 Us surveys 0.04% of the U.S. population (2014)
Bolivian American – Cecilia Muñoz
Bolivian American – Marco Etcheverry

4. Brazilian Americans – Brazilian Americans are Americans who are of full or partial Brazilian ancestry. There were an estimated 371,529 Brazilian Americans as of 2012, other U. S. Previously, Brazilians were not identified separately from other South Americans. Of approximately 234,761 South American emigres arrived in the United States between 1820 and 1960, at least some of them were Brazilian, the 1960 United States Census report recorded 27,885 Americans of Brazilian ancestry. From 1960 until the mid-1980s, between 1,500 and 2,300 Brazilian immigrants arrived in the United States each year, during the mid-1980s, economic crisis struck Brazil. As a result, between 1986 and 1990 approximately 1.4 million Brazilians emigrated to parts of the world. It was not until this time that Brazilian emigration reached significant levels, thus, between 1987 and 1991, an estimated 20,800 Brazilians arrived in the United States. A significant number of them,8,133 Brazilians, arrived in 1991, the 1990 U. S. Census Bureau recorded that there are about 60,000 Brazilians living in the United States. C. Los Angeles, Miami, Houston, and Phoenix. The 2000 U. S. Census showed that 34.5 percent of Brazilians had completed four or more years of college, second-and third-generation Brazilian Americans tend to have better jobs, they have been educated in the United States, speak English, and have citizenship. Naza is a Brazilian American Visual Artist, people who profess Spiritism make up 1. 3% of the countrys population, and those professing Afro-Brazilian religions make up 0. 3% of the countrys population. Brazilians began immigrating to the United States in large and increasing numbers in the 1980s as a result of worsening conditions in Brazil at that time. However, many of the Brazilians who have emigrated to the United States since this decade have been undocumented, more women have immigrated to the United States from Brazil than men, with the 1990 and 2000 U. S. Censuses showing there to be ten percent more female than male Brazilian Americans, the top three metropolitan areas by Brazilian population are New York City, Boston, and Miami. New York City is a point of entry for Brazilians entering the United States. West 46th Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues in Manhattan has been designated Little Brazil has historically been a center for Brazilians living in or visiting New York City. Another NYC neighborhood home to many Brazilian Americans is located in Astoria, newark, New Jersey is also home to many Brazilian and Portuguese-Americans, most prominently in the citys Ironbound district. Massachusetts, particularly the Boston metropolitan area, has a sizable Brazilian immigrant population, framingham has the highest percentage of Brazilians of any municipality in Massachusetts. Large populations also exist in Somerville, Everett, Barnstable, Lowell, South Floridas large Brazilian community is mostly centered between around the islands and northeastern section of Miami-Dade County with the exception of Doral

Brazilian Americans – Camilla Belle
Brazilian Americans – Marcelo Gleiser
Brazilian Americans – Morena Baccarin
Brazilian Americans – Benny Feilhaber

5. Chilean American – Chilean Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from Chile. The Chilean population at the 2010 US Census was 126,810, in the United States, Chileans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group from South America and the fifth smallest overall amongst all Hispanic groups. Most Chileans migrating to the United States settle in metropolitan areas, in recent history, it is for economic or academic rather than political reasons that Chileans emigrate. Chileans and other South Americans have been present in the state of California since the 1850s gold rush, not all Chileans made it to the gold fields. Some remained in San Francisco, San Jose, Sacramento, and Stockton where they worked as bricklayers, bakers. Some with capital established themselves in various businesses, particularly the importation of flour, in the cities most tended to congregate and live in specific areas in the poorer sections of town. In the gold fields they lived in camp sites. In the summer of 1849 Chileans constituted the majority of the population of Sonora, Chileans frequently worked their mines as group efforts. When the placer gold ran out around Sonora the Chileans were amongst the first miners in California to extract gold from quartz, names of Chilean towns and places are often found in the names of streets in Northern California, Valparaiso, Santiago, and Calera. Many of San Franciscos streets carry names of residents of Chile, Atherton, Ellis, Lick, Larkin. Chilean women also left their names, Mina and Clementina, manuel Briseño, an early journalist in the mines was one of the founders of the San Diego Union. Juan Evangelista Reyes was a Sacramento pioneer as were the Luco brothers, luis Felipe Ramírez was one of the City Fathers in Marysville. The Leiva family owned at one time, much of the land in Marin County, in 1975, Chilean exiles of the Agusto Pinochet dictatorship established La Peña Cultural Center in Berkeley, California, which is to this day the largest Chilean cultural center in the United States. Chileans integrated quickly and like their Little Chiles, becoming part of the mainstream of the United States, Chilean Americans have achieved many skills as entrepreneurs, judges, congressmen, and others. Most Chilean immigration to the U. S. has occurred largely since the 1990s, for the most part, Chileans left as either political asylees and refugees during the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, or for economic reasons. Also, there have been others that have emigrated to seek higher education, since the 2010 Chile earthquake, many Chileans have pursued economic opportunities in the United States, with Paterson, New Jersey, representing an increasingly common destination. Many of the Pinochet-era immigrants were of middle or upper class origin, a significant proportion of them arrived with advanced educations and well-developed skills. They had contacts with other Chilean exiles and a sense of identity from their commitment to a democratic Chile

Chilean American – Claudio Arrau
Chilean American – 140,045 0.05% of the U.S. population (2012)
Chilean American – Isabel Allende
Chilean American – Cote de Pablo

6. Colombian American – Colombian Americans are Americans who trace their full or partial nationality or heritage to Colombia. They are the largest South American ethnic group in the United States, the first Colombians immigrants who settled in the United States likely arrived in the 1800s. However, the Colombian presence in United States would not be known with certainty since the census did not specify the country of origin for South Americans until 1960. These immigrants did not maintain any relation with their countries, just until a few generations after. Most immigrants settled in Jackson Heights, a neighborhood in the borough of Queens in New York City. The growth of the Colombian American population was slow until 1940, most Colombians who arrived after the mid-1960s wanted to stay in the United States temporarily. Therefore, the number of Colombian illegal immigrants increased, from 250,000 to 350,000 people in the mid 1970s, despite a succession of immigration laws, the Colombian population in the United States continued to grow. New York remained the most popular destination, smaller communities formed in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Houston, Philadelphia, and Washington, D. C. and in the 1970s, North Side, Chicago. Since the 1980s, many Colombians have settled in Miami, initially they settled in Little Havana, the largest Cuban neighborhood, many of them engaged in the business of trade between Miami and Latin America. The area also attracted wealthy Colombians, who settled there to get medical care, send their children to school, and escape from social, economic, by 1987, Colombian Americans were one of the fastest growing Hispanic groups in Miami. By the early 1990s, many Colombian Americans left the metropolitan centers for the due to crime. This trend was started for the first time in the coastal towns of Connecticut. Despite the migration to areas, the largest communities remained in New York City, Miami. In 1990 and 1991,43,891 Colombians were admitted to the United States and they were for the first time the most populous group of illegal immigrants in the US from South America. Between 1992 and 1997, the intensity of the conflict in Colombia increased, so nearly 75,000 Colombians immigrated to the United States in this period, many of them going to California. After of World War I, many Colombians immigrated to United States in order to complete their education there, most of them settled in New York. After the civil war in 1948 and increased poverty in Colombia many Colombians also emigrated to United States during the 1950s, in the 1960s, the economic crisis prompted the emigration of many Colombians to the United States, obtaining U. S. citizenship Between 1960 and 1977. Since the 1980s, many Colombians American fled their cities to migrate to suburban areas in states like New Jersey and Connecticut

Colombian American – 1,039,923 0.34% of the U.S. population (2012)

7. Costa Rican American – Costa Rican Americans are Americans of Costa Rican descent. The Costa Rican population at the 2010 Census was 126,418, Costa Ricans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the smallest Central American population. Costa Rican populations are prominent in the New York Metropolitan Area, additional areas with significant Costa Rican residents include New York City, Suffolk County, New York, and Fairfield County, Connecticut. There are also groups of Costa Ricans in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, South Florida metropolitan area. There have never been waves of migration from Costa Rica to the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service records indicate that very few Costa Ricans have actually tried to enter the country illegally. This is because, unlike other Hispanic groups, they have not been forced to emigrate to the U. S. for political oppression or extreme economic circumstances. Most Costa Ricans living in the United States have settled in the U. S. for any of the reasons, they have married American citizens. Since 1931 only 57,661 Costa Ricans have immigrated to the United States, hence, the number of Costa Rican emigrants has been increasing very slowly. This is a different from the pattern of emigration from most other Central American countries. The other two countries in this region that have a slow rate of emigration are Belize and Panama. Costa Ricans tend to blend in the English-speaking population or form working and friendly relationships with other Hispanics. If both parents speak Spanish, chances are that the children will be raised bilingually, however, if only one parent speaks Spanish, the children usually grow up speaking only English. Therefore, they usually acculturate and assimilate rapidly, most of Costa Ricans who live in the US live in California, Florida, Texas, and the New York City / New Jersey area. There is a significant Costa Rican American population in the Chicago, Illinois, the geographical preferences of Costa Ricans become evident in the statistics from the Immigration and Naturalization Service, as consistent with the findings of the 1990 census. Jardines - intelligence officer Rosa Mendes - professional wrestler Candice Michelle - professional wrestler, model, actress Alexander Salazar - prelate Harry Shum, Jr. com

Costa Rican American – Franklin Chang Díaz
Costa Rican American – 140,152 0.05% of the U.S. population (2012)
Costa Rican American – Sonia Chang-Díaz
Costa Rican American – Candice Michelle

8. Cuban American – Cuban Americans are Americans who trace their ancestry to Cuba. Cuban Americans are the third largest Latino group in the United States, many communities throughout the United States have significant Cuban American populations. Florida has the highest concentration of Cuban Americans in the US, standing out in part because of its proximity to Cuba, followed by California, New Jersey, New York and Texas. South Florida is followed by New York City, Tampa, Union County and North Hudson, New Jersey areas, particularly Union City, Elizabeth, with a population of 141,250, the New York metropolitan areas Cuban community is the largest outside of Florida. Nearly 70% of all Cuban Americans live in Florida, thousands of Cuban settlers also immigrated to Louisiana between 1778 and 1802 and Texas during the period of Spanish rule. Since 1820, the Cuban presence was more than 1,000 people. In 1870 the number of Cuban immigrants increased to almost 12,000, of which about 4,500 resided in New York City, about 3,000 in New Orleans, and 2,000 in Key West. The year 1869 marked the beginning of one of the most significant periods of emigration from Cuba to the United States, the exodus of hundreds of workers and businessmen was linked to the manufacture of tobacco. It was an exodus of skilled workers, precisely the class in the island that had succeeded in establishing a free labor sector amid a slave economy. The manufacture of snuff by the Cuban labor force, became the most important source of income for Key West between 1869 and 1900. Tampa was added to such efforts, with a migration of Cubans. However, the half of the 1890s marked the decline of the Cuban immigrant population. The War accentuated Cuban immigrant integration into American society, whose numbers were significant, in the mid- to late 19th century, several cigar manufacturers moved their operations to Key West to get away from growing disruptions as Cubans sought independence from Spanish colonial rule. The Cuban government had established a grammar school in Key West to help preserve Cuban culture. There, children learned folk songs and patriotic hymns such as La Bayamesa, in 1885, Vicente Martinez Ybor moved his cigar operations from Key West to the town of Tampa, Florida to escape labor strife. Ybor City was designed as a company town, and it quickly attracted thousands of Cuban workers from Key West. West Tampa, another new cigar manufacturing community, was founded nearby in 1892, both Ybor City and West Tampa were instrumental in Cubas eventual independence. After the Spanish–American War, some Cubans returned to their native land, several other small waves of Cuban emigration to the U. S. occurred in the early 20th century

Cuban American – Desi Arnaz
Cuban American – 2,013,155 0.63% of the U.S. population (2013)
Cuban American – Andy García
Cuban American – Marco Rubio

9. Dominican American – Dominican Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from the Dominican Republic. Although their emigration began in the century, thousands of Dominicans passed through the gates of Ellis Island in the 19th. The most recent movement of emigration to the United States began in the 1960s, in 2010, there were approximately 1.41 million people of Dominican descent in the US, including both native and foreign-born. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic group in the United States, the first recorded person of Dominican descent to migrate into what is now known as the United States, outside of New Spain, was sailor-turned-merchant Juan Rodriguez. He arrived on Manhattan in 1613 from his home in Santo Domingo and he also became the first Dominican, the first Latino and the first person with European and African ancestry to settle in what is present day New York City. Dominican emigration to the United States continued throughout the centuries, recent research from the CUNY Dominican Studies Institute has identified some 5,000 Dominican immigrants who were processed through Ellis Island between 1892 and 1924. With increased emigration, Dominican diaspora communities have sprouted in New York metro area, New Jersey, Boston metro area, Providence, South Florida, Dominican emigrant communities have similar settlement patterns to that of the Puerto Rican population. Almost half of all the Dominican Americans today arrived since the 1990s, there has been another surge of immigration in recent years as immigration from Mexico has declined, which allowed more backlogged Dominican applicants to obtain legal residence. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic or Latino American group, after Mexican Americans, Stateside Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, as of 2010, the five largest concentrations of Dominican Americans are in New York, New Jersey, Florida, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. Rhode Island is the state where Dominicans are the largest Hispanic group. Dominicans are the most dominant Hispanic group in most of southeastern New England, Dominicans are also starting to be pretty dominant in many areas in North Jersey and the Lower Hudson Valley. The 2010 Census estimated the nationwide Dominican American population at 1,414,703, about 41% of Dominican Americans live in New York City alone. Many of New Yorks Dominicans live in the boroughs of the Bronx and Manhattan, there are also large populations in other parts of New York State, including Long Island and the Hudson Valley. S. There are smaller and growing Dominican populations in states like Maryland, Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Ohio, Texas, however, in both cities, Dominicans make up only a plurality of the Hispanic population. Since 1980, the Census Bureau has asked US residents to classify their race separately from their Hispanic or Latino origin, in 2010,29. 6% of Dominican Americans responded that they were white, while 12. 9% considered themselves black. A majority of 57. 5% chose the category Other race, in New York City, Dominican entrepreneurs have carved out roles in several industries, especially the bodega and supermarket and taxi and black car industries. Over two dozen Dominican Americans are elected local or state legislators, mayors or other in New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Maryland, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. A1997 Dominican law, which took effect in 2004, allows Dominicans living abroad to retain their Dominican citizenship and voting rights even if they become citizens of another country

Dominican American
Dominican American
Dominican American
Dominican American

10. Ecuadorian American – Ecuadorian Americans are Americans of full or partial Ecuadorian ancestry. Ecuadorian Americans can be Mestizo, White Spaniard, Afro-Ecuadorian, Indigenous, Mulato, some Ecuadorians are also of Lebanese, Sephardic and Japanese descent. Until the 1960s, very few Ecuadorians migrated to the United States, in the late 1960s, several waves of migration started. Most Ecuadorian immigration to the United States has occurred since the early 1970s and this emigration was because of several reasons, The first of them was that United States immigration law changed. Before 1965, national quotas on immigrants favored more European immigration than Latin American immigration, after 1965, changes in immigration law made it easier for Latin Americans and other foreign groups to emigrate to United States. In addition, the price of air travel lowered making immigration more accessible to Latin Americans and they were drawn to the U. S. for economic opportunities and political freedoms. Ecuadorian immigration peaked in the turmoil of 1996-97 and national banking crisis of 1998-99. Another factor in Ecuadorian emigration was the 1964 Ecuadorian land reform and this improved the lives of many Ecuadorian poor, but also had far-reaching and unpredictable consequences. Many new small landowners were forced to sell their land, many landowners abandoned their land and migrated to countries like Venezuela and the United States. Most immigrants who live in the United States send money home, many immigrants get American citizenship, others simply are legalized, while other groups live illegally, crossing the border from Mexico or entering by boat from Puerto Rico. Ecuadorian Americans come from every part of Ecuador, during the 1970s, most of the Ecuadorians came from the northern and central highlands, including the area around Quito. In the 1980s, many Ecuadorians came from the coast, in the 1990s, most of them came from the southern highlands, near the border with Peru. The majority of Ecuadorian immigrants emigrate into New York City and its surrounding suburbs, the 1990 census recorded that 60 percent of Ecuadorians living in the United States live in the New York City Metropolitan Area, while another 10% live in Miami. Queens Countys percentage of Ecuadorians is about 4. 7%, and it has the largest Ecuadorian community of any county in New York and in the United States, Ecuadorians are the largest South American Latino group in New York City as well as in the State of New York. Ecuadorians are the fourth largest Latino group in New York after Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, Ecuadorians also constitute Queens Countys largest Latino group. Another New York group of Ecuadorians live in the Bronx, in the Morris Heights, still other Ecuadorian neighborhoods are situated in Brooklyn, in New Jersey cities such as Newark and Jersey City, and in towns in Connecticut. S. State with the smallest Ecuadorian population was North Dakota with 55 Ecuadorians, first Licensed Latin American to import spirits into the United States. Zhumir Aguardiente from Ecuador was the first spirit product he imported to United States, violet Chachki - American drag queen, singer and actress born in Atlanta, Georgia

Ecuadorian American – Emanuel Xavier
Ecuadorian American – Ecuadorian 662,633 0.22% of the U.S. population (2012)
Ecuadorian American – Michael Steger
Ecuadorian American – Gerardo

11. Guatemalan American – Guatemalan Americans are Americans of full or partial Guatemalan descent. The Guatemalan American population at the 2010 Census was 1,044,209, Guatemalans are the fifth largest Latino group in the United States and the second largest Central American population after Salvadorans. Half of the Guatemalan population is situated in two parts of the country, the Northeast and Southern California, Guatemalans have emigrated to the USA since the 1930s and 1940s. Along with other Central Americans they first arrived by way of Mexico and settled in areas like Chicago, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Houston, New York City. Guatemalan refugees became an important political and economic influence on seeking an end to the civil war, during the Guatemalan civil war, there was massive destruction of rural villages and farmlands. In the 1996 peace accords, there was an exchange of civilian land to favor the rise of corporate agribusinesses with the drop of prices of local agricultural products. This heavily affected farm workers and inhabitants of the countryside and they had to immigrate into the US through Mexican territory, Guatemalan Americans are a very culturally diverse group of people, included about 23 distinct ethnic groups, whose languages are different, although maintain unique cultural traditions. The groups are, in majority, Mayan, the Ladino are a different group that speak Spanish language and have the Spanish culture. So, Guatemalan Americans are a multicultural community and this reason is why the assimilation processes, traditional beliefs, and customs vary differently between groups. Immigrant Mayan American communities have preserved their ethnic customs, the Guatemalans of European descent often mixed with other U. S. Hispanic groups. However, it is unknown the transmission of cultural traditions Guatemalans of immigrants to their descendants by lack of studies, some Guatemalan traditions are the celebration of Quinceñeros, the formation of soccer leagues, and the Organization de las Fiestas de la Patronal. The difference with Guatemalans in the US from other Latinos is that a percentage of Guatemalans are Evangelical Protestants. Guatemala had seen a rise of Protestant and Evangelist churches in the late 20th century, according to the national census in 2006, Protestants constituted about 30% of the population in Guatemala, the majority are from rural indigenous communities. Guatemalan-Americans are a contributor to the rise of Hispanic Protestants in the USA during the 2000s, half of the Guatemalan population is situated in two parts of the country, the Northeast and Southern California. A combined population of 267,335 resides in Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, the Northeast megalopolis, extending from Northern Virginia to north of Boston is home to a population of 257,729 Guatemalans. Luis Beza – American trumpet player for third-wave ska band Suburban Legends, David Campos – Guatemalan-American attorney and member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors representing District 9. David Estrada – He is of Guatemalan descent, Francisco Goldman – American novelist, journalist, and Allen K. Smith Professor of Literature and Creative Writing. He is son of a Guatemalan Catholic mother and Jewish-American father, oscar Isaac – Guatemalan born American raised actor and singer

Guatemalan American – Luis von Ahn
Guatemalan American – 1,241,560 0.40% of the U.S. population (2012)
Guatemalan American – Héctor Tobar
Guatemalan American – David Campos

12. Honduran American – Honduran Americans are Americans of Honduran descent. Honduran Americans are a group of people who may descend from Spanish, Honduran Native, Garifuna, African, Palestinian and Chinese people, the Honduran population at the 2015 Census was 837,694. Hondurans are the eighth largest Hispanic group in the United States, all periods of conflict have led to minor waves of Honduran emigration to the United States. This was the case after the 1956 military coup, Hondurans immigrated to the United States in the 1960s, primarily to Miami, New York City, and Los Angeles. The main reason for Hondurans to leave their country was to escape poverty, many Honduran-Americans are migrant farm laborers who first established themselves in the largest U. S. cities, in which they had support networks from the Honduran-American communities. In the late 1980s and 1990s, most Honduran Americans lived in New York City, Los Angeles, in 2000, Hondurans grew to be the third largest immigrant from Central America. Honduran-Americans have actively participated in U. S. military service, a total of 13.7 percent of native Honduran-American males older than 16 years are in the military. In addition,769 Honduran-American non-citizen males serve in the military, usually, Honduran-Americans live in areas with high economic growth and demand for employment in construction, domestic services, and other industries. Many Honduran-Americans suffer discrimination, as other Hispanic groups do, Honduran-American girls tend to spend more years in school than Honduran-Americans boys, in part due to pressure by their families on boys to start working at age 12 or 14. A total of 1,091 Honduran-Americans have a degree,862 have other professional degrees. The majority of individuals are women. According to the 2010 United States Census there are 633,401 Hondurans living in the United States, by 2011, the number of Hondurans estimated to reside in the United States by the Census Bureaus American Community Survey was 702,000. In 2014, according to Pew Research, 60% of 573,000 Honduran immigrants in the U. S. are unauthorized and he was a Republican candidate for the United States Senate in 2004. Steve Van Buren - NFL Hall of Fame Running Back Bianca Del Rio - actor, comedian, costume designer, brandon Escobar - wrestler Roger Espinoza - footballer who currently plays for Sporting Kansas City in Major League Soccer. Miguel Estrada - an attorney who became embroiled in controversy following his 2001 nomination by President George W. Bush to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. He was the first Latino to be nominated to a position in the judicial branch. America Ferrera - film actress Michelle Fields - political journalist, Huffington Post contributor Henry Flores - professional American photographer who addresses modern pop culture and his background is Engineering and Information Technology. Brina Palencia - American voice actress, ADR director, and singer known for her work for Funimation Entertainment/OkraTron 5000

Honduran American – Roger Espinoza
Honduran American – 837,694 0.24% of the U.S. population (2014)
Honduran American – Brina Palencia

13. Mexican American – Mexican Americans are Americans of full or partial Mexican descent. As of July 2015, Mexican Americans made up 11. 1% of the United States population, as of July 2015, Mexican Americans comprised 63. 4% of all Hispanics and Latinos in the United States. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world, second only to Mexico itself, canada is a distant third, with a small Mexican Canadian population of 96,055 as of 2011. Over 60% of all Mexican Americans reside in the states of California, in 2015, the United States admitted 157,227 Mexican immigrants, and as of November 2016,1.31 million Mexicans were on the waiting list to immigrate to the United States through legal means. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. Mexican-American history spans more than 400 years and varies from region to region within the United States, in 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics of Mexican descent living in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, California and Texas. Most were Mexican Americans of Spanish descent and other Hispanicized European settlers who settled in the Southwest during Spanish colonial times, as well as local and Mexican Indians. Approximately ten percent of the current Mexican-American population are descended from the colonial settlers. As early as 1813, some of the Tejanos who colonized Texas in the Spanish Colonial Period established a government in Texas that desired independence from Spanish-ruled Mexico, in those days, there was no concept of identity as Mexican. Many Mexicans were more loyal to their states/provinces than to their country as a whole and this was particularly true in frontier regions such as Zacatecas, Texas, Yucatán, Oaxaca, New Mexico, etc. As shown by the writings of colonial Tejanos such as Antonio Menchaca, Mexico encouraged immigration from the United States to settle east Texas and, by 1831, English-speaking settlers outnumbered Tejanos ten to one in the region. Both groups were settled mostly in the part of the territory. The Mexican government became concerned about the volume of Anglo-American immigration. Consistent with its abolition of slavery, the Mexican government banned slavery within the state and his story is complex because he joined the Anglo rebels and helped defeat the Mexican forces of Santa Anna. But later on, as Mayor of San Antonio, he, after receiving a series of death threats, Seguín relocated his family in Mexico, where he was coerced into military service and fought against the US in 1846–1848 Mexican–American War. As a Spanish colony, the territory of California also had an population of colonial settlers. In the mid-19th century, more settlers from the United States began to enter the territory, in California, Spanish settlement began in 1769 with the establishment of the Presidio and Catholic mission of San Diego. 20 more missions were established along the California coast by 1823, along with military Presidios, settlers in California tended to stay close to the coast and outside of the California interior

Mexican American – Juan Seguin
Mexican American – 35,320,579 10.94% of total U.S. population, 2014
Mexican American – Selena Gomez
Mexican American – Romualdo Pacheco

14. Nicaraguan American – A Nicaraguan American is an American of Nicaraguan descent. The Nicaraguan American population at the 2010 Census was 348,202, Nicaraguans are the eleventh largest Hispanic group in the United States and the fourth largest Central American population. More than two-thirds of the Nicaraguan population in the US resides in California or Florida, in California, Nicaraguans are more dominant in the Greater Los Angeles Area and San Francisco Bay Area. Large populations also reside in the Inland Empire and the cities of Sacramento, San Diego, in Florida, 90% of Nicaraguans reside in the Miami Metropolitan Area. Miami-Dade County is home to 30% of Nicaraguans residing in the US, Nicaraguans have immigrated to the United States in small groups since the early 1900s, but their presence was especially felt over the last three decades of the 20th century. The Nicaraguan community is concentrated in three major urban areas, Metropolitan Miami, Greater Los Angeles, and San Francisco Bay Area. A more affluent group of Nicaraguan Americans reside in the New York metropolitan area, the earliest documents of immigration from Nicaragua to the United States was combined in total with those of other Central American countries. However, according to the U. S. Census Bureau some 7,500 Nicaraguans legally immigrated from 1967 to 1976, an estimated 28,620 Nicaraguans were living in the U. S. in 1970, 90% of which self-reported as white on the 1970 census. Most Nicaraguan immigrants during the late 1960s were women, there were only 60 male Nicaraguan immigrants for every 100 female immigrants during this period, over 62 percent of the total documented immigration from 1979 to 1988 occurred after 1984. In 1998 more than two million Nicaraguans were left due to hurricane Mitch, as a result many Nicaraguans received permanent residence or temporary protected status in the late 1990s. According to the 1990 U. S. Census 168,659 of the total 202,658 documented Nicaraguans in the U. S. were born in Nicaragua, in 1992 approximately 10–12% of the Nicaraguan population had emigrated. These emigrants tended to be disproportionately of working age, better educated, in addition, emigrants were more likely to come from larger premigration households and higher income households. The Sandinista revolution that started in the mid-1970s and the Contra war that brought the first large waves of Nicaraguan refugees into the U. S. As a result of the reforms under the FSLNs rule. They consisted mainly of large landholders, industrialists, and managers of North American enterprises, many Nicaraguan upper-class exiles had economic roots in the United States and in Miami before the upheaval. This phase of upper-class arrivals included exiled dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle and his family, another major wave of Nicaraguans to the United States, consisting primarily of bluecollar workers, peaked in the dramatic exodus of early 1989. Again, their motivation for migration was escape from political and economic torment in their homeland. By the late 1980s, the war, Hurricane Joan in 1988, many of these Nicaraguan immigrants settled in poor and deteriorated sections of Miami, where struggling Cubans who came during the Mariel boatlift exodus of 1980 had previously lived

Nicaraguan American – Diana López
Nicaraguan American – 405,601 0.13% of the U.S. population (2012)
Nicaraguan American – Randy Caballero
Nicaraguan American – Bianca Jagger

15. Panamanian American – A Panamanian American are Americans of Panamanian descent. The Panamanian population at the 2010 Census was 165,456, Panamanians are the sixth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the second smallest Central American population. The largest population of Panamanians reside in Brooklyn and South Florida, since 1820, more than one million immigrants from Central and South America migrated to the United States. Until 1960, the U. S. Census Bureau did not produce statistics that separated the Panamanian immigrants, the Panamanian Americans increased slowly in the United States. Since the 1830s, only 44 arrivals were recorded in this country, after World War II the flow of immigrants from Panama remained small even though there were no immigration restrictions on the people from the Western Hemisphere. However, the Panamanian immigration increased dramatically after the 1965 Immigration Act and its increase immigration was such that by 1970, Panamanians were able to be one of the largest of the Central American groups in the United States. Most Panamanians that came were nonwhites and most were women, the number of immigrant males per 100 females was very low in the 1960s, falling to 51 for Panama. Many of the immigrants worked of in service, domestic, or low-paid, white-collar workers who immigrated to earn money to, in return. Since 1962 the percentage of employed newcomers who are domestic servants has remained high, the entry of homemakers and children after 1968 was eased by the immigration preference system favoring family reunions. They had already approximated 86,000 people of Panamanian ancestry living in the United States, although many of the first Panamanian immigrants managed to get or to hold jobs, the second generation of Panamanian Americans placed more emphasis on vocational training and college education. Most newcomers are domestic, very few are agricultural or industrial laborers, in the last two decades many Panamanians have embraced professional careers, and become white collar workers. Subsequent generations have progressed further in their educational and professional pursuits. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Panamanians congregated mainly in urban areas, most Panamanian immigrants are set in New England, or on the Gulf Coast, or Pacific Coast, or in middle Atlantic or Great Lakes areas. While, New York City contains the largest urban population of Panamanians, also there an important number of Panamanians settled in Florida and California. In contrast to other Hispanic nationalities, Panamanians are heavily concentrated in Army base cities, cities home to Navy and Air Force bases also lay claim to a concentration of Panamanians. These include San Antonio, Hampton Roads, Jacksonville, San Diego, more than other Hispanic groups, a significant percentage of Panamanian Americans are black, with the remaining being of mixed race. Although most Panamanian Americans speak Spanish, the group tends to identify more with English speaking West Indian groups rather than with other Hispanic groups. As a result, Panamanians are one of the least visible Hispanic nationalities in the US

Panamanian American – Tyson Beckford
Panamanian American – 183,743 0.06% of the U.S. population (2012)
Panamanian American – Melissa De Sousa
Panamanian American – Hulk Hogan

16. Paraguayan American – A Paraguayan American are Americans of Paraguayan descent. The Paraguayan population at the 2010 Census was 20,023, Paraguayans are the smallest Hispanic group in the United States. The Paraguayan population is concentrated mainly in Queens, NY, Westchester County, NY, additional areas of concentration include Miami-Dade County and Montgomery County, MD. The highest concentration of Paraguayans in the US reside in Somerset County and it is estimated that the first Paraguayans arrived to the United States between the years of 1841 and 1850. At that time, Paraguayans were not coming directly to the United States from Paraguay, but through others countries such as Brazil, Argentina, the Paraguayan residents in the U. S. were included in the early records in the group of other South Americans. During those years,3,579 other immigrants arrived, in the 1960s, one-fourth of all Paraguayans were registered as living in countries outside Paraguay, with a majority in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. In 1979, close to 11,000 Paraguayans immigrated to the United States, in 1982,4000 Paraguayans immigrated to the United States. The reasons of migration were varied, but many immigrants were people that wanted educational opportunities to get professional knowledge, skills. Additionally, some of the immigrants arrived for political reasons or to escape civil riots, the women exceeded in number to the male immigrants slightly, and more than half of its immigrants lacked occupation. Many Paraguayan immigrants were also adopted by American families. More than a thousand Paraguayan infants were adopted in this country, of these,254 were adopted in 1989,405 in 1993 and 351 in 1995. Others have agricultural jobs in California and Kansas, the latter state has partnered with Paraguay in an exchange program through a non-profit volunteer organization called Partners of the Americas. Both Kansas and Paraguay are land-locked, grow cattle and wheat, also a small number of Paraguayan American professionals who immigrated in search of better job and pay. It should be noted that of the 80 Paraguayan Americans who became U. S. citizens in 1984, in fact, most of these immigrants arrived eight to ten years earlier. Between 1987 and 1996, naturalization figures for Paraguayans in the United States increased slightly, thus, in 1996,420 Paraguayans became American citizens. In 1990,5,144 Paraguayan Americans spoke Spanish or Guarani and they have grown within the Hispanic community in the United States. In accordance with the 1990 U. S, of the 5,415 Paraguayan Americans in the U. S. population,1,830 only are enrolled in school. The large populations of Paraguayan Americans are in New York City, Miami, Paraguayan Americans also have population importance in Dallas and Atlanta

Paraguayan American – 24,933

17. Peruvian American – Peruvian Americans are Americans of Peruvian descent. Among Peruvian Americans there are those of White, mestizo, Amerindian, and Afro-Peruvian descent, as well as others, including British, Italian, French, German, a significant number are of pure or mixed Chinese and/or Japanese heritage. Peruvians have emigrated mainly due to turmoil and economic hardships the country had faced during the 1980s. Peruvian Americans are a relatively recent ethnic group, as most of them have moved to the United States since 1990, according to the U. S. Census Bureau,594,418 U. S. residents identify themselves as being of Peruvian origin. Small but significant waves of immigration occurred in San Francisco during the gold rush, however, the majority of Peruvians that have emigrated to the United States have arrived since the 90s. Peruvians typically emigrate due to economic reasons, to escape poverty, significant demographics of Peruvians are found in Northern New Jersey, the New York City Metropolitan Area, Miami, the Washington, D. C. The most popular dishes of Peruvian food in the U. S. include cebiche, papa a la huancaina, Peruvian cuisine is often recognized for being one of the most diverse and appreciated of the worlds cuisines, with influences including European, Native American, and African. Since there is a sizable Chinese and Japanese minority in Peru, there are Chifas, or Asian style Peruvian restaurants that serve typical Chinese or Japanese food with a Peruvian culinary influence. Inca Kola, a soda that originated in Peru, is sold in many heavily concentrated Latino areas, the Peruvian American Coalition in Passaic, New Jersey functions as an activist organization on behalf of the overall welfare of Peruvian Americans. The annual Peruvian Independence Day Parade is held in Paterson. S, state with the smallest Peruvian population was North Dakota with 78 Peruvians. Her mother is Puerto Rican, and her father is from Peru and he is a Peruvian born, but American raised. S. Soccer forward Lorenzo OBrien - writer-producer Carlos Bustamante biologist Julio C, canani - Peruvian trainer in American Thoroughbred horse racing who has won three Breeders Cup races. Kenny Florian - mixed martial artist Gabriela Lena Frank - American pianist and he is of Spanish and Peruvian descent. Santillan - Peruvian- American Actor and Currency Trader, also has many doubles in the DC metro area. Wenceslaus Sarmiento - also known as W. A. Sarmiento, carmen Giménez Smith - American poet, writer, and editor. Tony Succar - Peruvian born American musician, composer, arranger and producer, david Utrilla - The 31st member of the Utah Corps of Consuls Jose Valdivia, Jr. - jockey in American Thoroughbred horse racing. Carlos De Valdez - Peruvian film actor who appeared in around forty American films and he spend the last years of his life in United States. Boris Vallejo - Peruvian-born American painter, alberto Vargas - Peruvian painter of pin-up girls. peruanosenusa. net http, //www. peruvian-americans. tv http, //www. peruvianamericans. com http, //www. peruvianamerican. com http, //www. curito. com

Peruvian American – Carlos I. Noriega
Peruvian American – 626,789 0.19% of the U.S. population (2014)
Peruvian American – Marie Arana
Peruvian American – Carmen Giménez Smith

18. Puerto Ricans in the United States – Puerto Ricans, either born in the island or in the states, are American citizens. At 10 percent of the Latino population in the United States, Puerto Ricans are the second largest Latino group nationwide, and comprise 1. 5% of the entire population of the United States. Although the 2010 Census counted the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States at 4.6 million, more recent estimates show the Puerto Rican population to be over 5 million, as of 2012. The portmanteau Nuyorican refers to Puerto Ricans and their descendants in the New York City metropolitan area, important Puerto Rican institutions have emerged from this long history. ASPIRA was established in New York City in 1961 and is now one of the largest national Latino nonprofit organizations in the United States, the government of Puerto Rico has a long history of involvement with the stateside Puerto Rican community. In July 1930, Puerto Ricos Department of Labor established an employment service in New York City. The Migration Division, also part of Puerto Rico’s Department of Labor, was created in 1948, the strength of stateside Puerto Rican identity is fueled by a number of factors. Since 1898, Puerto Rico has been under the control of the United States, even during Spanish rule, Puerto Ricans settled in the US. However, it was not until the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898 that a significant influx of Puerto Rican workers to the US began, with its 1898 victory, the United States acquired Puerto Rico from Spain and has retained sovereignty since. The 1917 Jones–Shafroth Act made all Puerto Ricans US citizens, freeing them from immigration barriers, the massive migration of Puerto Ricans to the mainland United States was largest in the early and late 20th century, prior to its resurgence in the early 21st century. U. S. political and economic interventions in Puerto Rico created the conditions for emigration, by concentrating wealth in the hands of US corporations, policymakers promoted colonization plans and contract labour programs to reduce the population. US employers, often with government support, recruited Puerto Ricans as a source of labour to the United States. Puerto Ricans migrated in search of jobs, first to New York City, and later to other cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia. New York City neighborhoods such as East Harlem in Upper Manhattan, the South Bronx, between the 1950s and the 1980s, large numbers of Puerto Ricans migrated to New York, especially to Brooklyn, the Bronx, Spanish Harlem and Loisaida neighborhoods of Manhattan. Labor recruitment was the basis of this particular community, in 1960, the number of stateside Puerto Ricans living in New York City as a whole was 88%, with most living in East Harlem. They helped others settle, find work, and build communities by relying on social networks containing friends, there are significant Puerto Rican communities in all five boroughs. The Puerto Rican population in East Harlem and New York City as a whole remains the poorest among all migrant groups in US cities, as of 1973, about 46. 2% of the Puerto Rican migrants in East Harlem were living below the federal poverty line. The struggle for legal work and affordable housing remains fairly low, New York Citys Puerto Rican community contributed to the creation of hip hop music, and to many forms of Latin music including Boogaloo, Salsa, Latin House, and Freestyle

Puerto Ricans in the United States – José Ferrer
Puerto Ricans in the United States – 5,266,738 1.7% of the U.S. population (2014)
Puerto Ricans in the United States – Sonia Sotomayor
Puerto Ricans in the United States – Nicholas Estavillo

19. Salvadoran American – Salvadoran Americans are Americans of full or partial Salvadoran descent. As of 2010, there are 1,648,968 Salvadoran Americans in the United States, recent estimates put the Salvadoran population as high as 2 million, as of 2013. Salvadorans are the largest group of Central Americans of the Central American Isthmus community in the U. S, among the Hispanic groups, Salvadorans are also the largest group of Spanish speakers in the United States who use voseo. Salvadoran is the accepted and used term for naming people of Salvadoran ancestry, however both Salvadorian and Salvadorean are equally the most widely used terms in daily life by English speaking Salvadoran citizens living in the U. S and other English speaking countries. Salvadorian and Salvadorean in their spelling and pronunciation can be seen in most restaurant and other El Salvador related signs in the U. S. This is because the sounds ia and ea, in Salvadorian and Salvadorean sound more closely to the ñ sound in the Spanish term Salvadoreño. The first Salvadorians that came to the United States before the war began arrived mostly to San Francisco, where they worked as shipyard employees in the early twentieth century. These were mostly working class Salvadorans, as Salvadorans from the middle and upper classes came to the U. S. for education or residence in the early 1900s, usually in the East Coast. Salvadorans that came during this period were economic migrants, as El Salvador was affected by economic turmoil during the Great Depression. In the 1960s and early 1970s, most of the immigrants were women, documented Salvadorans in the United States 1930-1970 While Salvadoran migration to the U. S. Many Salvadoran refugees came to the city of Los Angeles, where today holds the largest population of Salvadorans in the country, a large population of Salvadorans also arrived in Washington D. C, where by 1989, an estimated 150,000 Salvadorans reside in the nation’s capital. It is important to note that many Salvadorans came undocumented and applied for asylum and/or work permits in order to legalize their situation. This massive migration to the U. S. was a result of the violence as much as it was the deteriorating economic conditions in El Salvador. Young men, escaping the country from being drafted to the military or the guerilla and they numbered over 1,000 individuals and many of them are temporary exiles, who planned to go back after the war ends. By the end of 1989, more than 250,000 Salvadorans migrated to the U. S. Unofficially, El Salvadors exiled population is already changing life at home through its influence and its dollars and will undoubtedly play an important role in its future history. Salvadoran American immigration has changed the face of foreign affairs in the United States, the flood of refugees from a U. S. -supported government forced a national rethinking of foreign policy priorities. This in turn transformed the nature of American support for the Salvadoran government, Salvadoran Americans are at the center of an ongoing national debate about U. S. responsibility toward the worlds refugees and the future of immigration in general. The exodus of Salvadorans was a result of economic and political problems

Salvadoran American – Christy Turlington
Salvadoran American – 2,102,160 (2014 US Community Survey) 0.64% of the U.S. population (2014)
Salvadoran American – Allison Iraheta
Salvadoran American – Dustin Corea

20. Spanish Americans – Spanish Americans is a term with multiple meanings. The term can also extend to mean those who share a language and culture rooted in Spain, Spanish Americans are the longest-established European-American group with a continuous presence in Florida since 1565 and are the eighth-largest Hispanic group in the United States of America. Throughout the colonial times, there were a number of settlements of Spanish populations in the present–day United States of America with governments answerable to Madrid. The first settlement was at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565, followed by others in New Mexico, California, Arizona, Texas, and Louisiana. In 1598, San Juan de los Caballeros was established, near present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico, by Juan de Oñate, Spanish immigrants also established settlements in San Diego, California, San Antonio, Texas and Tucson, Arizona. By the mid-1600s the Spanish in America numbered more than 400,000 and these Spanish settlers expanded European influence in the New World. The Canary Islanders settled in areas surrounding New Orleans in Louisiana from 1778 to 1783 and in San Antonio de Bejar, San Antonio, Texas. The earliest known Spanish settlements in the then northern Mexico were the result of the forces that later led the English to come to North America. Exploration had been fueled in part by imperial hopes for the discovery of wealthy civilizations, in addition, like those aboard the Mayflower, most Spaniards came to the New World seeking land to farm, or occasionally, as historians have recently established, freedom from religious persecution. A smaller percentage of new Spanish settlers were descendants of Spanish Jewish converts, basques stood out in the exploration of the Americas, both as soldiers and members of the crews that sailed for the Spanish. Prominent in the service and colonial administration, they were accustomed to overseas travel. The Spanish presence in the United States declined sharply between 1930 and 1940 from a total of 110,000 to 85,000, many immigrants moved either back to Spain or to another country. Beginning with the Fascist revolt against the Second Spanish Republic in 1936, at the time of the Fascist takeover, a small but prominent group of liberal intellectuals fled to the United States. After the civil war the country endured 20 years of autarky, as a result, in the mid-1960s,44,000 Spaniards immigrated to the United States. In the 1970s, when Franco abandoned Spains autarkic economic system, prosperity began to emerge in Spain, in the 1980s, as Europe enjoyed an economic boom, Spanish immigrants to the United States dropped to only 15,000. The 1990 U. S. census recorded 76,000 foreign-born Spaniards in the country, many of the Hispanic and Latino Americans bring their Spanish-speaking culture into the country. However, some Spanish Americans are descendants of settlers in the southwestern states, especially New Mexico. Spanish-Americans in the United States are found in large concentrations in five states from 1940 through the early twenty-first century

Spanish Americans – El Centro Español de Tampa is a cultural house built in 1912 in the Ybor City neighborhood of Tampa, Florida.
Spanish Americans – Spanish children from the SS Heliopolis after arriving in Hawaii.
Spanish Americans – Anita Page was a New York-born actress of paternal Spanish descent.
Spanish Americans – Santa Barbara, California ’s annual Old Spanish Days Fiesta celebration.

21. Uruguayan American – Uruguayan Americans are Americans of Uruguayan ancestry or birth. The American Community Survey of 2006 estimated the Uruguayan American population to number 50,538, similar to neighboring country Argentina, Uruguay took in many immigrants from Europe beginning in the late 19th century and lasting until the mid 20th century. As it stands, approximately 93% of Uruguays population is of European descent with Italians, Spaniards, French, because of this, many Uruguayan Americans identify both with their nationality and their familys country of origin. The history of Uruguayan emigration to the United States is very recent, before 1960, the Uruguayan living conditions were favorable, with many job opportunities, good education and a good healthcare system. The few Uruguayans that left the country migrated to other Hispanic countries such as Argentina, for this reason the Uruguayan emigration to the United States was low during that period. Moreover, Uruguay was ruled by a military regime for approximately a decade since 1973. All this led to a major Uruguayan emigration, which included numbers of well-educated professionals. This migration, also, contributed to a security crisis, as the population aged. This grew the burden on the financial resources. Of the Uruguayan immigrants from 1963 to 1975,17.7 percent of them were aged 14 years or younger, while 68 percent of them were between the ages of 15 and 39, only 14.3 percent were over 40 years old. The continued unemployment problem of the late 1980s developed yet another impetus for the youth of Uruguay to seek employment, some of them went to the United States, but the majority of Uruguayan emigrants continued to migrate to Argentina. Most Uruguayans find it easy to adapt to life in cities in the United States. Uruguayans in general have an exposure that makes English not an obstacle for adaptation in American society. In addition, the value that is given to higher education has led many Uruguayan students to migrate to the United States to continue their University studies there. According to the 2010 census on the Uruguayan descent population in the U. S. there are about 56,884 people of that origin, the majority of Uruguayans that migrated to the United States arrived in the 1960s and 1970s. It is estimated that, between 1963 and 1975,180,000 Uruguayans left the country, later on, between 1973 and 1985, during the period of oppressive military control,150,000 Uruguayans left Uruguay. And, in 1989, only 16,000 of these citizens had returned to their native country, when these two figures are added together, the migration figure stands at approximately one-tenth of the population of Uruguay. Most Uruguayan immigrants established themselves in New York City, New Jersey, two other remarkable centers for Uruguayan American population are Washington, D. C. and Florida

Uruguayan American – Bruno Fonseca
Uruguayan American – Uruguayan 626,789

22. Venezuelan American – Venezuelan Americans are Americans who trace their heritage, or part of their heritage, to the nation of Venezuela. Venezuelan Americans are one of 20 Latin American groups in the United States and this includes influences from Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, Germans, and the French, along with influences from African and indigenous Amerindian elements. Venezuelan Spanish is the spoken form of the Spanish language. Until the 20th century, there was no record of the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to the United States. From 1910 to 1930, it is estimated that over 4,000 South Americans each year emigrated to the United States, however, there are not many specific figures that indicate the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to this country. Many Venezuelans settled in the United States with hopes of receiving a better education and they are frequently joined by relatives. In recent years, more Venezuelans opposing the economic and political policies of president Hugo Chávez are migrating to the U. S, the largest concentration of Venezuelans in the United States is in South Florida, especially the suburbs of Doral and Weston. Other main states with Venezuelan American populations are, according to the 1990 census, New York, California, Texas, New Jersey, Massachusetts and Maryland. Some of the areas with a highly populated Venezuelan community include Miami, Houston, New York City, Los Angeles. State with the smallest Venezuelan population was South Dakota with 25 Venezuelans, some 70 percent of Venezuelan immigrants are a mixture of European, Amerindian, and African ancestry. The rest are 21 percent white,8 percent black and 1 percent is Amerindian, most Venezuelan Americans are descendants of Spanish, Italians, Portuguese, Germans, French, and Chinese. The Venezuelan American population is highly educated, thus, they teach the language to their children. Venezuelan Americans work in a variety of professions, however, most of them are inclined to banking and the petroleum industry. Thus, they often have an expertise in these professions. Venezuelan Americans also work in highlighted positions of television, publishing, also, many Venezuelan Americans are becoming politicians, working both local politics as in government. In addition, also is growing the number of Venezuelan Americans that work in government service on the federal level, now, the Venezuelan Americans are involved in all the aspect of the American politics. Venezuelan Americans still maintain strong relations with their country of origin, which can easily be seen in business, family, Venezuelan Americans often report on the social and current events in Venezuela and first-generation immigrants visit there frequently. It is also common for Venezuelans to visit their relatives in the United States

Venezuelan American – Carolina Herrera
Venezuelan American
Venezuelan American – Fred Armisen
Venezuelan American – Carlos Pena, Jr.

23. History of Hispanic and Latino Americans – The history of Latinos and Hispanics in the United States is wide-ranging, spanning more than four hundred years and varyingday United States, too. Hispanics became the first American citizens in the newly acquired Southwest territory after the Mexican–American War, as late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War, Spain held claim to roughly half of todays continental United States. In the Treaty of Paris France ceded Louisiana to Spain from 1763 until it was returned in 1800 by the Treaty of San Ildefonso, in 1775, Spanish ships reached Alaska. The first confirmed landing in the continental US was by a Spaniard, Juan Ponce de León, within three decades of Ponce de Leóns landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast, penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine, coronado travelled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States and he was the first European that saw the Canyon´s Colorado. In all, Spaniards probed half of todays lower 48 states before the first English colonization attempt, the Spanish didnt just explore, they settled, creating the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida in 1565. The fort was part of the Spanish King’s ongoing effort to establish a “Window on the Atlantic”, Spain needed a presence on the east coast of America to provide protection for the Spanish treasure galleons traveling back to Europe. By 1571 Menendez had brought settlers, including farmers and craftsmen, Santa Elena was now the first European capitol on the American mainland, with Mendez as Governor. Santa Elena was a settlement for 21 years, ending when Spain consolidated its Florida colony to St. Augustine. Later came Spanish settlements in San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco, the Spanish even established a Jesuit mission in Virginias Chesapeake Bay 37 years before the founding of Jamestown. Two iconic American stories have Spanish antecedents, too, almost 80 years before John Smiths alleged rescue by Pocahontas, a man by the name of Juan Ortiz told of his similar rescue from execution by an Indian girl. Spaniards also held a thanksgiving,56 years before the Pilgrims, Spanish claims to Alaska and the west coast of North America date to the papal bull of 1493, and the Treaty of Tordesillas. In 1513, this claim was reinforced by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean, Spain only started to colonize the claimed territory north of present-day Mexico in the 18th century, when it settled the northern coast of Las Californias. They also explored Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, thus, the Spanish explorer Manuel Lisa, first settler of Nebraska, left St. Louis, Missouri to head northwest toward Montana, inaugurating the Oregon Trail. The Spanish moved since the Missouri to eastern Montana, and along the Yellowstone to western and southern Montana. Juan Ponce de León, a Spanish conquistador, named Florida in honor of his discovery of the land on April 2,1513, during Pascua Florida, from that date forward, the land became known as La Florida. Over the following century, both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, French Huguenots founded Fort Caroline in modern-day Jacksonville in 1564, but this fort was conquered by forces from the new Spanish colony of St. Augustine the following year. Augustine founder Pedro Menéndez de Avilés time to march his men over land, St. Augustine came to serve as the capitals of the British and Spanish colonies of East and West Florida, respectively

History of Hispanic and Latino Americans – California is shown as an island on this 1650 map. The smaller islands located in the "channel" were mentioned in an early myth and subsequently included by mapmakers over the centuries who took it on faith that region had actually been explored.
History of Hispanic and Latino Americans – A portrait of Junípero Serra.
History of Hispanic and Latino Americans – An early map illustrating the route of "El Camino Real" in 1821, along with the 21 Franciscan Alta California missions. The road at this time was merely a horse and mule trail.

24. History of Mexican Americans – Large-scale new migration augmented their numbers during the 1910s, as Mexico was torn by a high-casualty civil war. Until the 1960s, most lived within a few hundred miles of the border, more recently, Mexican Americans have diffused throughout the U. S. especially in the Midwest and Southeast, with the largest numbers in California and Texas. In the past hundred years Mexican-Americans have campaigned for voting rights, stood against educational, employment, at the same time many Mexican-Americans have struggled with defining and maintaining their communitys identity. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. When Mexico took over control from Spain in the early 1820s, when Texas seemed too independent, Mexicos President Santa Anna led an army to massacre the villagers and destroy the American settlements. After initial victories and massacres at The Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna was decisively defeated by the Texans, who declared independence. The Tejanos in Texas joined the revolution and supported the new Republic of Texas, The Hispanics in New Mexico and California were localistic and did not identify with the regime in Mexico City. Only when large numbers of Americans arrived did they develop a sense of lo mexicano, that is of being Mexican, American entrepreneurs often cultivated alliances and partnerships with the Mexican propertied elites in the states of Texas and California, and the territories of New Mexico and Arizona. The Latino culture of the rest of the Southwest, especially New Mexico and southern Texas, beginning in the 1820s, immigrants from the U. S. and Europe settled in Texas, then part of Mexico. Anglo and Hispanic Texas joined to fight Mexico in 1836, defeating an invading army, the Texas Republic included Tejanos as leading citizens, but Mexico refused to recognize its legal existence. The US annexed Texas in 1845, leading to the Mexican–American War of 1846–48, while there were some Americans who considered the war with Mexico illegal and immoral, others considered it part of Manifest Destiny—the American destiny to pursue the war. This policy claimed that it was the United States right to expand westward across North America, the Americans won easily and the war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In the Treaty Mexico gave up more than 500,000 square miles of territory, which today comprises Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The United States in 1853 purchased the Gadsden Purchase, a strip of land in southern New Mexico, the vast majority of Hispanic populations chose to stay and become full US citizens. By and large, the Hispanic populations of these supported the new government. After the Santa Fe Ring succeeded in dispossessing thousands of landholders in New Mexico, some Hispanics, of whom Joaquín Murieta was a legendary example and Tiburcio Vásquez a real one, responded by resorting to banditry. During the Gold Rush, there was an immigration of Mexican miners to California, about 20,000 Tejanos lived in South Texas in the 1850s. The social structure has been analyzed by historian Randolph Campbell, South Texans of Hispanic descent lived in a three-tiered society during the antebellum years, at the top stood the landed elite, the owners of huge ranches, many of which originated as haciendas in the Spanish colonial period

History of Mexican Americans – Dolores Huerta speaking at a rally in Santa Barbara, California on September 24, 2006.
History of Mexican Americans – César Chávez at a United Farmworkers rally, 1974

25. Castizo – Castizo is a Spanish word with a general meaning of pure, genuine or representative of its race. From this meaning it evolved other meanings, such as typical of an area and it was used for one of the colonial Spanish race categories, the castas. In Latin America Castizo is used to describe the individuals with an admixture of 75% European, during this era, various other terms were also used. The word cuarterón usually denotes someone whose racial origin is three-quarters White and one-quarter Black, under the colonial caste system, the offspring of a Spaniard and a Castiza was classified as a criollo, thus the offspring regained his or her purity of blood. For castizos whose residual quarter of Amerindian ancestry was not apparent at all, many simply consolidated themselves within the criollos, some countries, however, have recently reintroduced voluntary and anonymous declarations of race in recent population censuses for statistical purposes, with no legal consequence to the individual. A person who formerly would have deemed a castizo would today simply identify as mestizo or White. The word castizo itself has lost all racial meaning, today they are scattered in almost all Latin America but many focus on specific countries or regions of the same. ARGENTINA, Since most of European immigrants arrived in Argentina during the century were men, many of these mixed with mestizo women. They in turn, mixed with Europeans over and over again, recent studies show that nearly 60% of Argentinas population has at least one ancestor of Native American or African origin, and that the average Argentinian is about 74% European and 23% Amerindian. CHILE, It might be the country with the highest percentage of castizos of America and they are located mainly in the central valleys of the country, in cities such as Santiago, Valparaíso, Viña del Mar, Rancagua and Talca. They also constitute an important percentage in Northern and Southern Chile, in Chile whites and castizos together represent the countrys largest ethnic group. COSTA RICA, It could also be the country with the highest percentage of castizos of America due to continued European immigration, castizos are located in almost all the national territory. MEXICO, Castiza population in Mexico is located mainly in north and these areas have a similar castiza and white population to Costa Rica or Chile. PERU, Peruvian castizos are concentrated in the departments of Lima, Cajamarca, Arequipa, La Libertad, Lambayeque and Piura, GUATEMALA, Most Guatemalan castizos inhabit the eastern region of the country such as the departments of Zacapa, Chiquimila, and Jalapa. Castizo is used in Madrid for costumes, music, speech typical of the Madrid populace about the end of the 19th century, a person dressed in Castizo fashion can be called manolo/manola and chulapo/chulapa. Many zarzuelas are set in a Castizo environment, like La verbena de la Paloma, items associated with Castizo culture are the street swivel piano, barquillos, Schottisch music and Manila shawls. Casticismo is a tendency among Spanish and Latin American intellectuals to reject foreign loanwords, an example is deporte, a word recovered from Medieval Castilian meaning pastime, that successfully replaced the Anglicism sport, which has the same Latin origin as the Spanish word. Its closely related to costumbrismo in literature, White Latin American Peninsulares Mestizo Cholo Casta

Castizo – Union of castizo (left) and mestiza (right): chamizo

26. Cholo – Its use has migrated from the initial negative ethnic designation as originated by Hispanic criollos in the 16th century. In sociological literature, it is one of castas, and refers to Mexican American gangsters, the precise usage of cholo has varied widely in different times and places. In modern American usage, it most often applies to the low-rider sub-culture manner of dress, the terms use is first recorded in a Peruvian book published in 1609 and 1616, the Comentarios Reales de los Incas by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. He writes The child of a Black male and an Indian female, or of an Indian male and Black female, they call mulato, the children of these they call cholo. Cholo is a word from the Windward Islands, it means dog, not of the variety, but of very disreputable origin. In Colonial Mexico, the terms cholo and coyote co-existed, indicating mixed Mestizo, other terms were used to denote other ratios of smaller or greater Spanish-to-Amerindian ancestry. During the War of the Pacific Peruvians were contemptuously referred to as cholos by Chilean officers, an article in the Los Angeles Express of April 2,1907, headlined Cleaning Up the Filthy Cholo Courts Has Begun in Earnest, uses the terms cholos and Mexicans interchangeably. In 1571, Fray Alonso de Molina, in his Nahuatl vocabulary, defined the word xolo as slave, servant, or waiter. The Porrúa Dictionary defines cholo, as used in the Americas, as a civilized Native American or a half-breed or mestizo of a European father and Native American mother. The word has historically been used along the borderland as a term to mean lower class Mexican migrants. Despite, or because of, its history of denigrating semantics. During the 1930s and 40s, Cholos and Chicanos were known as pachucos and were associated with the zoot suit, the press at the time accused the Cholos in the US of gang membership and petty criminality, leading to the Zoot Suit Riots. Continuing until the early 1970s, the typical cholo and chicano hairstyle was a variant of the pompadour, piled high on the head, Cholos are known for starching and pressing their pants and shirts, and often wear military-style webbed belts. Cholos in the 1990s and 2000s frequently have their hair buzzed very short, though some continue to have the more traditional slicked-back hair, footwear originally included Stacy Adams dress shoes, and biscuits. Modern cholos tend to wear shoes, such as Converse, Nike Cortez, Vans, Fila, Adidas Stan Smith, slip-on house shoes. Popular Cholo brands include Dickies, Ben Davis, Joker, Lowrider, in South Texas, cholos are sometimes referred to as chucs or chukes. This term is short for pachucos, tejano cholos typically make heavy use of starch on their pants but so do traditional Tejanos. This designation may also be associated with black ink tattoos, commonly involving calligraphy, a cholo might also stereotypically own a lowrider

Cholo – An example of "cula de Castas" which classified people by their ancestry, admixture, and degree of admixture. Within this representation of Cholos during the Latin American colonial period one can read "De mestizo e india, sale coiote" (from Mestizo and Amerindian, begotten a Coyote).
Cholo – Typical dress of a chola cuencana

27. Criollo people – Although Criollos were legally Spaniards, in practice, they ranked below the Iberian-born Peninsulares. Nevertheless, they had preeminence over all the populations, Amerindians, enslaved Africans. According to the Casta system, a criollo could have up to 1/8 Amerindian ancestry without losing social place, in the 18th and early 19th centuries, changes in the Spanish Empires policies towards its colonies led to tensions between Criollos and Peninsulares. Criollos were the supporters of the Spanish American wars of independence. The word criollo and its Portuguese cognate crioulo are believed to come from the Spanish/Portuguese verb criar, in Spanish colonies, an español criollo was an ethnic Spaniard who had been born in the colonies, as opposed to an español peninsular born in Spain. Whites in colonial Brazil, born in the Iberian Peninsula, were known as mazombos, limpieza de sangre or cleanness of blood was a legal concept in use since the Spanish Reconquista, and introduced to the Spanish colonies in the Americas. The English word creole was a loan from French créole, which in turn is believed to come from Spanish criollo or Portuguese crioulo, such cases might include the offspring of a Castizo parent and one Peninsular or Criollo parent. This one-eighth rule, also in theory, did not apply to African admixture, in reality, officials assigned various racial categories to mix-raced people depending on their social status, what they were told or due to testimony from friends and neighbors. To preserve the Spanish Crowns power in the colonies, the Spanish colonial society was based on a caste system. The highest-ranking castes were the españoles, Spaniards by birth or descent, people of mixed ancestry were classified in other castes — such as castizos, mestizos, cholos, mulatos, indios, zambos, and enslaved Africans, called blacks. Poole argues that the Virgin Mary, especially as Our Lady of Guadalupe and they used the story to legitimize their own social position and infuse it with an almost messianic sense of mission and identity. Until 1760, the Spanish colonies were ruled under laws designed by the Spanish Habsburgs and that situation changed by the Bourbon Reforms during the reign of Charles III. Spain needed to extract increasing wealth from its colonies to support the European, the Crown expanded the privileges of the Peninsulares, who took over many administrative offices which had been filled by Criollos. At the same time, reforms by the Catholic Church reduced the roles and privileges of the ranks of the clergy. By the 19th century, this policy of the Spanish Crown. With increasing support of the castes, they engaged Spain in a fight for independence. The former Spanish Empire in the Americas separated into a number of independent republics, the word criollo retains its original meaning in most Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas. In some countries, however, the word criollo has over time come to have additional meanings, for instance, comida criolla in Spanish-speaking countries refers to local cuisine, not cuisine of the criollos

Criollo people – Clockwise from top left: Agustín de Iturbide
Criollo people – Criollos rejoice upon learning about the declaration of independence from Spain on September 15, 1821.
Criollo people

28. Mestizo – The term was used as an ethnic/racial category in the casta system that was in use during the Spanish Empires control of their New World colonies. Mestizos are usually considered to be mixed Spaniards by the crown of Spain, the term mestizaje - taking as its root mestizo or mixed - is the Spanish word for miscegenation, the general process of mixing ancestries. To avoid confusion with the usage of the term mestizo. In colonial Venezuela, pardo was more commonly used instead of mestizo, pardo means being mixed without specifying which mixture, it was used to describe anyone born in the Americas whose ancestry was a mixture of European, Amerindian, and Black African. In colonial Brazil most of the population was mestiço in the original Iberian definition of the word. In the Philippines, which was a colony of Spain, the term came to refer to a Filipino with any foreign ancestry especially whites. In Canada, the Métis people is a community composed of those who possess combined European, in Saint Barthélemy, the term mestizo refers to people of mixed European and East Asian ancestry. The Spanish word mestizo is from Latin mixticius, meaning mixed and its usage has been documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an Egyptian and a Jew. This term was first documented in English in 1582 and it is related to the particular racial identity of historical non-white Amerindian-descended Hispanic and Latino American communities in an American context. In English-speaking Canada, Canadian Métis, as a loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French, in the United States, Métis Americans and Mestizo Americans are two distinct racial and ethno-racial identities, as reflected in the use of French and Spanish loanwords, respectively. The latter was listed as a mestizo de sangley in birth records of the 19th century, with sangley as a reference to the Hokkiense word for business. Mestizo, mestiço, métis, mestís, Mischling, meticcio, mestiezen, mestee, in the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish developed an extremely vast complex system of racial hierarchy, which was used for social control and which also determined a persons standing in society. There were three categories of race during the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish, White Spaniard, Amerindian. During the Spanish colonial era, a myriad of terms were created to differentiate these racial mixtures, by the end of the colonial period in 1821, over one hundred sub-categories of possible variations of mixture existed, but official church and civil records were maintained with few categories. Church baptismal and marriage registers and civil records used the terms español, castizo, mestizo, mulato, and indio. As time went on, a system of hierarchy, the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas developed where society was divided based on race, wealth. Mestizo – a person of mixed White European and Amerindian ancestry, in theory, and as depicted in eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings, español status could also be attained by people of mixed origin who consistently had intermarried with Europeans. Such cases might include the offspring of a parent and one Peninsular or criollo parent

Mestizo – A painting of a Spanish man and a Peruvian indigenous woman with Mestizo child, 1770.
Mestizo – Las castas. 18th century, Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán, Mexico.
Mestizo – A representation of a Mestizo, in a Pintura de Castas from New Spain during the late colonial period. The painting's caption states "Spanish and Indian produce Mestizo", 1780.
Mestizo – A statue of Gonzalo Guerrero, who adopted the Maya way of life and fathered the first mestizo children of Mexico, but not of the Americas, since the first mestizos were born in the Caribbean, by Spanish men and indigenous Caribbean women.

29. Mulatto – Mulatto is a term used to refer to persons born of one white parent and one black parent or to persons born of a mulatto parent or parents. In English, the term is generally confined to historical contexts. English speakers of mixed white and black ancestry seldom choose to identify themselves as mulatto. Some residents of Latin America, Spain America, the Caribbean, in Latin America, most mulattoes have descended from multi-ethnic relationships dating to the slavery period, rather than from recent ethnic mixing. This is especially true in Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Haiti, Cape Verde, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. The etymology of the term is believed to derive from the Spanish and Portuguese mulato, which comes from mula, meaning mule, the hybrid offspring of a horse. Some dictionaries and scholarly works trace the origins to the Arabic term muwallad. Muwallad literally means born, begotten, produced, generated, brought up, with the implication of being born and raised among Arabs, Muwallad is derived from the root word WaLaD, and colloquial Arabic pronunciation can vary greatly. Walad means, descendant, offspring, scion, child, son, boy, young animal, in al-Andalus, Muwallad referred to the offspring of non-Arab/Muslim people who adopted the Islamic religion and manners. Notable examples of this include the famous Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm. Thus, in context, the term Muwalad has a meaning close to the adopted. According to the source, the term does not denote being of mixed-race but rather being of foreign-blood. In English, printed usage of mulatto dates to at least the 16th century and this earliest usage regarded black and white as discrete species, with the mulatto constituting a third separate species. According to Julio Izquierdo Labrado, the 19th-century linguist Leopoldo Eguilaz y Yanguas, as well as some Arabic sources muwallad is the origin of mulato. The Real Academia Española casts doubt on the muwallad theory, Scholars such as Werner Sollors cast doubt on the mule etymology for mulatto. In the 18th and 19th centuries, racialists such as Edward Long and they projected this belief back onto the etymology of the word mulatto. Sollers points out that this etymology is anachronistic, The Mulatto sterility hypothesis that has much to do with the rejection of the term by some writers is only half as old as the word Mulatto. Of São Tomé and Príncipes 193,413 inhabitants, the largest segment is classified as mestiço. or mixed race, 71% of the population of Cape Verde is also classified as such

Mulatto – Juan de Pareja by Diego Velázquez, 1650
Mulatto – The Christmas Bands are a popular Cape Coloured cultural tradition in Cape Town
Mulatto – Don Miguel Enríquez, a Puerto Rican privateer, is the only known mulatto knighted by the Monarchy of Spain. After being born illegitimate, he became a shoemaker and privateer, ultimately one of the wealthiest men of the New World.
Mulatto – Portrait "A Redenção de Cam" (1895), showing a Brazilian family.

30. Zambo – Zambo and cafuzo are racial terms used in the Spanish and Portuguese Empires and occasionally today to identify individuals in the Americas who are of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry. Historically, the cross between African slaves and Amerindians was referred to as a zambaggoa, then zambo, then sambo. In the United States, the word sambo is thought to refer to the cross between a black slave and a white person. The meaning of the term however is contested in North America. The word most likely originated from one of the Romance languages, or Latin, under the casta system of Spanish colonial America, the term originally applied to the children of one African and one Amerindian parent, or the children of two zambo parents. During this period, many other terms denoted individuals of African-Amerindian ancestry in ratios smaller or greater than the 50,50 of zambos, today, zambo refers to all people with significant amounts of both African and Amerindian ancestry, though it is frequently considered pejorative. The term zambo was not formally used in Spanish writing until the seventeenth century, African slaves began mixing with indigenous people from the beginning of their importation into Hispaniola in the early sixteenth century. In the eighteenth century, the Spanish began producing systematic racial classifications, some famous zambo groups were created by runaway or rebel Africans who mixed with or took over indigenous communities. They united with the indigenous Miskito people, and by the eighteenth century came to dominate the kingdom. Their alliance with and protection of English merchants and settlers in the area helped England found the colony of British Honduras, officially, zambos represent small minorities in the northwestern South American countries Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana and Ecuador. A small but noticeable number of resulting from recent unions of Amerindian women to Afro-Ecuadorian men are not uncommon in major coastal cities of Ecuador. In Central America, there are two indigenous-African mixed groups, the Miskito and the garifunas, the Garifuna originated from the combination of Africans who were either shipwrecked or fled from neighboring islands to St. Vincent, in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1797 they were deported by the English for their role in supporting France during the French Revolutionary Wars to the island of Roatan off the coast of Honduras, from there they spread up and down the coast of Central America, communities being found from Nicaragua to Belize. In Mexico, where zambos were sometimes known as lobos, they form a sizeable minority, according to the 2015 Intercensus Estimate,896,829 people identified as both Afro-Mexican and Indigenous Mexican. The great majority of the countrys Afro-descended population has been absorbed into the mestizo population. Culturally, Mexican lobos followed more Amerindian traditions rather than African influences and this acculturation also took place in Bolivia, where the Afro-Bolivian community absorbed and retained many aspects of Amerindian cultural influences, such as dress and use of the Aymara language. These communities of Afro-Bolivians reside in the Yungas region of the Bolivian department of La Paz

Zambo – 16th century painting of Zambo Caciques from Esmeraldas, Ecuador.
Zambo – A representation of an infant zambo, in an 18th-century "Pintura de Castas" from New Spain. The painting illustrates "from a Black and an Amerindian produces a lobo ", here a synonym for zambo.
Zambo – "From a black man with a mulata produces a Sambo ", Indian school, 1770.

La Raza

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