1.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
North America
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Map of North America, from 1621.
North America
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North America
North America
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The
El Castillo pyramid, at
Chichén Itzá, Mexico.
North America
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Benjamin West 's
The Death of General Wolfe (1771) depicting the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham.
2.
Eastern Canada
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Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island are also known as the Maritime Provinces. Ottawa, Canadas capital, is located in Eastern Canada, within the province of Ontario, the capitals of the provinces are in the list below. The total population of region is about 23,082,460. Most of the population resides in Ontario and Quebec, the region contains 3 of Canadas 5 largest metropolitan areas, Toronto being the fourth largest municipality in North America. Eastern United States List of regions of Canada
Eastern Canada
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Eastern Canada, defined politically.
3.
La Grande River
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La Grande River is a river in northwestern Quebec, Canada, which rises in the highlands of north central Quebec and flows roughly 900 kilometres west to drain into James Bay. It is the second largest river in Quebec, surpassed only by the Saint Lawrence River, originally, the La Grande River drained an area of 97,400 square kilometres and had a mean discharge of 1690 m³/s. In November 2009, the Rupert River was also partially diverted, at one time, this river was known as the Fort George River. The Hudsons Bay Company operated a trading post on the river at Big River House from 1803 to 1824, in 1837, a large trading post was established at Fort George on an island at the mouth of the river. In the early 20th century, this trading post became a village as the Crees of the James Bay region abandoned their way of life. The modern Cree village of Chisasibi, which replaced Fort George in 1980, is situated on the shore of the La Grande River. An area of 9,900 square kilometres was flooded and almost all of the flow of the Eastmain River, careful follow-up by Cree health authorities since the 1980s has been largely successful. The authorities continue to promote the consumption of fish, with the notable exception of the predatory species living in the reservoirs. James Bay Project List of longest rivers of Canada Hydro-Québecs La Grande Complex The Grand River at LG-1
La Grande River
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La Grande River near
Radisson, Quebec.
4.
Caniapiscau Reservoir
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The Caniapiscau Reservoir is a reservoir on the upper Caniapiscau River in the Côte-Nord administrative region of the Canadian province of Quebec. It is the largest body of water in Quebec and the second largest reservoir in Canada, the Caniapiscau Reservoir, formed by two dams and forty-three dikes, is the largest reservoir in surface area of the James Bay Project. As headpond, it feeds the power plants of the La Grande complex in the winter and its total catchment area is about 36,800 square kilometres. The reservoir was named after Lake Caniapiscau that was flooded during the formation of the reservoir, the name is an adaptation of the Cree or Innu toponym kâ-neyâpiskâw, which means rocky point. Albert Peter Low had noted in 1895 that a rocky headland jutts into the lake. He probably referred to the northwest facing peninsula that gives the reservoir the shape of an arc as we current know it, the Caniapiscau Reservoir is accessible by bush plane and, since 1981, by a gravel road from James Bay. At the very end of road, near the Duplanter spillway, is the former worksite of the Société dénergie de la Baie-James. There is no permanent human habitation at the reservoir, but it is used by outfitters for seasonal hunting and fishing expeditions and it is isolated from society and there are very few gas stations or other services nearby. The natural lakes of the region were formed about nine years ago as glaciers left Quebec after having scoured the Canadian Shield for ninety thousand years. The prototype of these lakes was an ice dam lake that drained southwards into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence at a time when areas further north were still glaciated. Prior to impoundment, Lake Caniapiscau covered about 470 square kilometres and was frequented by hunters, in 1834, the Hudsons Bay Company opened there an outpost to link its facilities in the James Bay region with those of Ungava Bay, but closed the Kaniapiskau Post in 1870. Filling the reservoir began on October 25,1981, and over the three years it flooded numerous lakes such as Lakes Caniapiscau, Delorme, Brisay, Tournon. Since August 1985, the Caniapiscau River was partially diverted to the west into the Laforge River of the La Grande River watershed, the Caniapiscau Reservoir is in the zone of discontinuous permafrost. In the more moist areas, some closed coniferous forest stands may appear, on the more exposed land, a forest-tundra transition zone occurs where the woodland is replaced by lichen dominated tundra. List of lakes of Quebec Hydro-Québec James Bay Project List of Quebec rivers Société dénergie de la Baie James, complexe hydroélectrique de la Grande-Rivière, Réalisation de la première phase. Montreal, Société dénergie de la Baie James/Éditions de la Chenelière, La Grande hydroelectric complex HAYEUR, Gaëtan. Summary of Knowledge Acquired in Northern Environments from 1970 to 2000, montreal, Hydro-Québec World Lakes Database Explo-Sylva Air Saguenay Base on Lac Pau
Caniapiscau Reservoir
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Caniapiscau Reservoir
Caniapiscau Reservoir
5.
Subarctic climate
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The subarctic climate is a climate characterised by long, usually very cold winters, and short, cool to mild summers. It is found on large landmasses, away from the effects of an ocean. These climates represent Köppen climate classification Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd, Dwd and Dsd. This type of climate offers some of the most extreme seasonal temperature variations found on the planet, in winter, temperatures can drop to −40 °C and in summer, record low temperatures can be as cold as −60 °C. With 5–7 consecutive months where the temperature is below freezing. Summer warmth is insufficient to thaw more than a few surface feet, seasonal thaw penetrates from 2 to 14 ft, depending on latitude, aspect, and type of ground. Some northern areas with subarctic climates located near oceans, have milder winters and no permafrost, the frost-free season is very short, varying from about 45 to 100 days at most, and a freeze can occur during any month in many areas. Most subarctic climates have very little precipitation, typically no more than 380 mm over an entire year, a notable exception to this pattern is that subarctic climates occurring at high altitudes in otherwise temperate regions have extremely high precipitation due to orographic lift. Mount Washington, with temperatures typical of a climate, receives an average rain-equivalent of 101.91 inches of precipitation per year.5 metres that does not melt until June. Vegetation in regions with subarctic climates is generally of low diversity, as only hardy species can survive the long winters, trees are mostly limited to conifers, as few broadleaved trees are able to survive the very low temperatures in winter. This type of forest is known as taiga, a term which is sometimes applied to the climate found therein as well. Even though the diversity may be low, numbers are high, the process by which plants become acclimated to cold temperatures is called hardening. In some areas, ice has scoured rock surfaces bare, entirely stripping off the overburden, elsewhere rock basins have been formed and stream courses dammed, creating countless lakes. The Tatra Mountains in Poland, above 800m, the Eastern Anatolia, between 1,600 and 2,100 meters – Turkey. The Pyrenees, between 1,600 and 2,100 meters – Andorra, France and Spain, further north in Siberia, continentality increases so much that winters can be exceptionally severe, averaging below −38 °C, even though the hottest month still averages more than 10 °C. This creates Dfd, Dwd and Dsd climates, one example is parts of the Snowy Mountains in Australia, although theyre more alpine than true subarctic. In China and Mongolia, as one moves southwestwards or towards lower altitudes, temperatures increase, Boreal ecology Boreal forest Plants of continental subarctic climate Köppen climate classification Subantarctic
Subarctic climate
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Dsc
6.
Torngat Mountains
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The Torngat Mountains are a mountain range on the Labrador Peninsula at the northern tip of Newfoundland and Labrador and eastern Quebec. They are part of the Arctic Cordillera, the mountains form a peninsula that separates Ungava Bay from the Atlantic Ocean. The Torngat Mountains have a geographical extent. About 56% of the range is located in Quebec, 44% is in Labrador, at least 2% of the mountain chain is under water, and poorly surveyed. The Torngat Mountains cover 30,067 square kilometres, including lowland areas, the Torngat Mountains have the highest peaks of eastern continental Canada. The highest point is Mount Caubvick at 1,652 m, there are no trees in the Torngat Mountains because the mountains lie in an arctic tundra climate and are therefore above the tree line. Permafrost is continuous on the Quebec side of the border, and it is extensive, the terrain is over 300 m above sea level and is predominantly rocky desert. Precambrian gneisses that comprise the Torngat Mountains are among the oldest on Earth and have been dated at roughly 3.6 to 3.9 billion years old. This, according to some, makes the Torngats, as mountains, distinct compared to the surrounding Precambrian Canadian Shield, the ranges of the Torngat Mountains are separated by deep fjords and finger lakes surrounded by sheer rock walls. The fjords were produced by glaciation, the Laurentide ice sheet covered most of the mountains at least once, however during the last ice age the coverage was more limited. Currently, there are over 100 active small mountain glaciers in the Torngat Mountains with a total of about 195 ice masses in the region, caribou travel through the Torngat Mountains, and polar bears roam along the coast. Numerous species of vegetation common to the Arctic region of Canada are also found in the Torngat Mountains, the name Torngat is derived from an Inuktitut word meaning place of spirits, sometimes interpreted as place of evil spirits. The Torngat Mountains National Park Reserve was announced on 1 December 2005 and it aims to protect wildlife, while offering wilderness-oriented recreational activities. In the CBC Series Geological Journey the Torngat mountains are featured, notably, a billion-year-old coal seam was discovered in the Torngat mountains on the Newfoundland Coast as part of the filming of the series
Torngat Mountains
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Folded rocks of the Torngat Mountains
Torngat Mountains
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Torngat Mountains and Nachvak Fjord
Torngat Mountains
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Biogeography
7.
Laurentian Mountains
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The Gatineau, LAssomption, Lièvre, Montmorency, Nord and St. Maurice rivers rise in lakes in this mountain range. Across the U. S. border to the south, the Adirondack Mountains in New York State, although Laurentides is one of Quebecs official regions, the mountain range of the same name runs through four other regions, Capitale-Nationale, Outaouais, Lanaudière, and Mauricie. Extending into central Ontario, the foothills of the Laurentian range are known as the Opeongo Hills, the Laurentian Mountain range is one of the oldest mountain ranges in the world. It contains rocks deposited before the Cambrian Period 540 million years ago, the Laurentians are the central part of the Grenville orogeny dating back to around a billion years
Laurentian Mountains
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The Laurentian Mountains in the
Hautes-Gorges-de-la-Rivière-Malbaie National Park, Charlevoix, Quebec, Canada
8.
Peninsula
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A peninsula is a piece of land surrounded by water on the majority of its border, while being connected to a mainland from which it extends out. Examples include the upper and lower peninsulas of the state of Michigan, the surrounding water is usually understood to be continuous, though not necessarily named as a single body of water. Peninsulas are not always named as such, one can also be a headland, cape, island promontory, bill, point, a point is generally considered a tapering piece of land projecting into a body of water that is less prominent than a cape. A river which courses through a very tight meander is also said to form a peninsula within the loop of water. In English, the plural of peninsula is peninsulas or, less commonly, peninsulas can be found on coastlines and in smaller bodies of water throughout the world, ranging in scale from square meters to millions of square kilometers. Theres the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe, and in Southern Europe theres the Iberian Peninsula, the Italian Peninsula, south America has the Brunswick Peninsula, and Antarctica has the Antarctic Peninsula. In Africa, theres the Horn of Africa, and in Australia, asia has the 3 largest peninsulas in the world, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Peninsula, and the Indochinese Peninsula
Peninsula
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The world's largest peninsula, the
Arabian Peninsula
Peninsula
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Baja California Peninsula,
Mexico
Peninsula
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A beach on the Mornington Peninsula
Peninsula
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NASA satellite photo of
Otago Peninsula and
Otago Harbour. The city of
Dunedin is located at the
isthmus at lower left.
9.
Hudson Bay
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Hudson Bay is a large body of saltwater in northeastern Canada with a surface area of 1,230,000 square kilometres. Hudson Bays southern arm is called James Bay, the Eastern Cree name for Hudson and James Bay is Wînipekw or Wînipâkw, meaning muddy or brackish water. Lake Winnipeg is similarly named by the local Cree, as is the location for the city of Winnipeg, Hudson Bay encompasses 1,230,000 square kilometres, making it the second-largest bay in the world. The bay is shallow and is considered an epicontinental sea. It is about 1,370 km long and 1,050 km wide, on the east it is connected with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait, on the north, with the Arctic Ocean by Foxe Basin, and Fury and Hecla Strait. Geographic coordinates, 78° to 95° W, 51° to 70° N. Hudson Bay is part of the North Atlantic Ocean, sometimes the Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait basins are considered part of the Arctic Ocean even though their waters flow predominantly to the Atlantic. Some sources describe Hudson Bay as a sea of the Atlantic Ocean. English explorers and colonists named Hudson Bay after Sir Henry Hudson who explored the bay beginning August 2,1610 on his ship Discovery. On his fourth voyage to North America, Hudson worked his way around Greenlands west coast and into the bay, Discovery became trapped in the ice over the winter, and the crew survived onshore at the southern tip of James Bay. When the ice cleared in the spring, Hudson wanted to explore the rest of the area and they left Hudson and others adrift in a small boat. No one knows the fate of Hudson or the crew members stranded with him, in 1668, Nonsuch reached the bay and traded for beaver pelts, leading to the creation of the Hudsons Bay Company which still bears the historic name. The HBC negotiated a trading monopoly from the British crown for the Hudson Bay watershed, called Ruperts Land, france contested this grant by sending several military expeditions to the region, but abandoned its claim in the Treaty of Utrecht. See Anglo-French conflicts on Hudson Bay, during this period, the Hudsons Bay Company built several forts and trading posts along the coast at the mouth of the major rivers. The strategic locations were bases for inland exploration, more importantly, they were trading posts with the indigenous peoples who came to them with furs from their trapping season. The HBC shipped the furs to Europe and continued to use these posts until the beginning of the 20th century, the port of Churchill is still an important shipping link for trade with Europe and Russia. HBCs trade monopoly was abolished in 1870, and it ceded Ruperts Land to Canada, starting in 1913, the Bay was extensively charted by the Canadian Governments CSS Acadia to develop it for navigation. This mapping progress led to the establishment of Churchill, Manitoba as a port for wheat exports in 1929. Due to a change in naming conventions, Hudsons Bay is now called Hudson Bay, as a result, the names of the body of water and the company are often mistaken for one another
Hudson Bay
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Ice begins to form in early November at Hudson Bay.
Hudson Bay
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Hudson Bay, Canada
Hudson Bay
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In late spring (May), large chunks of ice float near the eastern shore of the bay, while to the west, the center of the bay remains frozen. Between 1971 and 2007, the length of the ice-free season in the southwestern part of the Hudson Bay—historically the last area to thaw—increased by about seven days.
10.
Hudson Strait
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Hudson Strait links the Atlantic Ocean to Hudson Bay in Canada. This strait lies between Baffin Island and Nunavik, with its entrance marked by Cape Chidley in Quebec. The strait is about 450 mi long and its width varies from 150 mi at its largest point, to a minimum of 40 mi. The name was changed to Hudson Strait in honor of the first European to sail beyond the Furious Overfall in 1610, Hudson was followed by Thomas Button in 1612, and a more detailed mapping expedition led by William Baffin in 1615. Hudson Strait links the northern seaports of Manitoba and Ontario with the Atlantic Ocean and it could be an eastern entrance to the Northwest Passage were it not for ice in the Fury and Hecla Strait south of western Baffin Island. The South coast of Baffin Island between Lloyd Point and East Bluff, the mainland between Cape Chidley and Nuvuk Point
Hudson Strait
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The Hudson's Bay Company ships Prince of Wales and Eddystone bartering with the
Inuit off the Upper Savage Islands, Hudson Strait; by Robert Hood (1819)
Hudson Strait
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Nunavut
Hudson Strait
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Drift ice in Hudson Strait, late June 2014
11.
Labrador Sea
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The Labrador Sea is an arm of the North Atlantic Ocean between the Labrador Peninsula and Greenland. The sea is flanked by continental shelves to the southwest, northwest and it connects to the north with Baffin Bay through the Davis Strait. It has been described as a sea of the Atlantic. The sea formed upon separation of the North American Plate and Greenland Plate that started about 60 million years ago, the Labrador Sea formed upon separation of the North American Plate and Greenland Plate that started about 60 million years ago and stopped about 40 million years ago. A sedimentary basin, which is now buried under the continental shelves, onset of magmatic sea-floor spreading was accompanied by volcanic eruptions of picrites and basalts in the Paleocene at the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay. Between about 500 BC and 1300 AD, the southern coast of the sea contained Dorset, Beothuk and Inuit settlements, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Labrador Sea as follows, On the North, the South limit of Davis Strait. On the East, a line from Cape St. Francis 47°45′N 52°27′W to Cape Farewell, thence a line joining this ledge with the East extreme of Cape St. Charles in Labrador. The Labrador Sea is about 3,400 m deep and 1,000 km wide where it joins the Atlantic Ocean and it becomes shallower, to less than 700 m towards Baffin Bay and passes into the 300 kilometres wide Davis Strait. A 100–200 m deep turbidity current channel system, which is about 2–5 km wide and 3,800 kilometres long, runs on the bottom of the sea and it is called the Northwest Atlantic Mid-Ocean Channel and is one of the worlds longest drainage systems of Pleistocene age. It appears as a river bed with numerous tributaries and is maintained by high-density turbidity currents flowing within the levees. The water temperature varies between −1 °C in winter and 5–6 °C in summer, the salinity is relatively low, at 31–34.9 parts per thousand. Two-thirds of the sea is covered in ice in winter, tides are semi-diurnal, reaching 4 m. There is a water circulation in the sea. It is initiated by the East Greenland Current and continued by the West Greenland Current, then, the Baffin Island Current and Labrador Current transport cold and less saline water southward along the Canadian coast. These currents carry numerous icebergs and therefore hinder navigation and exploration of the gas fields beneath the sea bed. The speed of the Labrador current is typically 0. 3–0.5 m/s, the Labrador Current maintains the water temperature at 0 °C and salinity between 30 and 34 parts per thousand. The NADW consists of three parts of different origin and salinity, and the top one, the Labrador Sea Water, is formed in the Labrador Sea. This part occurs at a depth and has a relatively low salinity, low temperature and high oxygen content compared to the layers above
Labrador Sea
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Past sunset at Labrador Sea, off the coast of
Paamiut, Greenland
Labrador Sea
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Major North Atlantic currents.
Labrador Sea
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Close up of a Labrador tea flower
12.
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
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The Gulf of Saint Lawrence is the outlet of the North American Great Lakes via the Saint Lawrence River into the Atlantic Ocean. The gulf is a sea, covering an area of about 236,000 square kilometres and containing about 35,000 cubic kilometres of water. As for significant islands the Gulf of Saint Lawrence contains Anticosti Island, PEI, Îles-de-la-Madeleine, Cape Breton Island, Saint Pierre Island, and Miquelon-Langlade. Half of the ten provinces of Canada adjoin the Gulf, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Branches of the Gulf include the Chaleur Bay, Fortune Bay, Miramichi Bay, St. Georges Bay, Bay St. George, Bay of Islands, the Cabot Strait between Newfoundland and Saint-Pierre and Cape Breton Island,104 km wide and 480 m deep at its deepest. The Strait of Canso between Cape Breton Island and the Nova Scotia peninsula,1.0 km wide and 60 m deep at its deepest. Due to the construction of the Canso Causeway across the strait in 1955, the limits of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence vary between sources. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence as follows, Fisheries, St. Paul Island, Nova Scotia, off the northeastern tip of Cape Breton Island, is referred to as the Graveyard of the Gulf because of its many shipwrecks. Access to this island is controlled by the Canadian Coast Guard, the five provinces bordering the Gulf of Saint Lawrence also have several provincial parks apiece, some of which preserve coastal features. The Laurentian Channel is about 290 m deep and about 1,250 km long from the Continental Shelf to the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River. Deep waters with temperatures between 2 and 6.5 °C enter the Gulf at the slope and are slowly advected up the channel by estuariane circulation. Over the 20th century, the waters of the end of the channel have become hypoxic. The gulf has provided an important marine fishery for various First Nations that have lived on its shores for millennia. The first documented voyage by a European in its waters was by the French explorer Jacques Cartier in the year 1534. Cartier named the shores of the Saint Lawrence River The Country of Canadas, after a word meaning village or settlement. At just about the period, Basques came to frequent the area for whale-hunting and trade with the First Nations people of the modern Canadian Atlantic. They left vestiges of their presence in locations of the area—docks, furnaces, graveyards
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
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Bathymetry of the gulf, with the Laurentian Channel visible
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
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The Gulf of Saint Lawrence
13.
Labrador
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Labrador /ˈlæbrədɔːr/ LAB-rə-dor is the distinct northerly region of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It comprises the portion of the province, separated from the island of Newfoundland by the Strait of Belle Isle. It is the largest and northernmost geographical region in Atlantic Canada, Labrador occupies the eastern part of the Labrador Peninsula. It is bordered to the west and the south by the Canadian province of Quebec, Labrador also shares a small land border with the Canadian territory of Nunavut on Killiniq Island. Though Labrador covers 71 percent of the land area, it has only 8 percent of the provinces population. The aboriginal peoples of Labrador include the Northern Inuit of Nunatsiavut, the Southern Inuit-Métis of Nunatukavut, many of the non-aboriginal population in Labrador did not permanently settle in Labrador until the natural resource developments of the 1940s and 1950s. Before the 1950s, very few people lived in Labrador year-round. The few European immigrants who worked seasonally for foreign merchants and brought their families were known as Settlers, Labrador has a roughly triangular shape that encompasses the easternmost section of the Canadian Shield, a sweeping geographical region of thin soil and abundant mineral resources. Its western border with Quebec is the divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands that drain into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, Northern Labradors climate is classified as polar, while Southern Labradors climate is classified as subarctic. Labrador can be divided into four regions, the North Coast, Central Labrador, Western Labrador. Each of those regions is described below, from Cape Chidley to Hamilton Inlet, the long thin northern tip of Labrador holds the Torngat Mountains, named after an Inuit spirit believed to inhabit them. The mountains stretch along the coast from Port Manvers to Cape Chidley, the Torngat Mountain range is also home to Mount Caubvick, the highest point in the province. This area is predominantly Inuit, with the small Innu community of Natuashish being the exception, the north coast is the most isolated region of Labrador, with snowmobiles, boats, and planes being the only modern modes of transportation. The largest community in this region is Nain, Nunatsiavut is an Inuit self-government region in Labrador created on June 23,2000. The Settlement area comprises the majority of Labradors North Coast, while the area also includes land farther to the interior. Nain is the center of Nunatsiavut. The most populous region of Labrador, Central Labrador extends from the shores of Lake Melville into the interior and it contains the Churchill River, the largest river in Labrador and one of the largest in Canada
Labrador
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Innu making canoes ca. 1920
Labrador
Labrador
–
Model of
Basque whale oil melting factory at
Red Bay
14.
Newfoundland and Labrador
–
Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province of Canada. Situated in the countrys Atlantic region, it comprises the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador to the northwest, in 2013, the provinces population was estimated at 526,702. About 92% of the population lives on the island of Newfoundland. The province is Canadas most linguistically homogeneous, with 97. 6% of residents reporting English as their mother tongue in the 2006 census, historically, Newfoundland was also home to unique varieties of French and Irish, as well as the extinct Beothuk language. In Labrador, local dialects of Innu-aimun and Inuktitut are also spoken, Newfoundland and Labradors capital and largest city, St. Johns, is Canadas 20th-largest census metropolitan area and is home to almost 40 percent of the provinces population. St. Johns is the seat of government, home to the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the highest court in the jurisdiction and it became the tenth province to enter the Canadian Confederation on March 31,1949, as Newfoundland. On December 6,2001, an amendment was made to the Constitution of Canada to change the official name to Newfoundland. The name Newfoundland is a translation of the Portuguese Terra Nova, the influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador. Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, and is located at the corner of North America. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two divisions, Labrador, which is a large area of mainland Canada, and Newfoundland. The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands, each side is about 400 km long, and its area is 108,860 km2. Newfoundland and its small islands have a total area of 111,390 km2. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N, Labrador is an irregular shape, the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, most of Labradors southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labradors extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a border with Nunavut. Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4. 06% of Canadas area, Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland, gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundlands west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains, the north-south extent of the province, prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province
Newfoundland and Labrador
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Churchill Falls in Labrador
Newfoundland and Labrador
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Flag
Newfoundland and Labrador
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The Beothuk tribe of Newfoundland is extinct. It is represented in museum, historical and archeological records.
Newfoundland and Labrador
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L'Anse aux Meadows on Newfoundland, site of a
Norse colony
15.
Quebec
–
Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
Quebec
–
The arrival of
Samuel de Champlain, the father of
New France, on the site of
Quebec City.
Quebec
–
Flag
Quebec
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Michel's falls on
Ashuapmushuan River in
Saint-Félicien,
Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean.
Quebec
–
View of
Jacques-Cartier River from Andante mountain.
16.
Nain, Newfoundland and Labrador
–
Nain or Naina is the northernmost permanent settlement in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, located about 370 kilometres by air from Happy Valley-Goose Bay. The town was established as a Moravian mission in 1771 by Jens Haven, as of 2011, the population is 1,424 mostly Inuit and mixed Inuit-European. Nain was first established in 1771 by Moravian missionaries and it is among the oldest permanent Inuit settlements in Canada, most communities in Nunavut and Nunavik were settled in the 1950s or later. It is also the oldest continuously-inhabited community in Labrador after North West River, Nain has also been called Nonynuke, Nuninock and Nunaingoakh. The missionaries also establishes posts in Hopedale and areas in the such as Hebron. Many Inuit in the traveled to the Moravian posts in the north to be baptized. The Moravians established posts only in northern areas since the Colony of Newfoundland hoped to colonize southern Labrador, in 1773, it was claimed that over 250 Inuit lived in Nain. In 1893, Nains residents adopted patrilineal surnames at the request of Newfoundland courts, many people took names of the missionaries while others chose traditional names such as Aggek, Karpik, Mitsuk and Nochasak. In 1959, residents of Hebron and Nutak resettled to Nain, Hopedale, Makkovik, the relocation had a huge impact on residents of Hebron and Nutak since the land in Nain was very different and many families were divided. Poverty and alcoholism has affected many of the families that originated in Hebron, the provincial government apologized for the relocations in 2005. In 2016, the Google Street View imaging service uploaded images of roads in Nain. Nain is the community in Labrador with images on the service. Hopedale, further south, is the legislative capital, the land claim cedes limited self-rule for the Nunatsiavut government in Northern Labrador and North-Eastern Quebec, granting title and aboriginal rights. The land that comprises the Nunatsiavut government is called the Labrador Inuit Settlement Area, or LISA, the Inuit of Labrador do not own this land per se, but they do have special rights related to traditional land use as aboriginals. That said, the Labrador Inuit will own 15,000 km2 within the Settlement Area, the Agreement also provides for the establishment of the Torngat Mountains National Park Reserve, consisting of about 9,600 square kilometres of land within LISA. Nunatsiavut is not to be confused with the Nunavut territory, many Inuit from Hebron were relocated to Nain by the provincial government after the Moravian mission at Hebron was closed under government pressure in 1959. Nain is located on the side of Unity Bay, a small inlet. The bay is open to the Atlantic Ocean but Nains harbour is protected by numerous islands, from Nain to the open Labrador Sea is approximately 50 km east through Strathcona Run
Nain, Newfoundland and Labrador
–
Nain as viewed from Mt. Sophie, September 2011.
Nain, Newfoundland and Labrador
–
Anorthosite, marketed as "Blue Eyes Granite," from the Ten Mile Bay Quarry, near Nain. Every crystal will flash bright blue when tilted at the correct angle in the light, an optical effect called "
labradorescence ".
17.
Ungava Bay
–
Ungava Bay is a large bay in northeastern Canada separating Nunavik from Baffin Island. The bay is roughly oval-shaped, about 260 km at its widest point and about 320 km in length and it is generally fairly shallow, under 150 m, though at its border with the Atlantic Ocean depths of almost 300 m are reached. There are a number of islands within Ungava Bay, the largest, Akpatok Island, and others north of 60°N are part of the territory of Nunavut, while smaller islands south of 60°N belong to Quebec. Although it is close to the open Atlantic, Ungava Bay is generally considered part of the Arctic Ocean because the land surrounding it has an exceedingly cold climate. Ungava Bay is separated from Hudson Bay by the Ungava Peninsula, bathymetric studies suggest Ungava Bay may be the remnant of an impact crater approximately 225 km in diameter. The southwestern corner of Ungava Bay, along with Bay of Fundy, has either the highest or second-highest tidal ranges in the world, some sources estimate the spring tide range at the mouth of the Leaf River as being as high as 17 m. Attempts have been made to develop tidal power in the bay, but this is difficult by the harsh climate. Due to the influence of the Labrador Current, summers are too cold for tree growth, typically, temperatures in summer at Kuujjuaq about twenty kilometres up the Koksoak River are about 7 °C, while winter temperatures are about −20 °C. Precipitation averages around 400–450 mm per year, most of it falling in the summer, Ungava Bay is surrounded by numerous Inuit villages, the largest of which is Kuujjuaq, Quebec, at the mouth of the Koksoak River. Iron ore has been mined in the past, but despite the high grade of the ores the impossibility of cheap transportation meant that mining was discontinued in 1980, traditional Inuit hunting activities still dominate the regions life, along with expensive adventure tourism. A online documentary from the National Film Board of Canada
Ungava Bay
–
Aerial view of north-eastern Ungava Bay close to
Cape Chidley, seen from north-west towards south-east. In the foreground is drift-ice, in mid-July.
18.
Cape Wolstenholme
–
Cape Wolstenholme is the extreme northernmost point of the Canadian province of Quebec. Its 300 metres high rocky cliffs dominate the surroundings and mark the entrance to the Digges Sound, here the strong currents from Hudson Bay and the Hudson Strait clash, sometimes even crushing trapped animals between the ice floes. The cape is the place of one of the worlds largest colonies of thick-billed murre. A1,263 square kilometres area alongside the Hudson Strait and it currently is a national park reserve, which is a temporary status until the territory obtains legal status. Shortly after, mutineers from Hudsons expedition clashed with local Inuit on nearby Digges Islands, in 1697, Captain Pierre Le Moyne dIberville and his crew, in search of commercial opportunities in Hudson Bay, conducted the first commercial trades with Inuit at Cape Wolstenholme. In 1909, the Hudsons Bay Company established a trading post called Wolstenholme in Erik Cove and its first factor was Ralph Parsons who was to develop the Arctic fox fur trade by establishing new relationships with the Inuit, who already hunted the fox. No Inuit visited or traded at the post for 2 years but eventually it turned profitable, remnants of the post can still be found here. In 1744, cartographer Jacques-Nicolas Bellin named it Cap Saint-Louis, thereafter, the two names continued to identify this cape until Wolstenholme became official in 1968. C Walsingam is on the 1606 map Septentrio Americaby Jodocus Hondius, the 1645 map Regiones Sub Polo Arctico by Joan Blaeu shows the name C. On the 1743 map Chart of Hudsons Bay & Straits, Baffins Bay, Davis Strait, Cape St. Louis appeared on the map of Canada or New France and the discoveries made by Guillaume Delisle in 1703
Cape Wolstenholme
–
Location of Cape Wolstenholme (4) and Erik Cove (6). Click on image for full legend.
19.
Alberta
–
Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
Alberta
–
Welcome to Alberta sign traveling from east to west
Alberta
–
Flag
Alberta
–
Topographic map of Alberta
Alberta
–
Moraine Lake in
Banff National Park
20.
Torngat Mountains National Park
–
Torngat Mountains National Park is a Canadian national park, located on the Labrador Peninsula at the northern tip of Newfoundland and Labrador. Set in the Torngat Mountains, the name comes from the Inuktitut word Torngait, an area called Torngat Mountains National Park Reserve was set aside with enactment of the Labrador Inuit Land Claims Agreement on December 1,2005 with the intention of creating a national park. The park covers 9,700 square kilometres, extending from Cape Chidley south to Saglek Fjord and it is the largest national park in Atlantic Canada and the southernmost national park in the Arctic Cordillera. The park protects wildlife, while offering wilderness-oriented recreational activities
Torngat Mountains National Park
–
Nachvak Fjord
21.
Canadian Shield
–
Composed of igneous rock resulting from its long volcanic history, the area is covered by a thin layer of soil. Human population is sparse, and industrial development is minimal, while mining is prevalent, the Canadian Shield is a physiographic division, consisting of five smaller, physiographic provinces, the Laurentian Upland, Kazan Region, Davis, Hudson and James. The shield extends into the United States as the Adirondack Mountains, the Canadian Shield is U-shaped and is a subsection of the Laurentia craton signifying the area of greatest glacial impact creating the thin soils. The Canadian Shield is more than 3.96 billion years old, the Canadian Shield once had jagged peaks, higher than any of todays mountains, but millions of years of erosion have changed these mountains to rolling hills. The Canadian Shield was the first part of North America to be elevated above sea level and has remained almost wholly untouched by successive encroachments of the sea upon the continent. It is the Earths greatest area of exposed Archean rock, the metamorphic base rocks are mostly from the Precambrian Supereon, and have been repeatedly uplifted and eroded. Today it consists largely of an area of low relief 300 to 610 m above sea level with a few monadnocks, during the Pleistocene Epoch, continental ice sheets depressed the land surface, scooped out thousands of lake basins, and carried away much of the regions soil. When the Greenland section is included, the Shield is approximately circular, bounded on the northeast by the northeast edge of Greenland and it covers much of Greenland, Labrador, most of Quebec north of the St. In total, the area of the Shield covers approximately 8,000,000 km2. The underlying rock structure also includes Hudson Bay, the Canadian Shield is among the oldest on earth, with regions dating from 2.5 to 4.2 billion years. The multitude of rivers and lakes in the region is caused by the watersheds of the area being so young. It has some of the oldest volcanoes on the planet and it has over 150 volcanic belts whose bedrock ranges from 600 to 1200 million years old. Each belt probably grew by the coalescence of accumulations erupted from numerous vents, many of Canadas major ore deposits are associated with Precambrian volcanoes. The Sturgeon Lake Caldera in Kenora District, Ontario, is one of the worlds best preserved mineralized Neoarchean caldera complexes, the Canadian Shield also contains the Mackenzie dike swarm, which is the largest dike swarm known on Earth. Mountains have deep roots and float on the denser mantle much like an iceberg at sea, as mountains erode, their roots rise and are eroded in turn. The rocks that now form the surface of the Shield were once far below the Earths surface, the high pressures and temperatures at those depths provided ideal conditions for mineralization. Although these mountains are now eroded, many large mountains still exist in Canadas far north called the Arctic Cordillera. This is a vast deeply dissected mountain range, stretching from northernmost Ellesmere Island to the northernmost tip of Labrador, the ranges highest peak is Nunavuts Barbeau Peak at 2,616 metres above sea level
Canadian Shield
Canadian Shield
–
Canadian Shield geography in the
Flin Flon,
Manitoba region. The lake in the background is Big Island Lake.
Canadian Shield
Canadian Shield
–
Typical Canadian Shield: spruce, lakes, bogs, and rock.
22.
Lake Mistassini
–
Lake Mistassini is the largest natural lake by surface area in the province of Quebec, Canada, with a total surface area of approximately 2,335 km² and a net area of 2,164 km². It is located in the Jamésie region of the province, approximately 360 kilometers east of James Bay, the Cree town of Mistissini is located on Watson Peninsula in the south-east corner of the lake, which separates Baie du Poste from Abatagouche Bay. Extensive forests of Spruce, Birch, Pine, and Fir trees, significant tributaries flowing into the lake include, Chalifour, Pépeshquasati, Takwa, Témiscamie, and Wabissinane. Other nearby lakes include Lake Troilus, in 2016, it was reported that the arc shaped lake, together with nearby Lake Albanel, may have been formed by a large meteor impact about 2.1 billion years ago. The rest of the 500 km diameter crater is thought to have now mostly eroded away or buried. If confirmed this would be the largest impact crater found on the earth, over the centuries, it went through many name changes and different spellings. In 1664, on a map by Ducreux, this lake was known as Outakgami, on maps by Jolliet, Jaillot and Franquelin, the lake was identified as Timagaming. In 1703, the cartographer Guillaume Delisle used the same name, laure and Bellin showed on their maps the name Lake Mistassins. Other spelling variations of this Native American designation included, Mistacinnee, Mistacsinney, Mistasinne, Mistasinia, in 1808, James McKenzie of the North West Company used the name Lake Mistassini in his writings, the first use of the name in its current form. In the summer of 1948 Rogers and Rogers found 121 prehistoric sites in the region about Lake Mistassini and Albanel. At site 33, a sandy bank 15 to 20 feet high, at the time of Rogers research in 1948, First Nation people were actively still using campsites on 36% of the 121 prehistoric sites. The existence of large lake was known to French explorers for a long time before its actual discovery. Even Samuel de Champlain knew of it in 1603 and it was finally discovered by Europeans in 1663 as part of an expedition ordered by Governor DAvaugour and led by Guillaume Couture. He was accompanied by Pierre Duquet and Jean Langlois, as well as by Native American guides and they went up the Saguenay River, reached Lake Mistassini and continued on the Rupert River which flows to the Hudson Bay. Thereafter, Lake Mistassini became an important step along the route from the Saguenay to James Bay, in 1672, Charles Albanel crossed the lake in an official mission. On June 18,1672, he wrote, we entered the great Lake Mistassirinins, this Lake is named for the rocks with which it abounds, which are of prodigious size. That same year, a fur trading post was established on the lake and their traditional hunting grounds an area northeast of Lake Mistassini, were near the headwaters of the Eastman River and just south of Noakokan. Lake Indicator is near their southern boundary, Rogers observed that Lake Indicator was used as an early winter base for hunting and trapping and he noted the remains of an earth-covered conical lodge, four house pits, and a log cabin
Lake Mistassini
–
Satellite image of Lakes Mistassini and Albanel
Lake Mistassini
–
Map of Lake Mistassini
23.
Manicouagan Reservoir
–
Manicouagan Reservoir is believed to have been caused by the impact of a meteor of 5 kilometres diameter, producing the annular lake in central Quebec, Canada. The lake covers an area of 1,942 km², the lake island in the centre of the lake is known as René-Levasseur Island, and its highest point is Mount Babel. The lake and island are seen from space and are sometimes called the eye of Quebec. With a volume of 139.8 cubic kilometres, the reservoir itself is the fifth largest in the world by volume, in 2007, astronaut Marc Garneau nominated the reservoir for the CBCs Seven Wonders of Canada competition. Manicouagan Reservoir lies within the remnant of an ancient eroded impact crater and it is the sixth-largest confirmed impact crater known on earth. Mount Babel is interpreted as the peak of the crater. Research has shown that impact melt within the crater has an age of 214±1 million years, as this is 12±2 million years before the end of the Triassic, the impact that produced the crater cannot have been the cause of the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. The complex of dams is also called the Manic-Outardes Project because the involved are the Manicouagan. The Manicouagan Reservoir acts as a giant headpond for the Manicouagan River, feeding the Manic-2, Manic-3, and Manic-5 generating stations downstream. In the peak period of the cold, the lake surface is usually lower. Impact event Manicouagan Uapishka Biosphere Reserve List of impact craters on Earth Earth Impact Database Aerial Exploration of the Manicouagan Structure World Lakes Database Manicouagan Reference
Manicouagan Reservoir
–
View from orbit (Image courtesy NASA)
Manicouagan Reservoir
–
The crater in winter, as seen from the space shuttle (north is to the lower right)
24.
Eastmain River
–
The Eastmain River is a river in northwestern Quebec which rises in north central Quebec and flows 800 km west to drain into James Bay. East Main is an old name for the east side of James Bay and this river drains an area of 46,400 km². The First Nations Cree village of Eastmain is located at the mouth of the river, the remainder of the Eastmain River only contains a fraction of its former volume, permitting freeze-up in winter. A further hydroelectric project on the upper Eastmain River is currently under construction, the project was part of the original hydroelectric project provided for by the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement of 1975. The Eastmain Reservoir will eventually have an area of about 600 km². The Eastmain river was named after the Hudsons Bay Companys East Main District which was located east, the mouth of the Eastmain was a center of the fur trade. Charles Bayly reached it from Rupert House in the 1670s, after Rupert House was destroyed in 1686 the area was visited by a ship from York Factory. In 1723-24 Joseph Myatt of the Hudsons Bay Company built a post, James Bay Project List of longest rivers of Canada
Eastmain River
–
Eastmain River in Dec. 2005 at the
James Bay Road.
25.
Rupert River
–
The Rupert River is one of the largest rivers in Quebec, Canada. From its headwaters in Lake Mistassini, the largest natural lake in Quebec, the Rupert drains an area of 43,400 square kilometres. There is some extremely large whitewater on the river, but paddlers can avoid much of it by portage routes on the side. The most impressive falls, which cannot be avoided except by portaging, are the Oatmeal Rapids right at the James Bay Road, the Rupert has long been an important river for the Cree of the area. Every year, a group of Cree youth from the village of Waskaganish, at the mouth of the Rupert, lawrence River and in doing so, trying to break the French hold on the fur trade. They named the river after the sponsor of the expedition, Prince Rupert, a fort was established at the mouth of the river, which later became the trading post Rupert House, the oldest trading post of the Hudsons Bay Company. While having lost its importance as a route, the Rupert River has long been a popular destination for recreational canoe camping. The Rupert, together with the Nottaway and Broadback Rivers, was considered to be dammed and diverted as part of the James Bay Project. But in 1972, hydro-electric development began on the more northerly La Grande and Eastmain Rivers, the Grand Chief of the Crees, Matthew Mukash, elected in late 2005, opposed the Rupert diversion project, preferring the development of wind turbines in the region. The diversion of water from the river began in November,2009, the remaining work was scheduled to be complete in 2012. com Rupert River Archive The Rupert River
Rupert River
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Rupert River (Rivière Rupert)
Rupert River
–
The Oatmeal Rapids on the Rupert River.
Rupert River
–
The Rupert River lookout
Rupert River
–
The Rupert River at the
James Bay Road.
26.
Churchill River (Atlantic)
–
The Churchill River is a river in Newfoundland and Labrador which flows east from the Smallwood Reservoir in Labrador into the Atlantic Ocean via Lake Melville. The river is 856 km long and drains an area of 79,800 km2, the river is still known locally as Mishtashipu by the Innu, and as the Grand River by the peoples of NunatuKavut and Nunatsiavut, and settlers who identify as Labradorians. In 1821, Captain William Martin, in command of HM brig Clinker, took it himself to name the river the Hamilton River after the then Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland. On February 1,1965, the river was renamed the Churchill River by Premier Joey Smallwood, Churchill Falls is the site of a major hydroelectric project, which has a rated capacity of 5,428 MW. Other hydroelectric plants on the river are planned bringing the total to over 9,200 MW, the Churchill Falls development has become a source of friction between two Canadian provinces. Hydro-Québec buys power from the Churchill Falls project at rates established in 1969 and it is believed that the wreck of a U Boat has been found just downstream of Muskrat Falls
Churchill River (Atlantic)
–
A.P. Low and party on a hauling picnic up Lake Winokapau, Hamilton River (now the Churchill River), Labrador, 1894.
Churchill River (Atlantic)
–
Churchill River and waterfalls,
Labrador
27.
Cree
–
The Cree are one of the largest groups of First Nations in North America, with over 200,000 members living in Canada. The major proportion of Cree in Canada live north and west of Lake Superior, in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, in the United States, this Algonquian-speaking people historically lived from Lake Superior westward. Today, they live mostly in Montana, where they share a reservation with the Ojibwe, the documented westward migration over time has been strongly associated with their roles as traders and hunters in the North American fur trade. The Cree are generally divided into eight groups based on dialect and these divisions do not necessarily represent ethnic sub-divisions within the larger ethnic group, Naskapi and Montagnais are inhabitants of an area they refer to as Nitassinan. Their territories comprise most of the political jurisdictions of eastern Quebec. Their cultures are differentiated, as the Naskapi are still caribou hunters and more nomadic than the Montagnais, the total population of the two groups in 2003 was about 18,000 people, of which 15,000 lived in Quebec. Their dialects and languages are the most distinct from the Cree spoken by the groups west of Lake Superior, Attikamekw are inhabitants of the area they refer to as Nitaskinan, in the upper St. Maurice River valley of Quebec. James Bay Cree – Grand Council of the Crees, approximately 18,000 Cree of Eeyou Istchee and Nunavik regions of Northern Quebec. Moose Cree – Moose Factory in the Cochrane District, Ontario, Swampy Cree – this group lives in northern Manitoba along the Hudson Bay coast and adjacent inland areas to the south and west, and in Ontario along the coast of Hudson Bay and James Bay. Some also in eastern Saskatchewan around Cumberland House, Woods Cree group in northern Alberta and Saskatchewan. Plains Cree 34,000 people in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, due to the many dialects of the Cree language, there is no modern collective autonym. The Plains Cree and Attikamekw refer to using modern forms of the historical nêhiraw, namely nêhiyaw and nêhirawisiw. Moose Cree, East Cree, Naskapi, and Montagnais all refer to using modern dialectal forms of the historical iriniw. Moose Cree use the form ililiw, coastal East Cree and Naskapi use iyiyiw, inland East Cree use iyiniw, the Cree use Cree, cri, Naskapi, or montagnais to refer to their people only when speaking the languages of the European colonists, French or English. Bands would usually have strong ties to their neighbours through intermarriage and would assemble together at different parts of the year to hunt and socialize together. Besides these regional gatherings, there was no formal structure. Each band remained independent of each other, however, Cree-speaking bands tended to work together and with their neighbours against outside enemies. When a band went to war, they would nominate a temporary military commander and this office was different from that of the peace chief, a leader who had a role more like that of diplomat
Cree
–
Nēhiyaw camp near
Vermilion, Alberta, in 1871
Cree
–
Cree Indian, taken by G. E. Fleming, 1903
Cree
–
Nehiyaw girl (1928).
Cree
–
"Group of Crees"
28.
Innu
–
Their population in 2003 included about 18,000 people, of which around 14,000 lived in Quebec, under 3000 in Labrador, and the rest outside their traditional territory. Their ancestors were known to have lived on these lands as hunter-gatherers for several thousand years and their subsistence activities were historically centred on hunting and trapping caribou, moose, deer and small game. Some coastal clans also practised agriculture, fished, and managed maple sugarbush and their language, Innu or Ilnu, is spoken throughout Nitassinan, with certain dialect differences. It is part of Cree language group, and unrelated with neighboring Inuit languages, the Innu were allied with neighbouring Atikamekw, Maliseet and Algonquin against their traditional enemies, the Mikmaq and Iroquois. During the Beaver Wars the Iroquois repeatedly invaded their territories, and enslaved women and warriors, since these raids were made by the Iroquois with unprecedented brutality, the Innu themselves adopted the torment, torture, and cruelty of their enemies. The Naskapi, on the hand, were usually in conflicts with the southward advancing Inuit in the east. The Innu recognize several distinctions based on different regional affiliations and various dialects of the Innu language, the word Naskapi was first recorded by French colonists in the 17th century and was subsequently applied to Innu groups beyond the reach of missionary influence. It particularly applied to living in the lands which bordered Ungava Bay. It is here that the term came to be used for the Naskapi First Nation, the Naskapi are traditionally nomadic peoples, in contrast with the more sedentary Montagnais, who establish settled territories. Mushuau Innuat, while related to the Naskapi, split off from the tribe in the 1900s and they were subject to a government relocation program at Davis Inlet. Some of the families of the Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach have close relatives in the Cree village of Whapmagoostui, on the eastern shore of Hudson Bay. Since 1990, the Montagnais people have chosen to be officially referred to as the Innu. On July 29,1609, at Ticonderoga or Crown Point, New York, Champlain, a battle began the next day. Two hundred Iroquois advanced on Champlains position as a native guide pointed out the three Iroquois chiefs to the French, Champlain fired his arquebus and killed two of them with one shot. One of his men killed the third and this was to set the tone for French-Iroquois relations for the next 100 years. As the forest and mining began at the turn of the 20th century. In 1999 Survival International published a study of the Innu communities of Labrador and it assessed the impact of the Canadian governments relocating the people far from their ancestral lands and preventing their practising their ancient way of life. Survival International considered these policies to be in violation of international law, by 2000, the Innu island community of Davis Inlet asked the Canadian government to assist with a local addiction crisis
Innu
Innu
–
Flag of the Innu Nation of Quebec and Labrador Flag of the Kawawachikamach Band of the Naskapi Nation Flag of the Matimekush Band of the Innu-Montagnais Nation
Innu
–
“Buckle up your children” sign in Innu-aimun language, in the Pointe-Parent reserve near Natasquan, Quebec.
29.
Innu language
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Innu-aimun or Montagnais is an Algonquian language spoken by over 10,000 Innu in Labrador and Quebec in Eastern Canada. It is a member of the Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi dialect continuum and is spoken in various dialects depending on the community, the lyrics of Akua Tuta are featured on over 50 websites, making this one of the most broadly accessible pieces of text written in any native North American language. Florent Vollant has also rendered several well-known Christmas carols into Innu in his 1999 album Nipaiamianan, in 2013, a comprehensive pan-Innu dictionary, covering all the Innu dialects spoken in Quebec and Labrador published in Innu, English and French. Innu-aimun has the following phonemes, /l/ is written as n in standard orthography and only exists in the western dialects Mashteuiatsh, other dialects use /n/ in those positions. The voiceless plosive are voiced to between vowels, long vowels, î /i/, e /e~ɛ/, â /a/, û /o/ Short vowels, i /ɪ~ə/, a /ʌ~ə/, u /o~ʊ~u/ The circumflex accents over the long vowels are omitted in general writing. Innu-aimun is a polysynthetic, head-marking language with relatively free word order and its three basic parts of speech are nouns, verbs, and particles. Nouns are grouped into two genders, animate and inanimate, and may carry affixes indicating plurality, possession, obviation, verbs are divided into four classes based on their transitivity, animate intransitive, inanimate intransitive, transitive inanimate, and transitive animate. Verbs may carry affixes indicating agreement, tense, mood, two different sets, or orders, of verbal affixes are used depending on the verbs syntactic context. In simple main clauses, the verb is marked using affixes of the independent order, whereas in subordinate clauses and content-word questions, Innu-aimun is related to East Cree spoken by the James Bay Cree of the James Bay region of Quebec and Ontario and the Atikamekw of the Atikamekw. Innu-aimun is divided into four dialects - Southern Montagnais, Eastern Montagnais, Central Montagnais, the speakers of the different dialects can communicate well with each other. The Naskapi language and culture are different from those of the Montagnais. North-West River Montagnais, A grammatical sketch, national Museum of Man Mercury Series,80. Morphology, An international handbook on inflection and word formation, vol, berlin, New York, Walter de Gruyter. Labrador Innu-aimun, An introduction to the Sheshatshiu dialect, st. Johns, Newfoundland, Department of Linguistics, Memorial University of Newfoundland. Québec, Presses de lUniversité du Québec,940 p. Online pan-Innu dictionary Innu-aimun. ca Information about the language. Innu Aimun orthography and phonology Native Languages page for Montagnais Innu OLAC resources in and about the Montagnais language
Innu language
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"Buckle up your children" sign in Innu-aimun, in the Pointe-Parent reserve near Natasquan, Quebec.
30.
Manuel I of Portugal
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Manuel I, the Fortunate, King of Portugal and the Algarves, was the son of Infante Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, by his wife, the Infanta Beatrice of Portugal. His name is associated with a period of Portuguese civilization that was distinguished by significant achievements both in political affairs and the arts. Manuels mother was the granddaughter of King John I of Portugal, whereas his father was the surviving son of King Edward of Portugal. In 1495, Manuel succeeded his first cousin, King John II of Portugal, Manuel grew up amidst conspiracies of the Portuguese upper nobility against King John II. He was aware of people being killed and exiled. His older brother Diogo, Duke of Viseu, was stabbed to death in 1484 by the king himself, as a result of this stroke of luck, he was nicknamed the Fortunate. Manuel would prove a worthy successor to his cousin John II for his support of Portuguese exploration of the Atlantic Ocean, during his reign, the following achievements were realized,1498 — The discovery of a maritime route to India by Vasco da Gama. 1500 — The discovery of Brazil by Pedro Álvares Cabral,1505 — The appointment of Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of India. 1503–1515 — The establishment of monopolies on maritime routes to the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf by Afonso de Albuquerque. All these events made Portugal wealthy from trade as it formally established a vast overseas empire. Manuel used the wealth to build a number of royal buildings, commercial treaties and diplomatic alliances were forged with China and the Persian Empire. Pope Leo X received an embassy from Portugal during his reign designed to draw attention to Portugals newly acquired riches to all of Europe. In Manuels reign, royal absolutism was the method of government, the Portuguese Cortes met only three times during his reign, always in Lisbon, the kings seat. He reformed the courts of justice and the municipal charters with the crown, modernizing taxes, during his reign, the laws in force in the kingdom of Portugal were recodified with the publication of the Manueline Ordinations. Manuel also endeavoured to promote another crusade against the Turks and his relationship with the Portuguese Jews started out well. At the outset of his reign, he released all the Jews who had been made captive during the reign of John II, unfortunately for the Jews, he decided that he wanted to marry Infanta Isabella of Aragon, then heiress of the future united crown of Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella had expelled the Jews in 1492 and would never marry their daughter to the king of a country that still tolerated their presence, in the marriage contract, Manuel I agreed to persecute the Jews of Portugal. In December 1496, it was decreed that all Jews either convert to Christianity or leave the country without their children, however, those expelled could only leave the country in ships specified by the king
Manuel I of Portugal
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Manuel I of Portugal, in a miniature from the frontispiece of the Livro 1 de Além Douro of the Leitura Nova (penned 15??-1521).
Manuel I of Portugal
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Saint Aleixo's Wedding of Manuel and Maria; Garcia Fernandes, 1541.
Manuel I of Portugal
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The Family of King D. Manuel I at the Fons Vitae;
Colijn de Coter, 1518.
Manuel I of Portugal
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The Interment of D. Manuel from the
Book of hours of D. Manuel; 1517-1551.
31.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
Portugal
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Citânia de Briteiros, in the
Minho Province, is the best preserved
Iron Age and
Castro culture site in Portugal.
Portugal
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Flag
Portugal
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The
Roman Temple of Évora, in the
Alentejo, is a symbol of
Lusitania, Roman rule in Portugal.
Portugal
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Monument in Porto to
Vimara Peres, first ruler of the County of Portugal
32.
Treaty of Tordesillas
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This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde islands and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage, named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia. The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile, the treaty was signed by Spain,2 July 1494 and by Portugal,5 September 1494. Originals of both treaties are kept at the Archivo General de Indias in Spain and at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Portugal. This treaty would be observed fairly well by Spain and Portugal, despite considerable ignorance as to the geography of the New World, however and those countries generally ignored the treaty, particularly those that became Protestant after the Protestant Reformation. The Treaty of Tordesillas was intended to solve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus and his crew, on his way back to Spain he first reached Lisbon, in Portugal. There he asked for another meeting with King John II to show him the newly discovered lands, also, the Portuguese King stated that he was already making arrangements for a fleet to depart shortly and take possession of the new lands. After reading the letter the Catholic Monarchs knew they did not have any power in the Atlantic to match the Portuguese. The bull did not mention Portugal or its lands, so Portugal could not claim newly discovered lands even if they were east of the line. The Portuguese King John II was not pleased with that arrangement, feeling that it gave him far too little land—it prevented him from possessing India, by 1493 Portuguese explorers had reached the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope. The Portuguese were unlikely to go to war over the islands encountered by Columbus, the treaty effectively countered the bulls of Alexander VI but was subsequently sanctioned by Pope Julius II by means of the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis of 24 January 1506. Even though the treaty was negotiated without consulting the Pope, a few sources call the line the Papal Line of Demarcation. Very little of the divided area had actually been seen by Europeans. Castile gained lands including most of the Americas, which in 1494 had little proven wealth, the easternmost part of current Brazil was granted to Portugal when in 1500 Pedro Álvares Cabral landed there while he was en route to India. Some historians contend that the Portuguese already knew of the South American bulge that makes up most of Brazil before this time, the line was not strictly enforced—the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. However, the Catholic Monarchs attempted to stop the Portuguese advance in Asia, by claiming the meridian line ran around the world, Portugal pushed back, seeking another papal pronouncement that limited the line of demarcation to the Atlantic. This was given by Pope Leo X, who was friendly toward Portugal and its discoveries, for a period between 1580 and 1640, the treaty was rendered meaningless, as the Spanish King was also King of Portugal. It was superseded by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid which granted Portugal control of the lands it occupied in South America, however, the latter treaty was immediately repudiated by the Catholic Monarch. The First Treaty of San Ildefonso settled the problem, with Spain acquiring territories east of the Uruguay River, the Treaty of Tordesillas only specified the line of demarcation in leagues from the Cape Verde Islands
Treaty of Tordesillas
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Front page of the Portuguese-owned treaty
Treaty of Tordesillas
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Early Tordesillas lines in South America (1495–1545)
Treaty of Tordesillas
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Dutch map of the Moluccas (north is at right)
33.
Greenland
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Greenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Danish Realm between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for more than a millennium. The majority of its residents are Inuit, whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century, Greenland is the worlds largest island. Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica. With a population of about 56,480, it is the least densely populated country in the world, the Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland, connecting the various cities and settlements. Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada, Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century, and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century. The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century, soon after their demise, beginning in 1499, the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island, naming it Terra do Lavrador. In the early 18th century, Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again, to strengthen trading and power, Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island. Greenland was settled by Vikings more than a thousand years ago, Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland, discovering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached Caribbean islands. Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians, Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262, the Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century. Thus, the two kingdoms resources were directed at creating Copenhagen, Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved. Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814, and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark, in 1973, Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark. However, in a referendum in 1982, a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985, Greenland contains the worlds largest and most northernly national park, Northeast Greenland National Park. Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq, Kujalleq, Qaasuitsup and it also retains control of monetary policy, providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK3.4 billion, which is planned to diminish gradually over time. Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources, the capital, Nuuk, held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games. At 70%, Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world, the early Viking settlers named the island as Greenland. In the Icelandic sagas, the Norwegian-born Icelander Erik the Red was said to be exiled from Iceland for manslaughter, along with his extended family and his thralls, he set out in ships to explore an icy land known to lie to the northwest. After finding an area and settling there, he named it Grœnland
Greenland
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Kingittorsuaq Runestone from
Kingittorsuaq Island (
Middle ages).
Greenland
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Flag
Greenland
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The last written records of the
Norse Greenlanders are of a marriage in 1408 in the
church of Hvalsey —today the best-preserved Nordic ruins in Greenland.
Greenland
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A 1747 map based on Egede's descriptions and misconceptions.
34.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
35.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012
36.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
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GND screenshot
