1.
Labour Day
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Labour Day is an annual holiday to celebrate the achievements of workers. Labour Day has its origins in the union movement, specifically the eight-hour day movement, which advocated eight hours for work, eight hours for recreation. For most countries, Labour Day is synonymous with, or linked with, International Workers Day, for other countries, Labour Day is celebrated on a different date, often one with special significance for the labour movement in that country. For most countries, Labour Day is synonymous with, or linked with, International Workers Day, some countries vary the actual date of their celebrations so that the holiday occurs on a Monday close to 1 May. The remainder of this article addresses those countries for whom Labour Day is not linked to International Workers Day and it is the first Monday in October in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and South Australia. In Victoria and Tasmania, it is the second Monday in March, in Western Australia, Labour Day is the first Monday in March. In the Northern Territory and Queensland it is called May Day and it is on the fourth Monday of March in the territory of Christmas Island. The first march for a day by the labour movement occurred in Melbourne on 21 April 1856. On this day stonemasons and building workers on building sites around Melbourne stopped work and their direct action protest was a success, and they are noted as being among the first organised workers in the world to achieve an 8-hour day, with no loss of pay. Labour Day is a holiday in the Bahamas, celebrated on the first Friday in June in order to create a long weekend for workers. The traditional date of Labour Day in the Bahamas, however, is 7 June, Labour Day is meant to honor and celebrate workers and the importance of their contributions to the nation and society. In the capital city, Nassau, thousands of people come to watch a parade through the streets, for many residents and visitors to the Bahamas, the afternoon of Labour Day is a time to relax at home or perhaps visit the beach. Labour Day has been celebrated in Canada on the first Monday in September since the 1880s, the origins of Labour Day in Canada can be traced back to December 1872 when a parade was staged in support of the Toronto Typographical Unions strike for a 58-hour work-week. The Toronto Trades Assembly called its 27 unions to demonstrate in support of the Typographical Union who had been on strike since 25 March. George Brown, Canadian politician and editor of the Toronto Globe hit back at his striking employees, Labour leaders decided to call another similar demonstration on 3 September to protest the arrests. Seven unions marched in Ottawa, prompting a promise by Canadian Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald to repeal the barbarous anti-union laws, Parliament passed the Trade Union Act on 14 June the following year, and soon all unions were seeking a 54-hour work-week. The Toronto Trades and Labour Council held similar celebrations every spring, American Peter J. McGuire, co-founder of the American Federation of Labor, was asked to speak at a labour festival in Toronto, Canada on 22 July 1882. Returning to the United States, McGuire and the Knights of Labor organised a parade based on the Canadian event on 5 September 1882 in New York City
2.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
3.
Union Square, Manhattan
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The park is under the aegis of the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. Adjacent neighborhoods are the Flatiron District to the north, Chelsea to the west, Greenwich Village to the southwest, East Village to the southeast, many buildings of The New School are near the square, as are several dormitories of New York University. It features a wall sculpture and digital clock expelling bursts of steam. Among the heterogeneous assortment of buildings along the west side is the Decker Building, Union Square is noted for its impressive equestrian statue of U. S. A statue of Mahatma Gandhi in the southwest corner of the park was added in 1986, the 14th Street – Union Square New York City Subway station, served by the 456 <6> L N Q R W trains, is located under Union Square. In 1815, by act of the legislature, this former potters field became a public commons for the city. Ruggles obtained a lease on most of the surrounding lots from 15th to 19th Streets. In 1834 he convinced the Board of Aldermen to enclose and grade the square, then sold most of his leases, a fountain was built in the center of Union Square to receive water from the Croton Aqueduct, completed in 1842. The Everett House on the corner of 17th Street and Fourth Avenue was for one of the citys most fashionable hotels. In the early years of the park a fence surrounded the central oval planted with radiating walks lined with trees. In 1872, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were called in to replant the park, the last of the neighborhoods free-standing private mansions, Peter Goelets at the northeast corner of 19th Street, made way for a commercial building in 1897. The Rialto, New York Citys first commercial district, was located in. It was called the Rialto after the district in Venice. The theater district gradually re-located northward, into less expensive and undeveloped uptown neighborhoods, thus, suppliers of props, costumes, wigs, scenery, and other theatrical necessities grew up around the new theatres. The park has historically been the start or the end point for political demonstrations. In the summer of 1864 the north side of the square was the site of a Sanitary Fair, Union Square has been a frequent gathering point for radicals of all stripes to make speeches or demonstrate. On September 5,1882, in the first Labor Day celebration, on March 28,1908, an anarchist set off a bomb in Union Square which only killed himself and another man. On August 21,1893, Emma Goldman took the stage at Union Square to make her Free Bread speech to a crowd of overworked garment workers
4.
Parade
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A parade is a procession of people, usually organized along a street, often in costume, and often accompanied by marching bands, floats or sometimes large balloons. Parades are held for a range of reasons, but are usually celebrations of some kind. In Britain the term parade is usually reserved for military parades or other occasions where participants march in formation. In the Canadian Forces the term also has less formal connotations. Protest demonstrations can also take the form of a parade, the parade float got its name because the first floats were decorated barges that were towed along canals with ropes held by parade marchers on the shore. Floats were occasionally propelled from within by concealed oarsmen, but the practice was abandoned because of the incidence of drowning when the lightweight. Strikingly, among the first uses of grounded floats — towed by horses — was a ceremony in memory of recently drowned parade oarsmen, today, parade floats are traditionally pulled by motor vehicles or are powered themselves. A grand marshal is a title given to an individual by the organizing committee of a periodic parade event. Similar to guests of honor at fan conventions, a marshal is selected on any basis relevant to the theme or nature of the parade. Multiple grand marshals may often be designated for an iteration of the parade, some parades, such as pride parades, may select a Community Grand Marshal or other designations alongside a Grand Marshal to lead the front or other parts of the parade. Since the advent of technology, it became possible for aircraft. A flypast is a parade of anything from one to dozens of aircraft. They are particularly common in the United Kingdom, where they are associated with Royal occasions. Similarly, for ships, there may be a sail-past of, the longest parade in the world is the Hanover Schützenfest that takes place in Hanover every year during the Schützenfest. The parade is 12 kilometres long with more than 12,000 participants from all over the world, among more than 100 bands and around 70 floats
5.
Barbecue
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Barbecue or barbeque is both a cooking method and an apparatus. The word barbecue when used as a noun can refer to, the method itself, the meat cooked this way. The term is used as a verb, i. e. barbecuing is usually done outdoors by smoking the meat over wood or charcoal. Restaurant barbecue may be cooked in large, specially-designed brick or metal ovens, barbeque is practiced in many areas of the world and there are numerous regional variations. The English word barbecue and its cognates in other languages come from the Spanish word barbacoa, the Oxford English Dictionary traces the word to Haiti and translates it as a framework of sticks set upon posts. Gonzalo Fernández De Oviedo y Valdés, a Spanish explorer, was the first to use the word barbecoa in print in Spain in 1526 in the Diccionario de la Lengua Española of the Real Academia Española. After Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492, the Spaniards apparently found native Haitians roasting meat over a grill consisting of a wooden framework resting on sticks above a fire, the flames and smoke rose and enveloped the meat, giving it a certain flavor. The same framework was used as protection from nocturnal animal attacks. Traditional barbacoa involves digging a hole in the ground and placing some meat—usually a whole lamb—above a pot so the juices can be used to make a broth and it is then covered with maguey leaves and coal, and set alight. The cooking process takes a few hours, linguists have suggested the word barbacoa migrated from the Caribbean and into other languages and cultures, it moved from Caribbean dialects into Spanish, then Portuguese, French, and English. According to the OED, the first recorded use of the word in English was a verb in 1661, in Edmund Hickeringills Jamaica Viewed, Some are slain, And their flesh forthwith Barbacud and eat. The word barbecue was published in English in 1672 as a verb from the writings of John Lederer, the first known use of the word as a noun was in 1697 by the British buccaneer William Dampier. In his New Voyage Round the World, Dampier wrote, and lay there all night, upon our Borbecus, or frames of Sticks, raised about 3 foot from the Ground. The spelling barbeque is given in Merriam-Webster and the Oxford Dictionaries as a variant, in the southeastern United States, the word barbecue is used predominantly as a noun referring to roast pork, while in the southwestern states cuts of beef are often cooked. Because the word came from native groups, Europeans gave it savage connotations. However, according to Andrew Warnes, there is little proof that Hickeringills tale of cannibalism in the Caribbean is even remotely true. Today, those in the U. S. associate barbecue with classic Americana, in American English usage, grilling refers to a fast process over high heat while barbecuing refers to a slow process using indirect heat or hot smoke, similar to some forms of roasting. In a typical U. S. home grill, food is cooked on a grate directly over hot charcoal and its South American versions are the southern Brazilian churrasco and the Argentine asado
6.
Labor Day
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Labor Day in the United States is a public holiday celebrated on the first Monday in September. It honors the American labor movement and the contributions that workers have made to the strength, prosperity, laws and it is the Monday of the long weekend known as Labor Day Weekend and it is considered the unofficial end of summer. The holiday is also a federal holiday, beginning in the late 19th century, as the trade union and labor movements grew, trade unionists proposed that a day be set aside to celebrate labor. Labor Day was promoted by the Central Labor Union and the Knights of Labor, in 1887, Oregon was the first state of the United States to make it an official public holiday. By the time it became a federal holiday in 1894. Canadas Labour Day is also celebrated on the first Monday of September, more than 80 countries celebrate International Workers Day on May 1 – the ancient European holiday of May Day – and several countries have chosen their own dates for Labour Day. Beginning in the late 19th century, as the union and labor movements grew. In the United States a September holiday called Labor Day was first proposed in the 1880s, an early history of the holiday dates the events origins to a General Assembly of the Knights of Labor convened in New York City in September 1882. In conjunction with this clandestine Knights assembly a public parade of various organizations was held on September 5 under the auspices of the Central Labor Union of New York. In 1887 Oregon became the first state of the United States to make Labor Day an official public holiday, by the time it became an official federal holiday in 1894, thirty U. S. states officially celebrated Labor Day. Thus by 1887 in North America, Labor Day was an established, cleveland supported the creation of the national holiday in an attempt to shore up support among trade unions following the Pullman Strike. All U. S. states, the District of Columbia, and this became the pattern for Labor Day celebrations. Speeches by prominent men and women were introduced later, as emphasis was placed upon the civil significance of the holiday. Labor Day is called the end of summer because it marks the end of the cultural summer season. Many take their two-week vacations during the two weeks ending Labor Day weekend, many fall activities, such as school and sports begin about this time. In the United States, many school districts resume classes around the Labor Day holiday weekend, many districts across the Midwest are opting to begin school after Labor Day. The relevant statute has been nicknamed the Kings Dominion law after one such park, in U. S. sports, Labor Day weekend marks the beginning of many fall sports. National Collegiate Athletic Association teams usually play their first games that weekend, the Southern 500 NASCAR auto race has been held on Labor Day weekend at Darlington Raceway in Darlington, South Carolina from 1950 to 2003 and since 2015
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Public holidays in the United States
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Public holidays in the United States are largely controlled by private sector employers, who employ approximately 62% of the total U. S. population who are given paid time off. A typical work week is generally 40 hours a week with a Saturday-Sunday weekend, public holidays with paid time off is generally defined to occur on a day that is within the employees work week. When a holiday occurs on Saturday or Sunday, that holiday is shifted to either Friday or Monday, most employers follow a holiday schedule similar to the federal holidays of the United States, with exceptions or additions. The federal holiday schedule mainly benefits employees of government and government regulated businesses, however, this sector only comprises 15% of the working population. Besides paid holidays are festival and food holidays that also have wide acceptance based on sales of goods, halloween and Valentines Day are such examples of widely celebrated uncompensated holidays. Public holidays had their origins from established federal holidays that were enacted by Congress. S, demographics and have changed over time. Observances of holidays are most commonly observed with paid time off, however, some are observed with community work depending on the meaning of the holiday. They are however not mandated by any government, agencies, whether it be federal, state, there are no national holidays on which all businesses are closed by law. Federal holidays are only established for certain federally chartered and regulated businesses, all other public holidays are created by the States, most states also allow local jurisdictions to establish their own local holidays. As a result, holidays have not historically been governed at the federal level, some states restrict some business activities on some holidays. Business closures are mandated on some holidays in some states for certain kinds of businesses by Blue Laws, for example, some businesses cannot open on Thanksgiving Day in some New England states if the businesses operated on more than 5000 square feet of space. The most notable businesses to close on such occasions are car dealerships, as of 2012, there were eleven federal holidays in the United States, ten annual holidays and one quadrennial holiday. Pursuant to the Uniform Monday Holiday Act of 1968, official holidays are observed on a Monday, except for New Years Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, Thanksgiving, many states also have additional holidays that are not observed by the U. S. federal government. Many businesses likewise observe certain holidays as well, which are not mandated by any government agency. Day to embrace the mostly disenfranchised African American community in the form of festivals, illinois and Berkeley, California are two places where Malcolm X is honored with a legal holiday with offices closed whereas Missouri honored Rosa Parks on her birthday. Today, the United States is the 85th most ethnically diverse country in the world, while the popularity of each public holiday cannot easily be measured, the holiday with the highest greeting card sales is Christmas. Major retail establishments such as malls, shopping centers and most retail stores only on Thanksgiving and Christmas and some on Easter Sunday as well. Virtually all companies observe and close on the major holidays, some non-retail business close on the day after Thanksgiving, while some are not allowed to close on the day after Thanksgiving
9.
Labor history of the United States
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The labor history of the United States describes the history of organized labor, as well as more general history of working people, in the United States. Unions have been important components of the Democratic Party, but that began in the 1930s, however, historians have long debated why no Labor Party emerged in the United States, in contrast to Western Europe. As commentator E. J. Dionne has noted, the movement has traditionally espoused a set of values—solidarity being the most important. Dionne notes that these values are increasingly foreign to American culture, in most industrial nations the labor movement sponsored its own political parties, with the U. S. as a conspicuous exception. Both major American parties vied for votes, with the Democrats usually much more successful. Labor unions became an element of the New Deal Coalition that dominated national politics from the 1930s into the mid-1960s during the Fifth Party System. Liberal Republicans who supported unions in the Northeast lost power after 1964, the history of organized labor has been a specialty of scholars since the 1890s, and has produced a large amount of scholarly literature focused on the structure of organized unions. In the 1960s, as social history gained popularity, a new emphasis emerged on the history of workers, including unorganized workers and this is called the new labor history. Much scholarship has attempted to bring the social history perspectives into the study of organized labor, the history of labor disputes in America substantially precedes the Revolutionary period. In 1636, for instance, there was a strike on an island off the coast of Maine. However, most instances of labor unrest during the period were temporary and isolated. Little legal recourse was available to those injured by the unrest, the only known case of criminal prosecution of workers in the colonial era occurred as a result of a carpenters strike in Savannah, Georgia, in 1746. By the beginning of the 19th century, after the revolution, the career path for most artisans still involved apprenticeship under a master, followed by moving into independent production. However, over the course of the Industrial Revolution, this rapidly changed. For instance, in Boston in 1790, the vast majority of the 1,300 artisans in the city described themselves as master workman, by 1815, journeymen workers without independent means of production had displaced these masters as the majority. By that time journeymen also outnumbered masters in New York City and this shift occurred as a result of large-scale transatlantic and rural-urban migration. Migration into the cities created a larger population of potential laborers. These conditions led to the first labor combination cases in America, the cases overwhelmingly resulted in convictions
10.
United States labor law
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United States labor law sets the rights and duties for employees, labor unions, and employers in the United States. Labor laws basic aim is to remedy the inequality of bargaining power between employees and employers, especially employers organized in the corporate or other forms of ownership association. Over the 20th century, federal law created a series of social and economic rights. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 requires employees have a system of work. A contract of employment can always improve standards beyond the statutory rights. To get fair terms beyond the minimum, and improve upon individual contracts. The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 creates rights for most employees to organize a labor union, under the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959, labor union governance follows democratic principles. In any workplace where a majority of support a union. Unions can take action to defend their interests, including withdrawing their labor on strike. There are not yet general rights to participate in enterprise governance. Since the Civil Rights Act of 1964, all employing entities and labor unions have a duty to treat equally, without discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex. There are separate rules for sex discrimination in pay under the Equal Pay Act of 1963, additional groups with protected status were added by the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. There is no law banning all sexual orientation or identity discrimination. These equality laws generally prevent discrimination in hiring, terms of employment, there is not a federal law against unjust discharge, and most states also have no law with full protection against wrongful termination of employment. Job security rights in the US are not weaker than in all industrialized countries. On the other hand, collective agreements made by labor unions, the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 requires employing entities give 60 days notice if more than 50 or one third of the workforce may lose their jobs. Federal law has sought to reach full employment through monetary policy, the National Labor Relations Act gave a general right to organize in a trade union and collectively bargain. In re Debs,64 Fed 724,158 U. S.564 imposed an injunction on the workers of the Pullman Company
11.
Federal holidays in the United States
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In the United States, a federal holiday is an authorized holiday which has been recognized by the US government. Every year on a US federal holiday, non-essential federal government offices are closed, private-sector employees required to work on a legal holiday may receive holiday pay in addition to their ordinary wages. Federal holidays are designated by the United States Congress in Title V of the United States Code, Congress has authority to create holidays only for federal institutions and employees, and for the District of Columbia. However, as a general rule other institutions, including banks, post offices, in various parts of the country, state and city holidays may be observed in addition to the federal holidays. The history of federal holidays in the United States dates back to June 28,1870, and. in every State of the Union. Although at first applicable only to employees in the District of Columbia. The original four holidays were, New Years Day Independence Day Thanksgiving Day Christmas Day George Washingtons Birthday became a Federal holiday in 1880, in 1888 and 1894, respectively, Decoration Day and Labor Day were created. In 1938, Armistice Day was created to mark the end of World War I, the scope and the name of the holiday was expanded in 1954 to honor Americans who fought in World War II and the Korean War. In 1968, the Monday Holiday Act of 1968 shifted several holidays to always fall on a Monday, in 1983, the Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. became the nations most recently established holiday. Most of the ten U. S. federal holidays are also state holidays, a holiday that falls on a weekend is usually observed on the closest weekday. The official names came from the laws that define holidays for federal employees, New Years Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas Day are observed on the same calendar date each year. Holidays that fall on a Saturday are observed by federal employees who work a standard Monday to Friday week on the previous Friday, Federal employees who work on Saturday will observe the holiday on Saturday, Friday will be a regular work day. Holidays that fall on a Sunday are observed by workers the following Monday. The other holidays always fall on a day of the week. Although many states recognize most or all federal holidays as state holidays, furthermore, states can recognize other days as state holidays that are not federal holidays. Private employers also cannot be required to observe federal or state holidays, some private employers, often by a union contract, pay a differential such as time-and-a-half or double-time to employees who work on some federal holidays. However, most non-unionized private sector employees only receive their pay for working on a federal holiday if it is not a designated holiday at their company. Over the course of U. S. history, federal holidays were created, two holidays, the Eighth and Victory Day, were once celebrated
12.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
13.
Knights of Labor
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Knights of Labor, officially Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor, was the largest and one of the most important American labor organizations of the 1880s. Its most important leader was Terence V. Powderly, the Knights promoted the social and cultural uplift of the workingman, rejected socialism and anarchism, demanded the eight-hour day, and promoted the producers ethic of republicanism. It was founded by Uriah Stephens on December 28,1869, reached 28,000 members in 1880, by 1886 20% of all workers were affiliated with the KOL, ballooning to nearly 800,000 members. Its frail organizational structure could not cope as it was battered by charges of failure and violence, most members abandoned the movement in 1886-87, leaving at most 100,000 in 1890. Many of them chose to join groups that helped to identify their specific need, furthermore, the Panic of 1893 terminated the Knights of Labors importance. Remnants of the Knights of Labor continued in existence until 1949, in 1869, Uriah Smith Stephens, James L. Wright, and a small group of Philadelphia tailors founded a secret organization known as the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor. The collapse of the National Labor Union in 1873 left a vacuum for workers looking for organization, the Knights became better organized with a national vision when they replaced Stephens with Terence V. Powderly. The body became popular with Pennsylvania coal miners during the depression of the mid-1870s. The KOL was an industrial union open to all workers. The leaders felt that it was best to have a population in order to get points of view from all aspects. Its members included low skilled workers, railroad workers, immigrants, as membership expanded, the Knights began to function more as a labor union and less like a fraternal organization. Local assemblies began not only to emphasize cooperative enterprises, but to initiate strikes to win concessions from employers, Powderly opposed strikes as a relic of barbarism, but the size and the diversity of the Knights afforded local assemblies a great deal of autonomy. In 1882, the Knights ended their membership rituals and removed the words Noble Order from their name and this was to mollify the concerns of Catholic members and the bishops who wanted to avoid any resemblance to freemasonry. Though initially averse to strikes as a method to advance their goals, the Wabash Railroad strike in 1885 was also a significant success, as Powderly finally supported what became a successful strike on Jay Goulds Wabash Line. Gould met with Powderly and agreed to call off his campaign against the Knights of Labor and these positive developments gave momentum and a surge of members, so by 1886, the Knights had over 700,000 members. The Knights primary demand was for a day, they also called for legislation to end child and convict labor. They were eager supporters of cooperatives and these reports made Barry the first person to collect national statistics on the American working woman. Powderly and the Organization tried to avoid political issues, but in the early 1880s
14.
Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
15.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
16.
International Workers' Day
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Being a traditional European spring celebration, May Day is a national public holiday in several European countries. The date is currently celebrated specifically as Labour Day or International Workers Day in the majority of countries, some countries celebrate a Labour Day on other dates significant to them, such as the United States, which celebrates Labor Day on the first Monday of September. Beginning in the late 19th century, as the union and labour movements grew. In the United States and Canada, a September holiday, called Labor or Labour Day, was first proposed in the 1880s. In 1882, Matthew Maguire, a machinist, first proposed a Labor Day holiday on the first Monday of September while serving as secretary of the Central Labor Union of New York. Others argue that it was first proposed by Peter J. McGuire of the American Federation of Labor in May 1882, after witnessing the annual festival held in Toronto. In 1887, Oregon was the first state of the United States to make it a public holiday. By the time it became a federal holiday in 1894. Thus by 1887 in North America, Labor Day was an established, official holiday but in September,1 May was chosen to be International Workers Day to commemorate the 4 May 1886 Haymarket affair in Chicago. The police were trying to disperse an assembly during a general strike for the eight-hour workday. The police responded by firing on the workers, killing four demonstrators, the following day on 5 May in Milwaukee Wisconsin, the state militia fired on a crowd of strikers killing seven, including a schoolboy and a man feeding chickens in his yard. May Day was formally recognised as an event at the Internationals second congress in 1891. Subsequently, the May Day riots of 1894 occurred, the congress made it mandatory upon the proletarian organisations of all countries to stop work on 1 May, wherever it is possible without injury to the workers. May Day has long been a point for demonstrations by various socialist, communist and anarchist groups. May Day is one of the most important holidays in countries such as the Peoples Republic of China, North Korea, Cuba. May Day celebrations in these countries typically feature elaborate workforce parades, in 1955, the Catholic Church dedicated 1 May to Saint Joseph the Worker. Saint Joseph is the saint of workers and craftsmen, among others. It became an symbol of that period
17.
May Day
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May Day is a public holiday usually celebrated on May 1. It is an ancient northern hemisphere spring festival and it is also a traditional spring holiday in many cultures. Dances, singing, and cake are usually part of the celebrations that the day includes, in the late 19th century, May Day was chosen as the date for International Workers Day by the Socialists and Communists of the Second International to commemorate the Haymarket affair in Chicago. International Workers Day may also be referred to as May Day and it is also associated with the Gaelic Beltane, most commonly held on April 30. The day was a summer holiday in many pre-Christian European pagan cultures. While February 1 was the first day of spring, May 1 was the first day of summer, hence, as Europe became Christianised, the pagan holidays lost their religious character and May Day changed into a popular secular celebration. A significant celebration of May Day occurs in Germany where it is one of days on which St. Walburga. The secular versions of May Day, observed in Europe and America, may be best known for their traditions of dancing around the maypole and crowning the Queen of May. Fading in popularity since the late 20th century is the giving of May baskets, small baskets of sweets or flowers, usually left anonymously on neighbours doorsteps. May 1 is also one of two feast days of the Catholic patron saint of workers St Joseph the Worker, a carpenter, husband to Mother Mary, and surrogate father of Jesus. Replacing another feast to St. Joseph, this date was chosen by Pope Pius XII in 1955 as a counterpoint to the communist International Workers Day celebrations on May Day. In the late 20th century, many neopagans began reconstructing traditions, traditional English May Day rites and celebrations include crowning a May Queen and celebrations involving a maypole. Historically, Morris dancing has been linked to May Day celebrations, much of this tradition derives from the pagan Anglo-Saxon customs held during Þrimilci-mōnaþ along with many Celtic traditions. May Day has been a day of festivities throughout the centuries. May Day is most associated with towns and villages celebrating springtime fertility and revelry with village fetes, seeding has been completed by this date and it was convenient to give farm labourers a day off. Perhaps the most significant of the traditions is the maypole, around which traditional dancers circle with ribbons, the spring bank holiday on the first Monday in May was created in 1978, May Day itself – May 1 – is not a public holiday in England. Unlike the other Bank Holidays and common law holidays, the first Monday in May is taken off from schools by itself and this is because it has no Christian significance and does not otherwise fit into the usual school holiday pattern. May Day was abolished and its celebration banned by Puritan parliaments during the Interregnum, may 1,1707, was the day the Act of Union came into effect, joining England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain
18.
Peter J. McGuire
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Peter J. McGuire was an American labor leader of the nineteenth century. He is credited with first proposing the idea of Labor Day as a holiday in 1882. Born in New York City into a poor Irish Catholic family and he became a member in 1873 of a body known as the Committee for Public Safety, which was agitating for unemployment benefits. McGuire was arrested while occupying the office of the citys Police Commissioner, McGuire founded and edited a paper known as The Toiler, toured the United States lecturing for the party, and worked as a carpenter during the 1870s. McGuire believed that political organizing held more promise for advancing workers rights than unionism did during this decade and he led a successful strike of carpenters in St. Louis for the eight-hour day. With the collapse of the Greenback Labor Party, he became committed to unionism. As a member of the Knights of Labor who disagreed with some of the policies of the Knights of Labor. He attended one of the meetings that led to the organization of the Federation of Organized Trades. McGuire served as Vice-President of the Federation and its successor, the American Federation of Labor, for most of the two decades. The Carpenters Union proposed to do this by controlling the supply of labor, organizing the entire industry, in order to do that, the union first had to either absorb or eliminate rival unions in the industry. McGuire negotiated reciprocal arrangements with some unions, such as the Amalgamated Society, McGuire also negotiated jurisdictional agreements with other unions, such as the Shipwrights Union and the Wood Workers, with competing claims to work that the Carpenters claimed. McGuire had been not only the leader that the union had for its first twenty years. That, along with his attitude toward rival unions, gave rise to widespread opposition to his administration at the beginning of the twentieth century. His opponents demanded an audit of the records, which showed that approximately ten thousand dollars could not be accounted for. McGuire was arrested for embezzlement in 1901 and voted out of office in 1902, at the 1902 Carpenters convention, the last he attended, he addressed the delegates, man wears out like a piece of machinery. I am not lost entirely in this world but I have had enough to me physically. McGuire died four years later, his death hastened by alcoholism and he is buried in Arlington Cemetery in Pennsauken Township, New Jersey. In 2014, McGurie was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame, photo of wreath-laying ceremony honoring McGuire as the Father of Labor Day
19.
American Federation of Labor
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The American Federation of Labor was a national federation of labor unions in the United States. It was founded in Columbus, Ohio, in December 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers International Union was elected president of the Federation at its convention and was reelected every year except one until his death in 1924. The American Federation of Labor organized as an association of trade unions in 1886, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions also merged into what would become the American Federation of Labor. In January 1886, the Cigar Manufacturers Association of New York City attempted to flex its muscle by announcing a 20 percent wage cut in factories around the city. The Cigar Makers International Union refused to accept the cut and 6,000 of its members in 19 factories were locked out by the owners, a strike lasting four weeks ensued. The leadership of the CMIU was enraged and demanded that the New York District Assembly be investigated and punished by the officials of the Knights of Labor. The committee of investigation was controlled by individuals friendly to the New York District Assembly, however, the American Federation of Labor was thus originally formed as an alliance of craft unions outside the Knights of Labor as a means of defending themselves against this and similar incursions. The call stated that an element of the Knights of Labor was doing work and causing incalculable mischief by arousing antagonisms. Forty-three invitations were mailed, which drew the attendance of 20 delegates, the actions of the New York District Assembly of the K of L were upheld. Forty-two delegates representing 13 national unions and various local labor organizations responded to the call. Revenue for the new organization was to be raised on the basis of a tax of its member organizations. Governance of the organization was to be by annual conventions, with one delegate allocated for every 4,000 members of each affiliated union. Gompers would ultimately be re-elected to the position by annual conventions of the organization for every year one until his death nearly four decades later. Headway was made in the form of endorsement by various local labor bodies, the group from the outset concentrated upon the income and working conditions of its membership as its almost sole focus. The AFLs founding convention declaring higher wages and a shorter workday to be preliminary steps toward great, participation in partisan politics was avoided as inherently divisive, and the groups constitution was structured to prevent the admission of political parties as affiliates. The AFL faced its first major reversal when employers launched an open shop movement in 1903 designed to drive out of construction, mining, longshore. Ever the pragmatist, Gompers argued that labor should reward its friends, after 1908, the organizations tie to the Democratic party grew increasingly strong
20.
Independence Day (United States)
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It declared that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as a new nation, the United States of America, and were no longer part of the British Empire. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States, Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail, The second day of July,1776, I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, adamss prediction was off by two days. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2,1776, although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4,1831. He was the third President in a row who died on the anniversary of independence, calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4,1872, so far he is the only U. S. President to have been born on Independence Day. In 1777 thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting. In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a ration of rum for his soldiers. Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, in 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5, in 1781 the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration. In 1783, Moravians in Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration of July 4 with a music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter. This work was titled The Psalm of Joy and this is recognized as the first recorded celebration and is still celebrated there today. In 1870 the U. S. Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees, in 1938 Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday. Independence Day is a holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on day to appear at a public event to praise the nations heritage, laws, history, society. Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue, many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, decorations are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag
21.
Thanksgiving
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Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday celebrated in Canada, in the United States, in some of the Caribbean islands and in Liberia. It was originally celebrated as a day of giving thanks for the blessing of the harvest, similarly named festival holidays occur in Germany and Japan. Thanksgiving is celebrated on the second Monday of October in Canada and on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States, although Thanksgiving has historical roots in religious and cultural traditions, it has long been celebrated as a secular holiday as well. Prayers of thanks and special thanksgiving ceremonies are common among almost all religions after harvests, the Thanksgiving holidays history in North America is rooted in English traditions dating from the Protestant Reformation. It also has aspects of a harvest festival, even though the harvest in New England occurs well before the date on which the modern Thanksgiving holiday is celebrated. Before 1536 there were 95 Church holidays, plus 52 Sundays, the 1536 reforms reduced the number of Church holidays to 27, but some Puritans wished to completely eliminate all Church holidays, including Christmas and Easter. The holidays were to be replaced by specially called Days of Fasting or Days of Thanksgiving, unexpected disasters or threats of judgement from on high called for Days of Fasting. Special blessings, viewed as coming from God, called for Days of Thanksgiving, for example, Days of Fasting were called on account of drought in 1611, floods in 1613, and plagues in 1604 and 1622. Days of Thanksgiving were called following the victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588, an unusual annual Day of Thanksgiving began in 1606 following the failure of the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and developed into Guy Fawkes Day on November 5. Some researchers state that there is no compelling narrative of the origins of the Canadian Thanksgiving day, the origins of Canadian Thanksgiving are also sometimes traced to the French settlers who came to New France in the 17th century, who celebrated their successful harvests. The French settlers in the area typically had feasts at the end of the harvest season and continued throughout the winter season, as settlers arrived in Nova Scotia from New England after 1700, late autumn Thanksgiving celebrations became commonplace. New immigrants into the country—such as the Irish, Scottish, most of the US aspects of Thanksgiving, were incorporated when United Empire Loyalists began to flee from the United States during the American Revolution and settled in Canada. The 1621 Plymouth feast and thanksgiving was prompted by a good harvest, Pilgrims and Puritans who began emigrating from England in the 1620s and 1630s carried the tradition of Days of Fasting and Days of Thanksgiving with them to New England. In the land of Virginia shall be yearly and perpetually kept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God, now called Oktober Feesten, Leidens autumn thanksgiving celebration in 1617 was the occasion for sectarian disturbance that appears to have accelerated the pilgrims plans to emigrate to America. Later in Massachusetts, religious thanksgiving services were declared by civil leaders such as Governor Bradford, the practice of holding an annual harvest festival did not become a regular affair in New England until the late 1660s. Thanksgiving proclamations were made mostly by church leaders in New England up until 1682, during the revolutionary period, political influences affected the issuance of Thanksgiving proclamations. Various proclamations were made by governors, John Hancock, General George Washington. James Baker maintains, The American holidays true origin was the New England Calvinist Thanksgiving, never coupled with a Sabbath meeting, the Puritan observances were special days set aside during the week for thanksgiving and praise in response to Gods providence
22.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
23.
Territories of the United States
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Territories of the United States are sub-national administrative divisions directly overseen by the United States federal government. These territories are classified by whether they are incorporated and whether they have a government through an Organic Act passed by the U. S. Congress. Currently, the United States has sixteen territories, five of which are inhabited, Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, the U. S. Virgin Islands. They are classified as unincorporated territories and they are organized, self-governing territories with locally elected governors and territorial legislatures. Each also elects a member to the U. S. House of Representatives. Eleven territories are small islands, atolls and reefs, spread across the Caribbean and Pacific, the status of some are disputed by Colombia, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, and the Marshall Islands. The Palmyra Atoll is the territory currently incorporated. Historically, territories were created to govern newly acquired land while the borders of the United States were still evolving, other territories administered by the United States went on to become independent countries, such as the Philippines, Micronesia, Marshall Islands and Palau. Many organized incorporated territories of the United States existed from 1789 to 1959, currently, the United States has sixteen territories, five of which are permanently inhabited, Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, United States Virgin Islands and American Samoa. The 11 uninhabited territories administered by the Interior Department are Palmyra Atoll, Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, while claimed by the US, Navassa Island, Wake Island, Serranilla Bank and Bajo Nuevo Bank are disputed. Territories have always been a part of the United States, by Act of Congress, the term United States, when used in a geographical sense, means the continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Virgin Islands of the United States. Since political union with the Northern Mariana Islands in 1986, they too are treated as a part of the U. S, an Executive Order in 2007 includes American Samoa as U. S. geographical extent duly reflected in U. S. State Department documents. Approximately 4 million islanders are U. S. citizens, about 32,000 U. S. non-citizen nationals live in American Samoa, under current law among the territories, only persons born in American Samoa and Swains Island are non-citizen U. S. nationals. American Samoans are under the protection of the U. S. with freedom of U. S. travel without visas. The five inhabited U. S. territories have local voting rights and protections under U. S. courts, pay some U. S. taxes, depending on the congress, they may also vote on the floor in the House Committee of the Whole. S. Every four years, the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their candidates at conventions which include delegates from the five major territories. The citizens there, however, do not vote in the election for U. S. President. S. Incorporated territories are considered a part of the United States
24.
Eight-hour day
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The use of child labour was common. The working day could range from 10 to 16 hours for six days a week, robert Owen had raised the demand for a ten-hour day in 1810, and instituted it in his socialist enterprise at New Lanark. By 1817 he had formulated the goal of the day and coined the slogan, Eight hours labour, Eight hours recreation. Women and children in England were granted the day in 1847. French workers won the 12-hour day after the February revolution of 1848, a shorter working day and improved working conditions were part of the general protests and agitation for Chartist reforms and the early organisation of trade unions. Karl Marx saw it as of importance to the workers health, saying in Das Kapital, By extending the working day, therefore. The first international treaty to mention it was the Treaty of Versailles in the annex of its thirteen part establishing the International Labour Office, now the International Labour Organization. The eight-hour day was the first topic discussed by the International Labour Organization which resulted in the Hours of Work Convention,1919 ratified by 52 countries as of 2016. The eight-hour day movement forms part of the history for the celebration of Labour Day. In Iran in 1918, the work of reorganizing the trade began in earnest in Tehran during the closure of the Iranian constitutional parliament Majles. In 1918, the newly organised union staged a 14-day strike and succeeded in reaching an agreement with employers to institute the eight-hours day, overtime pay. The success of the printers union encouraged other trades to organize, in 1919 the bakers and textile-shop clerks formed their own trade unions. In 1946 the council of ministers issued the first labor law for Iran, the first company to introduce an eight-hour working day in Japan was the Kawasaki Dockyards in Kobe. An eight-hour day was one of the demands presented by the workers during pay negotiations in September 1919, after the company resisted the demands, a slowdown campaign was commenced by the workers on 18 September. After ten days of action, company president Kōjirō Matsukata agreed to the eight-hour day and wage increases on 27 September. The effects of the action were felt nationwide and inspired further industrial action at the Kawasaki, the eight-hour day did not become law in Japan until the passing of the Labor Standards Act in April 1947. Article 32 of the Act specifies a 40-hour week and paragraph specifies an eight-hour day, the Eight-hour day was enacted in France by Georges Clemenceau, as a way to avoid unemployment and diminish communist support. It was succeeded by a strong French support of it during the writing of the International Labour Organization Convention of 1919, at the turn of the 20th century the eight-hour day was introduced by Ernst Abbe at the Zeiss plants in Jena
25.
Haymarket affair
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The Haymarket affair was the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4,1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago. It began as a rally in support of workers striking for an eight-hour day. An unknown person threw a bomb at police as they acted to disperse the public meeting. The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven officers and at least four civilians. In the internationally publicized legal proceedings followed, eight anarchists were convicted of conspiracy. The evidence was one of the defendants may have built the bomb. Seven were sentenced to death and one to a term of 15 years in prison, the death sentences of two of the defendants were commuted by Illinois governor Richard J. Oglesby to terms of life in prison, and another committed suicide in jail rather than face the gallows. The other four were hanged on November 11,1887, in 1893, Illinois new governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned the remaining defendants and criticized the trial. The Haymarket affair is considered significant as the origin of international May Day observances for workers. The site of the incident was designated a Chicago Landmark in 1992, in addition, the Haymarket Martyrs Monument at the defendants burial site in nearby Forest Park was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1997. No single event has influenced the history of labor in Illinois, the United States and it began with a rally on May 4,1886, but the consequences are still being felt today. Although the rally is included in American history textbooks, very few present the event accurately or point out its significance, following the Civil War, particularly following the Depression of 1873–79, there was a rapid expansion of industrial production in the United States. Chicago was an industrial center and tens of thousands of German and Bohemian immigrants were employed at about $1.50 a day. American workers worked on average slightly over 60 hours, during a work week. The city became a center for many attempts to organize labors demands for better working conditions, mainstream newspapers supported business interests, and were opposed by the labor and immigrant press. During the economic slowdown between 1882 and 1886, socialist and anarchist organizations were active, membership of the Knights of Labor, which rejected socialism and radicalism, but supported the 8-hour work day, grew from 70,000 in 1884 to over 700,000 by 1886. In Chicago, the anarchist movement of several thousand, mostly immigrant, workers centered about the German-language newspaper Arbeiter-Zeitung, other anarchists operated a militant revolutionary force with an armed section that was equipped with guns and explosives. In October 1884, a held by the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions unanimously set May 1,1886
26.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
27.
Grover Cleveland
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Stephen Grover Cleveland was an American politician and lawyer who was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States. He was also the first and to date only President in American history to serve two terms in office. Cleveland was the leader of the pro-business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs, Free Silver, inflation, imperialism and his crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era. Cleveland won praise for his honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and he fought political corruption, patronage, and bossism. As a reformer Cleveland had such prestige that the wing of the Republican Party, called Mugwumps, largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket. As his second administration began, disaster hit the nation when the Panic of 1893 produced a national depression. It ruined his Democratic Party, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian, the result was a political realignment that ended the Third Party System and launched the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era. Cleveland was a formidable policymaker, and he also drew corresponding criticism, critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nations economic disasters—depressions and strikes—in his second term. Even so, his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term, biographer Allan Nevins wrote, n Grover Cleveland, the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities. He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have and he possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense. But he possessed them to a degree other men do not, today, Cleveland is considered by most historians to have been a successful leader, generally ranked among the second tier of American presidents. Stephen Grover Cleveland was born on March 18,1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey to Richard Falley Cleveland, Clevelands father was a Presbyterian minister who was originally from Connecticut. His mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a bookseller, on his fathers side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first of the family having emigrated to Massachusetts from Cleveland, England in 1635. On his mothers side, he was descended from Anglo-Irish Protestants and he was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland, after whom the city of Cleveland, Ohio, was named. Cleveland, the fifth of nine children, was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell and he became known as Grover in his adult life. In 1841, the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville, New York, neighbors later described him as full of fun and inclined to play pranks, and fond of outdoor sports. In 1850, Clevelands father took a pastorate in Clinton, Oneida County, New York, despite his fathers dedication to his missionary work, the income was insufficient for the large family. Financial conditions forced him to remove Grover from school into a mercantile apprenticeship in Fayetteville
28.
Vacation
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A vacation or holiday is a leave of absence from a regular occupation, or a specific trip or journey, usually for the purpose of recreation or tourism. People often take a vacation during specific holiday observances, or for festivals or celebrations. Vacations are often spent with friends or family, a person may take a longer break from work, such as a sabbatical, gap year, or career break. The concept of taking a vacation is a recent invention, and has developed through the last two centuries, historically, the idea of travel for recreation was a luxury that only wealthy people could afford. In the Puritan culture of early America, taking a break from work for other than weekly observance of the Sabbath was frowned upon. However, the concept of vacation was led by a later religious movement encouraging spiritual retreat. The notion of breaking from work periodically took root among the middle, in the United Kingdom, vacation once specifically referred to the long summer break taken by the law courts and then later the term was applied to universities. The custom was introduced by William the Conqueror from Normandy where it facilitated the grape harvest, in the past, many upper-class families moved to a summer home for part of the year, leaving their usual home vacant. Recent developments in communication technology—internet, mobile, instant messaging, presence tracking, Vacation today means absence from the workplace rather than temporary cession of work. It is now the norm in North America and Great Britain to carry on working or remain on call while on vacation rather than abandon work altogether, office employees telecommute whilst on vacation. Workers may choose to unplug for a portion of a day, antithetically, workers may take time out of the office to go on vacation, but remain plugged-in to work-related communications networks. While remaining plugged-in over vacation may generate short-term business benefits, the psychological impacts of these developments are only beginning to be understood. Vacation, in English-speaking North America, describes recreational travel, such as a pleasure trip. People in Commonwealth countries use the term holiday to describe absence from work as well as to describe a vacation or journey, Vacation can mean either staying home or going somewhere. Canadians often use vacation and holiday interchangeably referring to an away from home or time off work. In Australia and the UK, holiday can refer to a vacation or a public holiday, the scions of New York City took to declaring that they would “vacate” their city homes for their lakeside summer retreats, and the term “vacation” replaced the British “holiday” in common parlance. In Hungarian, the word vakáció can mean both a recreational trip, an officially granted absence from work, and the school break. For absence from work, the word szabadság can be used, family vacation refers to recreation taken together by the family
29.
First day of school
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The first day of school is the first day of an academic year. The timing varies between different areas around the world because of the differences in weather, climate, season, law and it is most common in Canada, and parts of the US to start school the day after Labor Day. The first day of school in Argentina is on the last Monday of February or the first Monday of March, high school usually begins one week later than South Colombia elementary school. The first day of school is on the week of September. The school year usually begins during February and as late as March for some universities and its usual to have a 2–3 weeks recess by the mid of the year and an ending by mid December. The first day of school, in most provinces, is on the Tuesday after the first Monday in September, but varies based on the individual school boards. In some areas, including Newfoundland and Labrador, school begins for faculty and staff on the day after Labour Day, in Quebec, CEGEP students typically start school the third week of August. University students start school between the first and the week of September. Elementary and high school students start back the last week of August, anywhere from Tuesday - Thursday and on the occasion will start after Labour Day. In Edmonton, three specific Catholic schools start at the week of August. The rest of schools will start at the week of September, and on rare occasions. The first day of school in Chile is on March 1, or the first Monday following if March 1 is a Friday, Saturday, the first day of school in Costa Rica is in early February. The Education Ministry changes the date every year to ensure 200 effective days are in the school calendar, the first day of school in Guatemala begins on the second Monday in January. The first day of school in Mexico begins on the second to last Monday in August and it is hard to generalize the first day of school for the United States because there are 50 different states each with many districts which all start school on different days. When the first day of school is and what happens on the first day of school usually vary by region, school tends to start a few weeks earlier in the west than the east. The first day of school for school districts in various states is on the day after Labor Day. On that day, public transportation services increase and start the rush hour earlier, in some other school districts, school begins in mid- to late August. For instance, the Denver, Colorado metro area schools go back in mid-August and schools in the Cleveland, schools in Arkansas usually start around the fifteenth of August
30.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
31.
Amusement park
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An amusement park or theme park is a group of entertainment attractions, rides, and other events in a location for the enjoyment of large numbers of people. Theme parks, a type of amusement park, are usually much more intricately themed to a certain subject or group of subjects than normal amusement parks. Amusement parks evolved from European fairs and pleasure gardens, which were created for peoples recreation, Worlds fairs and expositions were another influence on the development of the amusement park industry. In common language, the theme park and amusement park are often synonymous. However, a park can be regarded as a distinct style of amusement park. A theme park has landscaping, buildings, and attractions that are based on one or more specific themes or stories. The amusement park evolved from three earlier traditions, the oldest being the periodic fair of the Middle Ages - one of the earliest was the Bartholomew Fair in England, the worlds oldest amusement park appeared in the Continent. Bakken at Klampenborg, north of Copenhagen, Denmark, opened in 1583, a wave of innovation in the 1860s and 1870s created mechanical rides, such as the steam-powered carousel, and its derivatives. This inaugurated the era of the modern funfair ride, as the classes were increasingly able to spend their surplus wages on entertainment. The second influence was the pleasure garden, one of the earliest gardens was the Vauxhall Gardens, founded in 1661 in London. By the late 18th century, the site had a fee for its many attractions. It regularly drew crowds, with its paths being noted for romantic assignations, tightrope walkers, hot air balloon ascents, concerts. Although the gardens were designed for the elites, they soon became places of great social diversity. Public firework displays were put on at Marylebone Gardens, and Cremorne Gardens offered music, dancing, prater in Vienna, Austria, was opened in 1766. The concept of a park for amusement was further developed with the beginning of the worlds fairs. The first World fair began in 1851 with the construction of the landmark Crystal Palace in London, the purpose of the exposition was to celebrate the industrial achievement of the nations of the world and it was designed to educate and entertain the visitors. American cities and business saw the worlds fair as a way of demonstrating economic. The Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, Illinois was an precursor to the modern amusement park
32.
Kings Dominion
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Kings Dominion is a theme park in Doswell, Virginia 20 miles north of Richmond and 75 miles south of Washington, D. C. off Interstate 95. The 400-acre park opened on May 3,1975, and is owned by Cedar Fair and offers over 60 rides, shows and attractions including 13 roller coasters. The name given to the park is derived from the name of its park, Kings Island. Following the success of Kings Island in Mason, Ohio, northeast of Cincinnati, a 400-acre site was chosen in Doswell, Virginia, north of Richmond in the heart of the Mid-Atlantic, and construction began on October 1,1972. The new park was designed with Kings Island in mind as the blueprint using similar themes, rides, and activities. Also present at the opening was a log flume, steam train, a collection of flat rides, in addition, Kings Dominions 1/3-scale replica of the Eiffel Tower and the International Street Fountain greet visitors near the main entrance to the park. Original themed areas included The Happy Land of Hanna-Barbera, International Street, Lion Country Safari, Old Virginia, daily admission price in 1975 was $7.50, and a dollar for parking. Kings Dominion added their fourth roller coaster, a Schwarzkopf shuttle loop known as the King Kobra, the King Kobra featured a 50-ton counter weight drop launch and was the parks first launched roller coaster. It was in the park for nine seasons before being relocated to Jolly Roger Amusement Park in Ocean City, Maryland, also in 1977, Kings Dominion was one of several amusement parks serving as location for the film Rollercoaster. A campground was completed in time for the 1978 season and the parks well-known Lost World mountain debuted in 1979. Originally, the Lost World featured three rides, a ride called Voyage to Atlantis, a childrens attraction mine ride known as Land of the Dooz. Only a year later in 1980, the ride was rethemed Haunted River. Kings Dominion later expanded Old Virginia with the addition of the third wooden roller coaster, the Grizzly, in 1982. Three parks were involved in the sale — Kings Island, Kings Dominion, american Financial Group later purchased KECO in 1987 but allowed KECO to continue to manage operations at the amusement parks. One of the first additions under the new management group was Berserker — a looping starship ride added to International Street in 1984, also that year, Smurf Mountain replaced the mine ride Land of the Dooz, transforming the Lost World into The Smurfs theme. Kings Dominion unveiled a TOGO stand-up roller coaster in 1986 called Shockwave, Shockwave has one loop like the older King Kobra but adds a helix. King Kobra was removed at the end of the season, a water slide complex known as Racing Rivers opened in 1987, and Avalanche, which remains the only Mack bobsled roller coaster in the United States, debuted the following year in 1988. Kings Dominion continued to expand over the few seasons starting with Hanna-Barbera Land in 1990 with the addition of more childrens flat rides
33.
Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
34.
Minnesota State Fair
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The Minnesota State Fair is the state fair of the U. S. state of Minnesota. Its slogan is The Great Minnesota Get-Together and it is the largest state fair in the United States by average daily attendance. It is also the second-largest state fair in the United States by total attendance, trailing only the State Fair of Texas, the fair runs for twelve days from late August into early September, ending on Labor Day. The Minnesota State Fair was named the best state fair in the United States in 2015 by readers of USA Today, attendance in 2016 was a record 1,943,719 people. The highest daily attendance in the history of the fair was 260,374 visitors on Saturday, Minnesota Territory first held a Territorial Fair in 1854, although the first Minnesota State Fair didnt occur until 1859, the year after statehood. Since then, the fair has run annually except for five different years, in 1861 and 1862, the fair was not held because of the Civil War and the Dakota War of 1862. Scheduling issues between the fair and the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois caused the 1893 show to be canceled, the fair again closed because of war in 1945, as fuel was in short supply. It was again closed in 1946 because of an outbreak of polio, in its early years during the 19th century, the fair was held in many different locations. Some were not far from the current site, but others were relatively far-flung, including years where it was held in Rochester, Owatonna, for a time in the 1870s, the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul held competing fairs. Minneapolis, the city of the pair, eventually outdid its neighbor by staging the larger fair with the help of William S. King. In 1884, a committee was put together by the Minnesota State Agricultural Society to select a permanent site, one site that was considered was an area around Minnehaha Falls, but the final site chosen was the Ramsey County Poor Farm, the fairs current site. It was a neutral site, being about halfway between Minneapolis and St. Paul. The fair first opened its doors there on September 7,1885, the site was then 210 acres, but now stands at 320 acres. One of the first annual events to occur is the creation of a butter sculpture, each year, a new Princess Kay of the Milky Way is selected to promote Minnesotas dairy industry. Part of the job involves posing for several hours in a walk-in, butter makers started sculpting their products at the fair as far back as 1898, although the head-sculpting tradition didnt begin until 1964. The main entrance to the fair from Snelling Avenue heads onto a road named Dan Patch Avenue for a horse who won every race he ran in from 1900 to 1909 when he was retired. Roosevelt became president just 12 days later after William McKinley was assassinated, in 1925, the Minnesota State Fair was the site of the Norse-American Centennial celebration. During his appearance at the Norse-American Centennial, President Calvin Coolidge gave recognition to the contributions of Scandinavian-Americans, a large portion of the Fairgrounds are occupied by livestock barns, where various farm animals are displayed
35.
4-H
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4-H is a global network of youth organizations whose mission is engaging youth to reach their fullest potential while advancing the field of youth development. In the United States, the organization is administered by the National Institute of Food, 4-H Canada is an independent non-profit organization overseeing the operation of branches throughout Canada. Throughout the world, 4-H organizations exist in over 50 countries, each of these programs operates independently but cooperatively through international exchanges, global education programs, and communications. The 4-H name represents four personal development areas of focus for the organization, head, heart, hands, as of 2007, the organization had over 6.5 million members in the United States, from ages 5 to 21, in approximately 90,000 clubs. The goal of 4-H is to develop citizenship, leadership, responsibility and life skills of youth through experiential learning programs and a positive youth development approach. Though typically thought of as an agriculturally focused organization as a result of its history, 4-H today focuses on citizenship, healthy living, science, engineering, the 4-H motto is To make the best better, while its slogan is Learn by doing. The foundations of 4-H began in 1902 with the work of people in different parts of the United States. The focal point of 4-H has been the idea of practical and hands-on learning, early programs incorporated both public and private resources. 4-H was founded with the purpose of instructing rural youth in improved farming and farm-homemaking practices, by the 1970s, it was broadening its goals to cover a full range of youth, including minorities, and a wide range of life experiences. So rural youth programs became a way to introduce new technology to the adults. Club work began wherever a person did something to give rural children respect for themselves and their ways of life. Instances of work with boys and girls can be found all throughout the 19th century. Graham started one of the programs in Clark County, Ohio, in 1902. The first club was called The Tomato Club or the Corn Growing Club, dad Erickson of Douglas County, Minnesota, started local agricultural after-school clubs and fairs also in 1902. Jessie Field Shambaugh developed the clover pin with an H on each leaf in 1910, early 4-H programs in Colorado began with youth instruction offered by college agricultural agents as early as 1910, as part of the outreach mission of the Colorado land grant institutions. The Smith-Lever Act formalized the 4-H programs and clubs began in the midwestern region of the United States. Although different activities were emphasized for boys and girls, 4-H was one of the first youth organizations to give attention to both genders. By 1924, these clubs became organized as 4-H clubs, the first 4-H camp was held in Randolph County, West Virginia
36.
National Collegiate Athletic Association
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The National Collegiate Athletic Association is a non-profit association which regulates athletes of 1,281 institutions, conferences, organizations, and individuals. It also organizes the programs of many colleges and universities in the United States and Canada. The organization is headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 2014, the NCAA generated almost a billion dollars in revenue. 80 to 90% of this revenue was due to the Division I Mens Basketball Tournament and this revenue is then distributed back into various organizations and institutions across the United States. In August 1973, the current three-division setup of Division I, Division II, under NCAA rules, Division I and Division II schools can offer scholarships to athletes for playing a sport. Division III schools may not offer any athletic scholarships, generally, larger schools compete in Division I and smaller schools in II and III. Division I football was divided into I-A and I-AA in 1978. Subsequently, the term Division I-AAA was briefly added to delineate Division I schools which do not field a football program at all, in 2006, Divisions I-A and I-AA were respectively renamed the Football Bowl Subdivision and Football Championship Subdivision. Inter-collegiate sports began in the US in 1852 when crews from Harvard University, as other sports emerged, notably football and basketball, many of these same concepts and standards were adopted. Football, in particular, began to emerge as a marquee sport, the IAAUS was officially established on March 31,1906, and took its present name, the NCAA, in 1910. For several years, the NCAA was a group and rules-making body, but in 1921, the first NCAA national championship was conducted. Gradually, more rules committees were formed and more championships were created, a series of crises brought the NCAA to a crossroads after World War II. The Sanity Code – adopted to establish guidelines for recruiting and financial aid – failed to curb abuses, postseason football games were multiplying with little control, and member schools were increasingly concerned about how the new medium of television would affect football attendance. The complexity of problems and the growth in membership and championships demonstrated the need for full-time professional leadership. Walter Byers, previously an executive assistant, was named executive director in 1951. Byers wasted no time placing his stamp on the Association, as college athletics grew, the scope of the nations athletics programs diverged, forcing the NCAA to create a structure that recognized varying levels of emphasis. In 1973, the Associations membership was divided into three legislative and competitive divisions – I, II, and III, five years later in 1978, Division I members voted to create subdivisions I-A and I-AA in football. Until the 1980s, the association did not offer womens athletics, instead, the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women, with nearly 1000 member schools, governed womens collegiate sports in the United States
37.
National Football League
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The National Football League is a professional American football league consisting of 32 teams, divided equally between the National Football Conference and the American Football Conference. The NFL is one of the four professional sports leagues in North America. The NFLs 17-week regular season runs from the week after Labor Day to the week after Christmas, with each team playing 16 games, the NFL was formed in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association before renaming itself the National Football League for the 1922 season. The NFL agreed to merge with the American Football League in 1966, and the first Super Bowl was held at the end of that season, the merger was completed in 1970. Today, the NFL has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world and is the most popular sports league in the United States. S. The NFLs executive officer is the commissioner, who has authority in governing the league. The team with the most NFL championships is the Green Bay Packers with thirteen, the current NFL champions are the New England Patriots, who defeated the Atlanta Falcons 34–28 in Super Bowl LI. Another meeting held on September 17,1920 resulted in the renaming of the league to the American Professional Football Association, the league hired Jim Thorpe as its first president, and consisted of 14 teams. Only two of these teams, the Decatur Staleys and the Chicago Cardinals, remain, the first event occurred on September 26,1920 when the Rock Island Independents defeated the non-league St. Paul Ideals 48–0 at Douglas Park. On October 3,1920, the first full week of league play occurred, the following season resulted in the Chicago Staleys controversially winning the title over the Buffalo All-Americans. In 1922, the APFA changed its name to the National Football League, in 1932, the season ended with the Chicago Bears and the Portsmouth Spartans tied for first in the league standings. This method had used since the leagues creation in 1920. The league quickly determined that a game between Chicago and Portsmouth was needed to decide the leagues champion. Playing with altered rules to accommodate the playing field, the Bears won the game 9–0. Fan interest in the de facto championship game led the NFL, beginning in 1933, the 1934 season also marked the first of 12 seasons in which African Americans were absent from the league. The de facto ban was rescinded in 1946, following public pressure, the NFL was always the foremost professional football league in the United States, it nevertheless faced a large number of rival professional leagues through the 1930s and 1940s. Rival leagues included at least three separate American Football Leagues and the All-America Football Conference, on top of regional leagues of varying caliber. Three NFL teams trace their histories to these leagues, including the Los Angeles Rams
38.
NFL Kickoff Game
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The National Football League Kickoff game, along with related festivities, marks the official start of the National Football League regular season. A single game is held, preceded by a concert and other ceremonies and this first game of the season is usually scheduled for the Thursday following Labor Day and since 2004, it was hosted by the previous seasons Super Bowl champions. However, in 2012, the game was moved to Wednesday to prevent conflicts with the speech of the Democratic National Convention. The remainder of the league plays their opening weekend games the following Sunday and Monday, the Kickoff Game was introduced in the 2002 season. From 2004 onward, the defending Super Bowl champion has played in the game every year. The Kickoff Game was introduced in the 2002 season, under the leadership of marketing executive John Collins. It was conceived as an effort to boost economic recovery in the New York and it was considered a success, increasing NFL sponsorships by $1.9 billion over the next 14 months. In order to do so, ESPN eliminated its traditional late-October Thursday night game, in 2006, NBC acquired the television rights to the Kickoff Game as part of their Sunday Night Football package. The concept of the NFL champion playing in a game was not altogether new. With the advent of Monday Night Football in 1970 it became common for the Super Bowl champion to appear in a game the first weekend of the season. This was the case in 1978–1979,1983, 1987–1988, 1990–1993, 1996–2000, Defending Super Bowl champions are 11–2 in the Kickoff Game. The New York Giants and the Baltimore Ravens are the two only defending Super Bowl champions to have lost,2003, The games popularity and success saw it move to ABC as part of the Monday Night Football package. In order for the game to fit into the schedule. In return, ESPN received a week 17 Saturday night game, while defending Super Bowl champions Tampa Bay were not selected for the Thursday night game, they did play a nationally-televised game at Philadelphia four nights later on MNF. Instead, the Washington Redskins defeated the New York Jets 16-13,2004, The tradition began that the kickoff game would be hosted by the defending Super Bowl champions. After the wardrobe malfunction incident at Super Bowl XXXVIII, the NFL initially canceled future plans for concerts in conjunction with the NFL Kickoff game, later in the year, however, the decision was reversed, and instead a 10-second broadcast delay was put in place. 2006, With the change in television contracts, the Kickoff Game was moved to NBC, the game opposite the first weekend of World Series games was once again removed to compensate. 2008, The league and NBC agreed to move up the opening kickoff of the kickoff game and that game featured the Redskins and Giants
39.
Bojangles' Southern 500
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The Bojangles Southern 500 is a Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series stock car race at Darlington Raceway in Darlington, South Carolina, United States. The race distance is 501 miles long, and consists of 367 laps, from 1950 to 2003, and again since 2015, the race has been held on Labor Day weekend. The Southern 500 was largely considered one of the Crown Jewels of the NASCAR calendar, Darlington Raceway, where the race is held, has a long and storied reputation as the Track Too Tough to Tame. Through 2003, Darlington held two Cup series races annually, the Southern 500 in the fall, and a 400-mile event in the spring, in 2004, the Southern 500 was moved to November and was run as the second-to-last race in the inaugural NASCAR Chase for the Championship. The following year, as the result of a settlement in the Ferko lawsuit, the 500-mile race was moved to the Saturday of Mothers Day weekend in May, and renamed for the sponsorship of Dodge. The race was held as a night race under-the-lights during this period, the event re-assumed the Southern 500 name in 2009. In 2014, the moved to April after swapping dates with Kansas. NASCAR announced that the Southern 500 would be returning to its traditional Labor Day weekend date for 2015, Martin Truex Jr. is the defending winner of the race, after winning it in 2016. The race began in 1950, as NASCARs first 500-mile race, through most of its history the race was one of NASCARs premier events, and was known as one of four majors on the NASCAR circuit. From 1985–1997, it served as the race of the popular Winston Million. Two drivers, Bill Elliott and Jeff Gordon, clinched the Winston Million with victories in the Southern 500, the Southern 500 was one of the last races on the circuit to embrace naming rights in its title. In 1989, the race added Heinz as a title sponsor, from 1992 to 2004, it was sponsored by PepsiCo products. From 1950–2003, this event was traditionally held on Labor Day weekend. In the years except 1976 and before 1984, was held on Monday, for the 2004 season, a realignment of the NASCAR schedule saw the race move to November. Track management believed the November date would allow for cooler, more comfortable weather for fans, in addition, it meant the race would be part of the new Chase for the Championship. Rockingham lost its fall date to Fontana, and the Pop Secret 500 was moved to the prestigious Labor Day weekend date. The case was settled in his favor, and NASCAR was forced to give up one of its Darlington dates so that a race could be held at Texas. Starting in 2005, Darlington was forced to contract down to one race per year, officials replaced Darlingtons two events with one 500-mile race
40.
NASCAR
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The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing is an American family-owned and operated business venture that sanctions and governs multiple auto-racing sports events. Bill France Sr. founded the company in 1948 and his grandson Brian France became its CEO in 2003, NASCAR is motorsports preeminent stock-car racing organization. The three largest racing-series sanctioned by this company are the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series, the Xfinity Series, the company also oversees NASCAR Local Racing, the Whelen Modified Tour, the Whelen All-American Series, and the NASCAR iRacing. com Series. NASCAR sanctions over 1,500 races at over 100 tracks in 39 of the 50 US states as well as in Canada. NASCAR has presented exhibition races at the Suzuka and Motegi circuits in Japan, the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in Mexico, NASCAR has its official headquarters in Daytona Beach, Florida, and also maintains offices in the North Carolina cities of Charlotte, Concord, and Conover. Regional offices are located in New York City and Los Angeles, with offices in Mexico City. Owing to NASCARs Southern roots, all but a handful of NASCAR teams are based in North Carolina. NASCAR is second to the National Football League among professional sports franchises in terms of television viewers, internationally, its races are broadcast on television in over 150 countries. In 2004, NASCARs Director of Security stated that the company holds 17 of the Top 20 regularly attended single-day sporting events in the world, fortune 500 companies sponsor NASCAR more than any other motor sport, although this sponsorship has declined since the early-2000s. By the time the Bonneville Salt Flats became the location for pursuit of land speed records. Drivers raced on a 4. 1-mile course, consisting of a 1. 5–2. 0-mile stretch of beach as one straightaway, the two straights were connected by two tight, deeply rutted and sand covered turns at each end. Stock car racing in the United States has its origins in bootlegging during Prohibition, bootleggers needed to distribute their illicit products, and they typically used small, fast vehicles to better evade the police. Many of the drivers would modify their cars for speed and handling, as well as increased cargo capacity, the cars continued to improve, and by the late 1940s, races featuring these cars were being run for pride and profit. These races were popular entertainment in the rural Southern United States, most races in those days were of modified cars. Street vehicles were lightened and reinforced, mechanic William France Sr. moved to Daytona Beach, Florida, from Washington, D. C. in 1935 to escape the Great Depression. He was familiar with the history of the area from the speed record attempts. France entered the 1936 Daytona event, finishing fifth and he took over running the course in 1938. He promoted a few races before World War II, France had the notion that people would enjoy watching stock cars race
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Darlington Raceway
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Darlington Raceway is a race track built for NASCAR racing located near Darlington, South Carolina. It is nicknamed The Lady in Black and The Track Too Tough to Tame by many NASCAR fans and drivers and this situation makes it very challenging for the crews to set up their cars handling in a way that will be effective at both ends. Harold Brasington was a racer in 1948, who had gotten to know Bill France. He began planning a new speedway after he noticed the crowds while attending the 1948 Indianapolis 500 and thought, If Tony Hulman can do it here. Brasington bought 70 acres from farmer Sherman Ramsey, and started making a track from a cotton. Brasington was able to make the turn at the east side of the property wide, sweeping. It took almost a year to build the track, Brasington made a deal in the summer of 1950 with France to run a 500-mile race in Darlington on Labor Day that year. The first Southern 500 carried a record $25,000 purse, more than 80 entrants showed up for the race. Brasington used a 2-week qualifying scheme similar to the one used at the Indianapolis 500, Brasington was also inspired by Indianapolis when he had the 75-car field aligned in 25 rows of three cars. These practices have been curtailed over the years as NASCAR adopted a uniform set of guidelines with regard to the number of cars which could qualify for a race. The race was won by Johnny Mantz in a car owned by France, seating has been increased to approximately 65,000, although it has been limited by the proximity of a highway behind the back stretch and another pond, the original minnow pond is long gone. Darlington is also known as The Track Too Tough to Tame because drivers can run lap after lap without a problem, racers will frequently explain that they have to race the racetrack, not their competition. Drivers hitting the wall are considered to have received their Darlington Stripe thanks to the paint on the right side of the car. For many years, Darlington was the site of two annual Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series races, one, the Rebel 400, was held in the spring while the other, the Southern 500, was always held on Labor Day weekend. In 2003, the Labor Day race was given to California Speedway, in 2005, NASCAR eliminated the Southern 500 altogether as a result of the Ferko lawsuit, offending many fans who had followed the sport for generations. The race was merged into the 400-mile spring race, and moved to Mothers Day weekend, a 500-mile race named after a Dodge vehicle was held for the next four years, before the race was given the Southern 500 moniker in 2009. The move was the result of several factors, Darlington suffered from poor ticket sales, particularly in the spring. Part of this is due to the location in the Textile Belt of South Carolina
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Darlington, South Carolina
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Darlington is a small city in and the county seat of Darlington County, in the northeastern part of the U. S. state of South Carolina. It is a center for tobacco farming, the population was 6,289 at the 2010 census, down from 6,720 at the 2000 census. Darlington is part of the Florence Metropolitan Statistical Area, Darlington, theorized to be named for the Revolutionary War Colonel Darlington, is known for its Darlington Oak and Spanish moss. Darlington County was named thus by an Act in March 1785, Darlington is the location of Darlington Raceway, a speedway that is home to the annual NASCAR Southern 500 race. Darlington is also the site of the National Motorsports Press Association Hall of Fame and this area was settled in the mid-18th century by Welsh, Scotch-Irish, and English farmers, who grew cotton primarily. The settlement of what is now Darlington County began in earnest after 1736 and 1737 when the province of South Carolina set aside a vast area of land for the Welsh Baptists of Delaware and this Welsh Tract bordered both sides of the Pee Dee River. Soon after the first settlers began to arrive they constituted the Welsh Neck Baptist Church and this church was first located on the north side of the Pee Dee River, opposite present-day Society Hill. For almost thirty years settlers concentrated on the banks and small tributaries of the Pee Dee River and these later settlers included descendants of French Huguenots, Scots-Irish, and the English. For three decades following the arrival of the first settlers, local government did not exist for the citizens of the area, all deeds, estate settlements, and other legal matters had to be taken to Charles Town to be recorded. In 1769, by an Act of the Assembly, Cheraw District was established as a Judicial District, a courthouse and gaol were built at Long Bluff and were operational by late 1772. After the Revolutionary War, in 1785, Cheraw District was divided into three counties, Marlborough, Chesterfield, and Darlington, Darlington County was bounded by Cedar Creek, the Pee Dee River, and Lynches Creek. To this day there is uncertainty concerning why the county was named Darlington, a new county seat was established near the center of the county, Darlington Court House. After 1798 the designation county was changed to district, in the 1868 South Carolina Constitution, the designation reverted to county. Florence County was created out of parts of Darlington and Marion counties in 1888, Darlington County lost additional territory in 1902 when Lee County was created. The public square and the courthouse now sit in their present location because of an argument between two men, Colonel Lamuel Benton and Captain Elias Dubose, in the late 18th century. The tale goes that the disagreement began over whether the courthouse should be located in Mechanicsville or Cuffey Town and it was said that the two compromised, each beginning in their town traveling on horseback until reaching one another. The spot where they met is now the site of the Darlington public square, a fire in March 1806 destroyed the original courthouse. It was rumored at the time that an old woman was responsible for the flames in an attempt to burn papers connected to her court case
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Lucas Oil Raceway at Indianapolis
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Lucas Oil Raceway is a drag racing track. The complex in Brownsburg, Indiana, also has a 0. 686-mile oval,2. 5-mile road course, the 4, 400-foot drag strip is among the main drag racing venues in the world. Constructed with assistance from the NHRA, the strip was the first to be completed. The facility was called Indianapolis Raceway Park, a year later, a 0. 686-mile paved oval was completed to finish off the track capabilities of the facility. The oval track was used as-is until a track renovation was completed in 1988 in order to increase speed on the track. The premier feature of the facility is a 4, 400-foot long dragstrip, the one NHRA event held at Raceway Park is the oldest and most prestigious race in the NHRA. The NHRA U. S. Nationals, held every year during the Labor Day weekend, is the event on the NHRA schedule with final eliminations scheduled on a Monday. An all-star style race, called the Traxxas Nitro Shootout, is held for the two nitro divisions, the winners in each division win $100,000 US, while the race itself has the largest purse of any NHRA sanctioned event at over $250,000 US. The drag strip has held the event every year since 1961, USAC Silver Crown, Sprint Car and Midget Car races are held on the oval, along with other events suited to a shorter track. The event is held the night before the Indianapolis 500 event at IMS, similarly, the NASCAR Kroger 200 was given a Night before the 400 status. The 2. 5-mile, 15-turn road course, is used by the Indianapolis area Sports Car Club of America road racing events, the initial Indianapolis Raceway Park road race was an SCCA event held in 1961. Notably, in the 1969 movie Winning, Paul Newmans character, Frank Capua and this effectively means closing the road course for competition purposes as well, as there is no other area on the current track layout suitable to relocate a viable pit lane. With the announcement of the Super Weekend at the Brickyard came the announcement that the track will no longer hold NASCAR events after the 2011 season, the ARCA Racing Series now runs during Brickyard Weekend starting in 2012
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National Hot Rod Association
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The National Hot Rod Association is a drag racing governing body, which sets rules in drag racing and hosts events all over the United States and Canada. With over 40,000 drivers in its rosters, the NHRA claims to be the largest motorsports sanctioning body in the world, the association was founded by Wally Parks in 1951 in California to provide a governing body to organize and promote the sport of drag racing. The first nationwide NHRA sponsored event was held in 1955, in Great Bend, Nationals are now held at Lucas Oil Raceway at Indianapolis in Clermont, Indiana and are officially called the U. S. Nationals. Winners of national events are awarded a statue in honor of founder Wally Parks. The trophy is referred to by its nickname, a “Wally”. The NHRA Mello Yello Drag Racing Series is the Top Division of the NHRA and it consists of five professional classes, Top Fuel Dragster Funny Car Pro Stock Pro Stock Motorcycle Pro Modified List of NHRA champions There are more than a dozen Sportsman Classes. All classes except Snowmobile and some Sportsman Motorcycle classes are regularly contested at NHRA National Events, NHRA promotes mainly the Professional Classes at National Events, however, the majority of its participants are Sportsman Racers. Sportsman Class Racers must be dues-paying members of NHRA before they are allowed to enter, included in these sportsman events are the Lucas Oil Drag Racing Series, the Summit Racing Equipment Racing Series and the NHRA Jr. The NHRA Sportsman Drag Racing Series originally consisted of seven divisions, Northeast, Southeast, North Central, South Central, West Central, Northwest and Pacific. Starting in 2012, the Top Alcohol Dragster and Top Alcohol Funny Car classes compete in four regions, East, North Central, Central, Sportsman racers with multiple championships Sportsman racers who have won multiple world championships, with the date of their most recent championship. The five point safety harness is required for all vehicles and it holds the driver secure in the seat, and is equipped with a quick release latch which can be released in less than a second should the driver need to leave the car due to fire or explosions. Fire suits are required for all drivers in the alcohol and nitromethane fuel classes and these suits are full body coveralls and made with seven layers of Nomex fabric, which makes them resistant to fire. The required suit includes Nomex gloves, foot socks, and head sock, another NASCAR transplant, which was brought into use after the death of Fireball Roberts, was the fuel cell. This bladder is placed into the tanks of non-nitromethane fueled vehicles to prevent fuel leaks. Third is the use of the HANS device and this device limits the movement of the head and neck in the event of an impact. Fourth is the shield that must be placed behind the head of all Dragsters. This is to prevent any debris from entering the cockpit and becoming a hazard to the driver after the death of Top Fuel racer Darrell Russell. Fifth is the fire extinguishing system that are required
"Labor Day". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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