1.
Embryology
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Embryology is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes, fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of disorders that occur before birth. After cleavage, the cells, or morula, becomes a hollow ball, or blastula. In bilateral animals, the blastula develops in one of two ways that divides the whole animal kingdom into two halves. If in the blastula the first pore becomes the mouth of the animal, it is a protostome, the protostomes include most invertebrate animals, such as insects, worms and molluscs, while the deuterostomes include the vertebrates. In due course, the changes into a more differentiated structure called the gastrula. The middle layer, or mesoderm, gives rise to the muscles, skeleton if any, the outer layer of cells, or ectoderm, gives rise to the nervous system, including the brain, and skin or carapace and hair, bristles, or scales. Embryos in many species appear similar to one another in early developmental stages. The reason for this similarity is because species have an evolutionary history. These similarities among species are called homologous structures, which are structures that have the same or similar function and mechanism, Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, is a model organism in biology on which much research into embryology has been done. Before fertilization, the female produces an abundance of mRNA - transcribed from the genes that encode bicoid protein. These mRNA molecules are stored to be used later in what become the developing embryo. The male and female Drosophila gametes exhibit anisogamy, the female gamete is larger than the male gamete because it harbors more cytoplasm and, within the cytoplasm, the female gamete contains an abundance of the mRNA previously mentioned. At fertilization, the male and female gametes fuse and then the nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the female gamete, note that before the gametes nuclei fuse, they are known as pronuclei. A series of nuclear divisions will occur without cytokinesis in the zygote to form a cell known as a syncytium. All the nuclei in the syncytium are identical, just as all the nuclei in every cell of any multicellular organism are identical in terms of the DNA sequence of the genome. Before the nuclei can differentiate in transcriptional activity, the embryo must be divided into segments, in each segment, a unique set of regulatory proteins will cause specific genes in the nuclei to be transcribed. The resulting combination of proteins will transform clusters of cells into early embryo tissues that will develop into multiple fetal
2.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
3.
Anatomical terminology
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Anatomical terminology is a form of scientific terminology used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals such as doctors. Anatomical terminology uses many terms, suffixes, and prefixes deriving from Ancient Greek. These terms can be confusing to those unfamiliar with them, but can be more precise reducing ambiguity, also, since these anatomical terms are not used in everyday conversation, their meanings are less likely to change, and less likely to be misinterpreted. By using precise anatomical terminology such ambiguity is eliminated, an international standard for anatomical terminology, Terminologia Anatomica has been created. Anatomical terminology has quite regular morphology, the prefixes and suffixes are used to add meanings to different roots. The root of a term refers to an organ, tissue. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix hyper- means high or over, the roots, prefixes and suffixes are often derived from Greek or Latin, and often quite dissimilar from their English-language variants. Latin names of such as musculus biceps brachii can be split up and refer to, musculus for muscle, biceps for two-headed. The first word tells us what we are speaking about, the second describes it, when describing the position of anatomical structures, structures may be described according to the anatomical landmark they are near. These landmarks may include structures, such as the umbilicus or sternum, or anatomical lines, the cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is differentiated into the cranium, facies, frons, oculus, auris, bucca, nausus, oris. The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region, examples of structures named according to this include the frontalis muscle, submental lymph nodes, buccal membrane and orbicularis oculi muscle. Sometimes, unique terminology is used to reduce confusion in different parts of the body, for example, different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance with its embryonic origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. Here, Rostral refers to proximity to the front of the nose, similarly, in the arms, different terminology is often used in the arms, in part to reduce ambiguity as what is the front, back, inner and outer surfaces. For this reason, the terms below are used, Radial referring to the radius bone, ulnar referring to the ulna bone, medially positioned when in the standard anatomical position. Other terms are used to describe the movement and actions of the hands and feet. International morphological terminology is used by the colleges of medicine and dentistry and it facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of research, teaching and medical care. The international morphological terminology refers to morphological sciences as a biological sciences branch, in this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism
4.
Human
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Modern humans are the only extant members of Hominina tribe, a branch of the tribe Hominini belonging to the family of great apes. Several of these hominins used fire, occupied much of Eurasia and they began to exhibit evidence of behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago. In several waves of migration, anatomically modern humans ventured out of Africa, the spread of humans and their large and increasing population has had a profound impact on large areas of the environment and millions of native species worldwide. Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression and the exchange of ideas. Humans create complex structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families. Social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals. These human societies subsequently expanded in size, establishing various forms of government, religion, today the global human population is estimated by the United Nations to be near 7.5 billion. In common usage, the word generally refers to the only extant species of the genus Homo—anatomically and behaviorally modern Homo sapiens. In scientific terms, the meanings of hominid and hominin have changed during the recent decades with advances in the discovery, there is also a distinction between anatomically modern humans and Archaic Homo sapiens, the earliest fossil members of the species. The English adjective human is a Middle English loanword from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hūmānus, the words use as a noun dates to the 16th century. The native English term man can refer to the species generally, the species binomial Homo sapiens was coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae. The generic name Homo is a learned 18th century derivation from Latin homō man, the species-name sapiens means wise or sapient. Note that the Latin word homo refers to humans of either gender, the genus Homo evolved and diverged from other hominins in Africa, after the human clade split from the chimpanzee lineage of the hominids branch of the primates. The closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees and gorillas, with the sequencing of both the human and chimpanzee genome, current estimates of similarity between human and chimpanzee DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%. The gibbons and orangutans were the first groups to split from the leading to the humans. The splitting date between human and chimpanzee lineages is placed around 4–8 million years ago during the late Miocene epoch, during this split, chromosome 2 was formed from two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes. There is little evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee. Each of these species has been argued to be an ancestor of later hominins
5.
Labia majora
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The labia majora are two prominent longitudinal cutaneous folds that extend downward and backward from the mons pubis to the perineum. Together with the labia minora they form the labia of the vulva, the labia majora are homologous to the male scrotum. Labia majora is the Latin plural for big lips, the singular is labium majus, Labia majora are commonly known as the outer lips, while labia minora, which run alongside between them, are referred to as the inner lips. Traditionally, to avoid confusion with other structures of the body. Embryologically, they develop from labioscrotal folds and it means that they develop in the female foetus from the same previously sexually undifferentiated anatomical structure as the scrotum, the sac of skin below the penis in males. The same process of sex differentiation concerns other male and female reproductive organs, but other male and female sex organs become absolutely different and unique, like the internal female genitalia. The scrotum and labia majora develop to have similarities and crucial differences. Like the scrotum, labia majora after puberty may become of a darker color than the skin outside them, the ridge or groove remaining of the fusion can be traced on the scrotum. Undescended testicles, though, may occur in otherwise generally healthy male infants. Each labium majus has two surfaces, an outer, pigmented and covered with strong, pubic hair, and an inner, smooth, the labia majora are covered with squamous epithelium. Between the two there is a quantity of areolar tissue, fat, and a tissue resembling the dartos tunic of the scrotum, besides vessels, nerves. The labia majora are thicker in front, and form the anterior commissure where they meet below the mons pubis. Posteriorly, they are not really joined, but appear to become lost in the integument, ending close to. Together with the skin between them, they form another commissure the posterior labial commissure which is also the posterior boundary of the pudendum. The interval between the posterior commissure and the anus, from 2.5 to 3 cm. in length, the anterior region of the perineum is known as the urogenital triangle which separates it from the anal region. Between the labia majora and the thighs are the labiocrural folds. Between the labia majora and labia minora are the interlabial sulci, the fat pad of the labia majora can be used as a graft, often as a so-called Martius labial fat pad graft, and can be used, for example, in urethrolysis. Labium Labia minora This article incorporates text in the domain from the 20th edition of Grays Anatomy Labia Majora Medical Definition
6.
Vulval vestibule
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The vulval vestibule is a part of the vulva between the labia minora into which the urinary meatus and the vaginal opening open. Its edge is marked by Harts line and it represents lower end of urogenital sinus from stage of embryo. Structures opening in vestibule are, urethra, vagina, Bartholins glands, nearby are the openings of the Skenes ducts. The vaginal orifice is a median slit below and behind the opening of the urethra, to the left and right of the vulval vestibule are the labia minora. In front of it are the hood, frenulum clitoridis. Posterior to it is the posterior commissure of the labia minora, the sides of the vestibule are visible as Harts line on the inside of the inner lips. Harts line is the edge of the area and marks the change from vulvar skin to the smoother transitional skin of the vulva. The prevalence of pain at the vestibule is relatively common. A study by the University of Michigan found that about 28% of women have experienced vulvar vestibular pain in the past and this article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Grays Anatomy
7.
Anatomical terms of location
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Standard anatomical terms of location deal unambiguously with the anatomy of animals, including humans. All vertebrates have the basic body plan – they are strictly bilaterally symmetrical in early embryonic stages. That is, they have left and right halves if divided down the centre. For these reasons, the directional terms can be considered to be those used in vertebrates. By extension, the terms are used for many other organisms as well. While these terms are standardized within specific fields of biology, there are unavoidable, sometimes dramatic, for example, differences in terminology remain a problem that, to some extent, still separates the terminology of human anatomy from that used in the study of various other zoological categories. The vertebrates and Craniata share a heritage and common structure. To avoid ambiguities this terminology is based on the anatomy of each animal in a standard way, for humans, one type of vertebrate, anatomical terms may differ from other forms of vertebrates. Thus what is on top of a human is the head, whereas the top of a dog may be its back, for example, many species are not even bilaterally symmetrical. In these species, terminology depends on their type of symmetry, all descriptions are with respect to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the organism in different postures. In humans, this refers to the body in a position with arms at the side. While the universal vertebrate terminology used in medicine would work in human medicine. Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a movement relative to the body, for example, anterolateral indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis. There is no limit to the contexts in which terms may be modified to qualify each other in such combinations. Generally the modifier term is truncated and an o or an i is added in prefixing it to the qualified term, where desirable three or more terms may be agglutinated or concatenated, as in anteriodorsolateral. Such terms sometimes used to be hyphenated, but the tendency is to omit the hyphen. There is however little basis for any rule to interfere with choice of convenience in such usage
8.
Frenulum of labia minora
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The frenulum of labia minora is a frenulum where the labia minora meet posteriorly. The fourchette may be torn during delivery due to the stretching of the vulval orifice. Sometimes this surgical cut may extend to involve the perineal body, thus some obstetricians have opted to perform a posterio-lateral cut in the perineum to prevent this potential complication from occurring. The fourchette may also be torn in acts of violence wherein forced entry occurs such as rape, when the fourchette is torn, the bleeding which ensues sometimes requires surgical suturing for containment. The fourchette is named with the French word for fork or wishbone, fourchette piercing Perineal tear classification The dictionary definition of fourchette at Wiktionary
9.
Clitoral hood
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The clitoral hood is also important not only in protection of the clitoral glans, but also in pleasure, as it is an erogenous tissue. The clitoral hood is formed from the tissues that form the foreskin in human males. The clitoral hood is formed during the stage by the cellular lamella. The cellular lamella grows down on the side of the clitoris and is eventually fused with the clitoris. The clitoral hood varies in the size, shape, thickness, some women have large clitoral hoods that completely cover the clitoral glans. Some of these can be retracted to expose the glans, such as for hygiene purposes or for pleasure. Other women have smaller hoods that do not cover the length of the clitoral glans. Normally, the clitoral glans itself is too sensitive to be stimulated directly, the clitoral hood additionally provides protection to the clitoral glans, like foreskin on the penile glans. During sexual stimulation, the hood may also prevent the penis from coming into contact with the glans clitoris. The clitoral glans, like the foreskin, must be lubricated by the naturally provided sebum, if a womans clitoral glans is not lubricated the hood may not caress it during sexual stimulation, or the female may experience pain rather than pleasure. In most of the world, clitoral modifications are uncommon, FGM was performed on many children in Western countries, including previously in the United States, to discourage masturbation and reduce diseases believed to relate to it. One modification that often perform of their free will is to have the hood pierced and insert jewellery. Though much less common, other women opt to have their own hood surgically trimmed or removed so as to expose part or all of the clitoral glans. Frenulum clitoridis, a frenulum surrounding the clitoris Preputial sheath Anatomy photo,41, 02-0202 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center - The Female Perineum, The Vulva
10.
Clitoral erection
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Clitoral erection is a physiological phenomenon where the clitoris becomes enlarged and firm. Clitoral erection is the result of an interaction of psychological, neural, vascular and endocrine factors. The clitoris is the homologue of the penis in the female, the part visible on the outside varies in size from a few millimeters to one centimeter and is located hidden in the upper labial fold. Any type of motion can increase blood flow to this organ, there are many ways to stimulate the clitoris. Clitoral erection occurs when the corpora cavernosa, two expandable erectile structures, become engorged with blood and this may result from any of various physiological stimuli, including sexual arousal. During sexual arousal, arterial blood flow to the clitoris is increased, the ischiocavernous and bulbocavernous muscles contract to compress the dorsal vein of the clitoris to stop drainage of the clitoris, trapping the blood. More specifically, the clitoris has 2 adjoining erectile tissues corpus cavernosa that form a body that connects to the glans clitoridis. There is also a strip of tissue running along the ventral surface of the corpus canervosa main body that connects the glans clitoridis to the commissure of the vestibular bulbs. The main body of the corpus canervosa with a ventral erectile tissue strip make up the shaft, the tunica albuginea, a fibrous-elastic sheath, surrounds the shaft and glans clitoridis. The tunica albuginea does not surround the bulbs of vestibule, during sexual arousal, arterial blood flow to the clitoris is increased, and within the clitoris, the arteries further branch to supply the erectile tissues. The trabecular smooth muscles of the erectile tissue relax increasing blood flow to fill the vascular spaces, the ischiocavernous and bulbocavernous muscles contract, compressing the dorsal vein of the clitoris. This compression of the vein restricts drainage of the erectile structures and this process stretches the tunica albuginea. As a result, the clitoris becomes tumescent to accommodate the increased intracavernous pressure, the tunica albuginea of the clitoris is made up of one layer making it more elastic than the tunica albuginea of the penis, which is composed of two layers. In the penis, this tissue engorges with blood during sexual arousal and becomes compressed against the unyielding tunica, the lack of this plexus in the clitoris indicates that while the organ can become tumescent or engorged, it cannot, like the penis become stiffly erect. The clitoris thus does not really become erect with sexual excitement, in addition, the tunica albuginea around the glans is thinner than around the shaft in both the clitoris and penis. This gives the glans less firmness relative to the shaft, the extrusion of the glans clitoridis and thinning of the skin enhances sensitivity to physical contact. After a female has orgasmed, the erection usually ends, erection Sexual function Biological functions of nitric oxide
11.
Stratified squamous epithelium
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A stratified squamous epithelium consists of squamous epithelial cells arranged in layers upon a basal membrane. Only one layer is in contact with the basement membrane, the other layers adhere to one another to maintain structural integrity. Although this epithelium is referred to as squamous, many cells within the layers may not be flattened, in the deeper layers, the cells may be columnar or cuboidal. It forms the outermost layer of the skin and the lining of the mouth, esophagus. Non-keratinized surfaces must be kept moist by bodily secretions to prevent them drying out. Examples of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium include cornea, lining mucosa of oral cavity, esophagus, anal canal, foreskin, keratinized surfaces are protected from abrasion by keratin and kept hydrated and protected from dehydration by glycolipids produced in the stratum granulosum. Examples of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium include epidermis of the palm of the hand and sole of the foot, and the masticatory mucosa
12.
Perineum
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In human anatomy, the perineum is the region of the body between the pubic symphysis and the coccyx, including the perineal /pɛrəˈniːəl/ body and surrounding structures. There is some variability in how the boundaries are defined, the perianal area is a subset of the perineal area. The perineum is a zone for both males and females. Perineal tears and episiotomy often occur in childbirth with first-time deliveries, the perineum is generally defined as the surface region in both males and females between the pubic symphysis and the coccyx. The perineum is below the diaphragm and between the legs. It is an area that includes the anus and, in females. Its definition varies, it can refer to only the structures in this region. The perineum corresponds to the outlet of the pelvis and it is found in both males and females. In males, it is found between the bulb of penis and the anus, in females, is found between the vagina and anus, and about 1.25 cm in front of the latter. The perineal body is essential for the integrity of the pelvic floor, at this point, the following muscles converge and are attached,1. Anterior fibers of the levator ani 5, fibers from male or female external urinary sphincter 6. Deep transverse perineal muscle The terminology of the fascia can be confusing. This stems from the fact there are two parts to the fascia, the superficial and deep parts, and each of these can be subdivided into superficial. The following areas are classified as parts of the perineal region, Perineal pouches, superficial. It is bounded laterally by obturator internus muscle, medially by pelvic diaphragm, anal canal Pudendal canal – contains internal pudendal artery and the pudendal nerve. Extensive deformations of the floor structures occur in the course of a vaginal delivery. Approximately 85% of women suffer some extent of perineal trauma during a vaginal delivery, obstetric perineal trauma is a distressing event significantly contributing to postpartum morbidity and frustration of women after delivery. In many women the childbirth trauma is manifested in advanced age when the mechanisms of the pelvic floor become weakened making the problem more serious among the aged population
13.
Tanner scale
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The Tanner scale is a scale of physical development in children, adolescents and adults. This scale was first identified by James Tanner, a British pediatrician, due to natural variation, individuals pass through the Tanner stages at different rates, depending in particular on the timing of puberty. In HIV treatment, the Tanner scale is used to determine which treatment regimen to follow. Adapted from text by Lawrence Neinstein, M. D. Tanner I testicular volume less than 1.5 ml, fuentes personally appeared at the trial and provided documentation that showed that the DVDs in question were legally produced. The author of the system himself has argued that age classification using the Tanner stages represents invalid use. Tanner stages do not match with chronological age, but rather maturity stages, delayed puberty Gonadarche Pubarche Vellus COPINE scale The Male Tanner stages The Female Tanner stages Line drawing of female Tanner stages. Line drawing of female Tanner stages, Line drawing of male Tanner stages
14.
Labiaplasty
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Labiaplasty is a plastic surgery procedure for altering the labia minora and the labia majora, the folds of skin surrounding the human vulva. The size, colour, and shape of labia vary significantly, in a male-to-female sexual reassignment vaginoplasty for the creation of a neovagina, labiaplasty creates labia where once there were none. According to a 2011 review, also in the Journal of Sexual Medicine, risks include permanent scarring, infections, bleeding, irritation, and nerve damage leading to increased or decreased sensitivity. A change in requirements of publicly funded Australian plastic surgery requiring women to be told about natural variation in labias led to a 28% reduction in the numbers of surgeries performed. Many women have limited knowledge of anatomy, and are unable to say what a normal vulva looks like. At the same time, many images of womens genitals are digitally manipulated, changing the size. However, the noted that research evidence for this speculation was lacking. The external genitalia of a woman are collectively known as the vulva and this comprises the labia majora, the labia minora, the clitoris, the urethra, and the vagina. The labia majora extend from the pubis to the perineum. The size, shape, and color of womens inner labia vary greatly, one is usually larger than the other. They may be hidden by the labia, or may be visible. The size of the labia can change because of childbirth, genital piercing can increase labial size and asymmetry, because of the weight of the ornaments. In the course of treating identical twin sisters, S. P. Davison et al reported that the labia were the size in each woman. In or around 2004, researchers from the Department of Gynaeology, Elizabeth Garret Anderson Hospital, London, the latter should either be counselled or excluded from labioplastic surgery. Davison et al write that it should not be performed when the patient is menstruating to reduce potential hormonal effects, in this procedure, the labiaplasty is usually performed some months after the first stage of vaginoplasty. The original labiaplasty technique was simple resection of tissues at the edge of the labia minora. This procedure is used by most surgeons because it is easiest to perform, moreover, there also exists the possibility of everting the inner lining of the labia, which then makes visible the normally hidden internal, pink labial tissues. The advantages of edge-resection include removal of the hyper-pigmented irregular labial edges with a linear scar, another disadvantage of the trim or amputation method, is that it is unable to excise redundant tissues of the clitoral hood, when present
15.
Urination
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Urination is the release of urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body. It is the urinary systems form of excretion and it is also known medically as micturition, voiding, uresis, or, rarely, emiction, and known colloquially by various names including tinkling, peeing, weeing, whizzing, and pissing. In healthy humans the process of urination is under voluntary control, in infants, some elderly individuals, and those with neurological injury, urination may occur as a reflex. It is normal for humans to urinate up to seven times during the day. In some animals, in addition to expelling waste material, urination can mark territory or express submissiveness, physiologically, urination involves coordination between the central, autonomic, and somatic nervous systems. Brain centers that regulate urination include the pontine micturition center, periaqueductal gray, in placental mammals, urine is ejected through the penis in males and through the urethral orifice present in the vulval vestibule in females. The main organs involved in urination are the urinary bladder and the urethra, the smooth muscle of the bladder, known as the detrusor, is innervated by sympathetic nervous system fibers from the lumbar spinal cord and parasympathetic fibers from the sacral spinal cord. Part of the urethra is surrounded by the male or female external urethral sphincter, smooth muscle bundles pass on either side of the urethra, and these fibers are sometimes called the internal urethral sphincter, although they do not encircle the urethra. Further along the urethra is a sphincter of skeletal muscle, the sphincter of the membranous urethra, the bladders epithelium is termed transitional epithelium which contains a superficial layer of dome-like cells and multiple layers of stratified cuboidal cells underneath when evacuated. When the bladder is fully distended the superficial cells become squamous, the physiology of micturition and the physiologic basis of its disorders are subjects about which there is much confusion, especially at the supraspinal level. The state of the system is dependent on both a conscious signal from the brain and the firing rate of sensory fibers from the bladder. At low bladder volumes, afferent firing is low, resulting in excitation of the outlet, at high bladder volumes, afferent firing increases, causing a conscious sensation of urinary urge. When the individual is ready to urinate, he or she consciously initiates voiding, causing the bladder to contract, voiding continues until the bladder empties completely, at which point the bladder relaxes and the outlet contracts to re-initiate storage. The muscles controlling micturition are controlled by the autonomic and somatic nervous systems, during the storage phase the internal urethral sphincter remains tense and the detrusor muscle relaxed by sympathetic stimulation. During micturition, parasympathetic stimulation causes the muscle to contract. The external urethral sphincter is under control and is consciously relaxed during micturition. It is commonly believed that in infants, voiding occurs involuntarily, however, the practice of elimination communication suggests otherwise. The ability to voluntarily inhibit micturition develops by the age of 2–3 years, in the adult, the volume of urine in the bladder that normally initiates a reflex contraction is about 300–400 millilitres
16.
Smegma
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Smegma is a combination of shed skin cells, skin oils, and moisture. It occurs in both male and female mammalian genitalia, in female bodies, it collects around the clitoris and in the folds of the labia minora, in males, smegma can collect under the foreskin. The accumulation of sebum combined with dead skin cells forms smegma, Smegma clitoridis is defined as the secretion of the apocrine glands of the clitoris, in combination with desquamating epithelial cells. Glands that are located around the clitoris and the vulva majoris secrete sebum, in males, smegma helps keep the glans moist and facilitates sexual intercourse by acting as a lubricant. Smegma was originally thought to be produced by sebaceous glands near the frenulum called Tysons glands, however, parkash et al. found that smegma contains 26. 6% fats and 13. 3% proteins, which they judged to be consistent with necrotic epithelial debris. Newly produced smegma has a smooth, moist texture and it is thought to be rich in squalene and contain prostatic and seminal secretions, desquamated epithelial cells, and the mucin content of the urethral glands of Littré. Smegma contains Cathepsin B, lysozymes, chymotrypsin, neutrophil elastase, and cytokines, according to Wright, little smegma is produced during childhood, although the foreskin may contain sebaceous glands. Øster reported that the incidence of increased from 1% among 6- to 7-year-olds and 8- to 9-year-olds to 8% among 14- to 15-year-olds. There is no evidence that smegma causes penile cancer, but its presence over a period of time may irritate and inflame the penis. It may also make it harder to see very early cancers, in healthy animals, smegma helps clean and lubricate the genitals. In veterinary medicine, analysis of this smegma is sometimes used for detection of urogenital tract pathogens, some equine veterinarians have recommended periodic cleaning of male genitals to improve the health of the animal. List of cutaneous conditions Mycobacterium smegmatis - found in smegma Media related to Smegma at Wikimedia Commons
17.
Feces
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Feces or faeces are the solid or semisolid metabolic waste from an animals digestive tract, discharged through the anus or cloaca during a process called defecation. Urine and feces together are called excreta, collected feces has various uses, namely as fertilizer or soil conditioner in agriculture, as a fuel source, or for medicinal purposes. After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy and this means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles, some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. Feces and urine, which reflect light, are important to raptors such as kestrels. Seeds also may be found in feces, animals who eat fruit are known as frugivores. An advantage for a plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and this mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy predation. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle, the distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Gut flora produce compounds such as indole, skatole, and thiols and these are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of flatulence. Consumption of foods prepared with spices may result in the spices being undigested, the perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be a deterrent for humans, as consuming or touching it may result in sickness or infection. Human perception of the odor may be contrasted by an animals perception of it, for example. In humans and depending on the individual and the circumstances, defecation may occur daily, extensive hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the routine and is called constipation. Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet, normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. The brown coloration comes from a combination of bile and bilirubin, in newborn babies, initially fecal matter is yellow-green after the meconium. This coloration comes from the presence of bile alone, throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces
18.
Mons pubis
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In human anatomy, and in mammals in general, the mons pubis, is a rounded mass of fatty tissue found over the pubic symphysis of the pubic bones. For women and girls, the pubis forms the anterior portion of the vulva. The size of the mons pubis varies with the level of hormone and body fat, after puberty, it generally becomes covered with pubic hair and enlarged. The fatty tissue of the pubis is sensitive to estrogen. This pushes the forward portion of the labia majora out and away from the pubic bone, likewise, the mons pubis often becomes less prominent with the decrease in bodily estrogen experienced during menopause. The term mons pubis is derived from Latin for pubic mound, cengage Learning 2002, ISBN 978-0-7668-1142-3, p.31 Gray, Henry, Anatomy of the Human Body. Lea & Febiger,1918 Mons pubis in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, media related to Mons pubis at Wikimedia Commons Anatomy photo,41, 02-0102 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center – The Female Perineum, The Vulva
19.
Anus
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The anus is an opening at the opposite end of an animals digestive tract from the mouth. Amphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same orifice for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation, monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes via the therapsids. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a vagina for reproduction. The development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals and it appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in protostomes and deuterostomes. In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus while the gut tunnels through to make another opening. The protostomes were so named because it was thought that in their embryos the dent formed the mouth first and the anus was formed later at the opening made by the other end of the gut. More recent research, however, shows that in protostomes the edges of the dent close up in the middle, leaving openings at the ends become the mouth. Anal canal Imperforate anus, a birth defect, media related to Anus at Wikimedia Commons
20.
Wet wipe
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A wet wipe, also known as a wet towel, or a moist towelette, is a small moistened piece of paper or cloth that often comes folded and individually wrapped for convenience. Wet wipes are used for cleaning purposes, like personal hygiene or household cleaning, because of their failure to break down when flushed, they have been implicated by water companies as contributory to sewer blockages known as fatbergs. American Arthur Julius is seen as the inventor of the wet wipes, Julius worked in the cosmetics industry and adjusted 1957 a soap portionor machine, putting it in a loft in Manhattan. Julius trademarked the name Wet-Nap in 1958, a name for the product that is still being used and they are moistened with water or other liquids like isopropyl alcohol depending on the applications. The paper might be treated with softeners, lotions or added perfume to adjust the properties or feeling, preservatives such as methylisothiazolinone are used to prevent bacterial or fungal growth in the package. The finished wet wipes are folded and put in pocket size package or a box dispenser, wet wipes can serve a number of personal and household purposes. Although marketed primarily for wiping infants bottoms in diaper changing, it is not uncommon for consumers to use the product to clean floors, toilet seats. Parents also use wet wipes, or as they are called for baby care, baby wipes, for wiping up baby vomit and to clean babies hands, baby wipes are wet wipes used to cleanse the sensitive skin of infants. These are saturated with solutions anywhere from gentle cleansing ingredients to alcohol based cleaners, baby wipes are typically different pack counts, and come with dispensing mechanisms. The origin of baby wipes most likely came in the mid-1950s as more people were travelling, one of the first companies to produce these was a company called Nice-Pak. They made napkin sized paper cloth saturated with a skin cleanser. Rockline Industries of Sheboygan, Wisconsin went on to be the first to innovate the first baby wipe refill pack, the first real baby wipe products appeared on the market in 1990 and were larger companies like Kimberly-Clark who produced Huggies and Procter & Gambles Pampers. As the technology to produce wipes matured and became more affordable, by the 1990s, most super stores like Kmart and Wal-Mart had their own private label brand of wipes made by other manufacturers. After this period there was a boom in the industry and many local brands started manufacturing because of low entry barriers. Many green-minded parents, or those looking to save money, use washable baby wipes, typically small squares of material that can be pre-soaked ready to use. Because they dont contain chemicals or artificial fragrances like most disposable wipes and they are often reported to be more effective at removing solids from the skin because of their textured nature. Wet wipes began to be marketed as an option to toilet paper by 2005 by companies such as Kimberly-Clark. Many adults now use wet wipes in place of toilet paper, in Southeast Asia, wet wipes are often sold out of refrigerators to give the wipes a refreshingly cool effect
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Estrogen
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Estrogen or oestrogen is the primary female sex hormone as well as a medication. It is responsible for the development and regulation of the reproductive system. Estrogen may also refer to any substance, natural or synthetic, the estrane steroid estradiol is the most potent and prevalent endogenous estrogen, although several metabolites of estradiol also have estrogenic hormonal activity. They are one of three types of sex hormones, the others being androgens/anabolic steroids like testosterone and progestogens like progesterone, estrogens are synthesized in all vertebrates as well as some insects. Their presence in both vertebrates and insects suggests that sex hormones have an ancient evolutionary history. The three major naturally occurring forms of estrogen in women are estrone, estradiol, and estriol, another type of estrogen called estetrol is produced only during pregnancy. Quantitatively, estrogens circulate at lower levels than androgens in both men and women, while estrogen levels are significantly lower in males compared to females, estrogens nevertheless also have important physiological roles in males. Like all steroid hormones, estrogens readily diffuse across the cell membrane, once inside the cell, they bind to and activate estrogen receptors which in turn modulate the expression of many genes. Additionally, estrogens bind to and activate rapid-signaling membrane estrogen receptors, the three major naturally occurring estrogens in women are estrone, estradiol, and estriol. Estradiol is the predominant estrogen during reproductive years both in terms of serum levels as well as in terms of estrogenic activity. During menopause, estrone is the predominant circulating estrogen and during pregnancy estriol is the predominant circulating estrogen in terms of serum levels. Though estriol is the most plentiful of the three estrogens it is also the weakest, whereas estradiol is the strongest with a potency of approximately 80 times that of estriol. Thus, estradiol is the most important estrogen in non-pregnant females who are between the menarche and menopause stages of life, however, during pregnancy this role shifts to estriol, and in postmenopausal women estrone becomes the primary form of estrogen in the body. Another type of estrogen called estetrol is produced only during pregnancy, all of the different forms of estrogen are synthesized from androgens, specifically testosterone and androstenedione, by the enzyme aromatase. Estradiol, estrone, and estriol have all been approved as drugs and are used medically. Estetrol is currently under development for medical indications, but has not yet approved in any country. A variety of synthetic estrogen esters, such as estradiol valerate, estradiol cypionate, estradiol acetate, estradiol undecylate, polyestradiol phosphate, the aforementioned compounds behave as prodrugs to estradiol, and are longer-lasting in comparison. Esters of estrone and estriol also exist and are employed in clinical medicine, ethinylestradiol is a more potent synthetic analogue of estradiol that is used widely in hormonal contraceptives
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G-string
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A G-string is a type of thong, a narrow piece of fabric, leather, or satin that covers or holds the genitals, passes between the buttocks, and is attached to a band around the hips. A G-string can be worn by men and women. It may also be worn in swimwear, where it may serve as a bikini bottom, G-strings may also be worn by exotic or go-go dancers. As underwear, a G-string may be worn in preference to panties to avoid creation of a visible panty line, the two terms G-string and thong are sometimes used interchangeably, however, technically they refer to different pieces of clothing. Since the 19th century, the term geestring referred to the string which held the loincloth of Native Americans and this is apocryphal, as the narrowest string on a violin is the E string. Safire also mentions the opinion of linguist Robert Hendrickson that G stands for groin, cecil Adams, author of the blog The Straight Dope, has proposed an origin from girdle-string, which is attested as early as 1846. The G-string first appeared in costumes worn by showgirls in Earl Carrolls productions during the 1920s, linguist Robert Hendrickson believes that the G stands for groin. The Oxford English Dictionary reports that the G-string was originally a strip of fabric worn by Indian women. During the Depression, a G-string was known as the gadget, a double-entendre that referred to a handymans contrivance, during the 1930s, the Chicago G-string gained prominence when worn by performers like Margie Hart. The Chicago area was the home of some of the largest manufacturers of G-strings, in the Tarzan novels of Edgar Rice Burroughs, Tarzan is described as wearing a G-string, but in the Tarzan films he always wore a more modest loin cloth. Media related to Thong at Wikimedia Commons
23.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
25.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
26.
Gray's Anatomy
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Grays Anatomy is an English-language textbook of human anatomy originally written by Henry Gray and illustrated by Henry Vandyke Carter. Earlier editions were called Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical and Grays Anatomy, Descriptive and Applied, but the name is commonly shortened to. The book is regarded as an extremely influential work on the subject. The latest edition of the book, the 41st, was published in September 2015, the English anatomist Henry Gray was born in 1827. He studied the development of the glands and spleen and in 1853 was appointed Lecturer on Anatomy at St Georges Hospital Medical School in London. In 1855, he approached his colleague Henry Vandyke Carter with his idea to produce an inexpensive, dissecting unclaimed bodies from workhouse and hospital mortuaries through the Anatomy Act of 1832, the two worked for 18 months on what would form the basis of the book. Their work was first published in 1858 by John William Parker in London and it was dedicated by Gray to Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet. An imprint of this English first edition was published in the United States in 1859, Gray prepared a second, revised edition, which was published in the United Kingdom in 1860, also by J. W. Parker. However, Gray died the year, at the age of 34. His death had come just three years after the publication of his Anatomy Descriptive and Surgical. Even so, the work on his book was continued by others. Longmans publication reportedly began in 1863, after their acquisition of the J. W. Parker publishing business and this coincided with the publication date of the third British edition of Grays Anatomy. Lea & Febiger continued publishing the American editions until the company was sold in 1990, the first American publication was edited by Richard James Dunglison, whose father Robley Dunglison was physician to Thomas Jefferson. Dunglison edited the next four editions and these were, the Second American Edition, the New Third American from the Fifth English Edition, the New American from the Eighth English Edition, and the New American from the Tenth English Edition. W. W. Keen edited the two editions, namely, the New American from the Eleventh English Edition, and the New American from the Thirteenth English Edition. In September 1896, reference to the English edition was dropped and it was published as the Fourteenth Edition, gallaudet, F. J. Brockway, and J. P. McMurrich, who also edited the Fifteenth Edition. Pickering Pick, F. R. C. S. the Sixteenth Edition was edited by J. C. DaCosta, and the Seventeenth by DaCosta and E. A. Spitzka, Spitzka edited the Eighteenth and Nineteenth editions, and in October 1913, R. Howden edited the New American from the Eighteenth English Edition
27.
Female reproductive system
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The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in human reproduction. The female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, the internal sex organs are the uterus and Fallopian tubes, and the ovaries. The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo develops into the fetus. The uterus also produces vaginal and uterine secretions which help the transit of sperm to the Fallopian tubes, the external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris and vaginal opening. The vagina is connected to the uterus at the cervix, at certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the Fallopian tube into the uterus. If, in transit, it meets with sperm, a single sperm can enter and merge with the egg. The corresponding equivalent among males is the reproductive system. Fertilization usually occurs in the Fallopian tubes and marks the beginning of embryogenesis, the zygote will then divide over enough generations of cells to form a blastocyst, which implants itself in the wall of the uterus. This begins the period of gestation and the embryo will continue to develop until full-term, when the fetus has developed enough to survive outside the uterus, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel the newborn through the birth canal. The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, the vagina is a fibromuscular canal leading from the outside of the body to the cervix of the uterus or womb. It is also referred to as the canal in the context of pregnancy. The vagina accommodates the male penis during sexual intercourse, semen containing spermatazoa is ejaculated from the male at orgasm, into the vagina potentially enabling fertilization of the egg cell to take place. The cervix is the neck of the uterus, the lower and it is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half its length is visible, the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view, the vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the opening where the fetus emerges during delivery. The uterus or womb is the female reproductive organ. The uterus provides mechanical protection, nutritional support, and waste removal for the developing embryo, in addition, contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus are important in pushing out the fetus at the time of birth. The uterus contains three suspensory ligaments that help stabilize the position of the uterus and limits its range of movement, the uterosacral ligaments keep the body from moving inferiorly and anteriorly. The round ligaments restrict posterior movement of the uterus, the cardinal ligaments also prevent the inferior movement of the uterus
