1.
English people
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The English are a nation and an ethnic group native to England, who speak the English language. The English identity is of medieval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Angelcynn. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who migrated to Great Britain around the 5th century AD, England is one of the countries of the United Kingdom. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, they founded what was to become England along with the later Danes, Normans, in the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England was succeeded by the Kingdom of Great Britain. Over the years, English customs and identity have become closely aligned with British customs. The English people are the source of the English language, the Westminster system and these and other English cultural characteristics have spread worldwide, in part as a result of the former British Empire. The concept of an English nation is far older than that of the British nation, many recent immigrants to England have assumed a solely British identity, while others have developed dual or mixed identities. Use of the word English to describe Britons from ethnic minorities in England is complicated by most non-white people in England identifying as British rather than English. In their 2004 Annual Population Survey, the Office for National Statistics compared the ethnic identities of British people with their national identity. They found that while 58% of white people in England described their nationality as English and it is unclear how many British people consider themselves English. Following complaints about this, the 2011 census was changed to allow respondents to record their English, Welsh, Scottish, another complication in defining the English is a common tendency for the words English and British to be used interchangeably, especially overseas. In his study of English identity, Krishan Kumar describes a common slip of the tongue in which people say English, I mean British. He notes that this slip is made only by the English themselves and by foreigners. Kumar suggests that although this blurring is a sign of Englands dominant position with the UK and it tells of the difficulty that most English people have of distinguishing themselves, in a collective way, from the other inhabitants of the British Isles. In 1965, the historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote, When the Oxford History of England was launched a generation ago and it meant indiscriminately England and Wales, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and even the British Empire. Foreigners used it as the name of a Great Power and indeed continue to do so, bonar Law, by origin a Scotch Canadian, was not ashamed to describe himself as Prime Minister of England Now terms have become more rigorous. The use of England except for a geographic area brings protests and this version of history is now regarded by many historians as incorrect, on the basis of more recent genetic and archaeological research. The 2016 study authored by Stephan Schiffels et al, the remaining portion of English DNA is primarily French, introduced in a migration after the end of the Ice Age
2.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
3.
Inoculation
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The terms inoculation, vaccination, immunization and injection are often used synonymously to refer to artificial induction of immunity against various infectious diseases. This is supported by some dictionaries, however, there are some important historical and current differences. In English medicine, inoculation referred only to the prevention of smallpox until the very early 1800s, when Edward Jenner introduced smallpox vaccine in 1798, this was initially called cowpox inoculation or vaccine inoculation. Soon, to avoid confusion, smallpox inoculation was referred to as variolation, then, in 1891 Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms vaccine and vaccination should be extended to include the new protective procedures being developed. Immunization refers to the use of all vaccines but also extends to the use of antitoxin, Inoculation is now more or less synonymous in nontechnical usage with injection etc. and the question e. g. Have you had your flu injection/vaccination/inoculation/immunization, the focus is on what is being given and why, not the literal meaning of the technique used. Inoculation also has a meaning for procedures done in vitro. In almost all cases the material inoculated is called the inoculum, or less commonly the inoculant, the term inoculation entered medical English through horticultural usage meaning to graft a bud from one plant into another. It is derived from the Latin in + oculus, though innoculation/innoculate is sometimes seen, this is incorrect, possibly erroneously thought to be related to innocuous, which is derived from the Latin in + nocuus. Inoculation originated as a method for the prevention of smallpox by deliberate introduction of material from smallpox pustules into the skin and this generally produced a less severe infection than naturally-acquired smallpox, but still induced immunity to it. This first method for smallpox prevention, smallpox inoculation, is now known as variolation. The earliest hints of the practice of inoculation for smallpox in China come during the 10th century, however, the sinologist Joseph Needham states that this information comes from the Zhongdou xinfa written in 1808 by Zhu Yiliang, centuries after the alleged events. Inoculation was first vividly described by Yu Chang in his book Yuyi cao, or Notes on My Judgment and this was called to implant the sprouts, an idea of transplanting the disease which fit their conception of beansprouts in germination. Wrap the scabs carefully in paper and put them into a small container bottle, cork it tightly so that the activity is not dissipated. The container must not be exposed to sunlight or warmed beside a fire and it is best to carry it for some time on the person so that the scabs dry naturally and slowly. The container should be marked clearly with the date on which the contents were taken from the patient, in winter, the material has yang potency within it, so it remains active even after being kept from thirty to forty days. But in summer the yang potency will be lost in approximately twenty days, According to Voltaire, the Turks derived their use of inoculation to neighbouring Circassia. This pustule produces the effect in the arm it is laid in as yeast in a piece of dough, it ferments
4.
Edward Wortley Montagu (traveller)
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Edward Wortley Montagu was an English author and traveller. He was the son of Edward Wortley Montagu, MP and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, whose talent and eccentricity he seems to have inherited. In 1716 he was taken by his parents to Constantinople, and at Pera in March 1716-17 was inoculated for smallpox, on the return of his parents to England in 1718 he was placed at Westminster School, from which he ran away more than once. On the first occasion in July 1726, he was traced to Oxford and he decamped again in August 1727, and was not recovered for some months. Two similar escapades are mentioned by his tutor, Forster, chaplain to the Duchess of Kingston and he was then sent to travel with a tutor in the West Indies, and afterwards with a keeper to the Netherlands. He made, however, a study of Arabic at Leiden. His father made him an allowance, and he was heavily encumbered with debt. He served in the British army from 1743-1748, first as a cornet in the 7th Dragoon Guards and he fought at the Battle of Fontenoy. He left the army in 1748 and he thereafter traveled in various parts for many years, writing brief diary notes of his travels along with occasional sketches, and finally returned to his studies in 1769. He was Member of Parliament for Huntingdonshire in 1747, and was one of the secretaries at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle that closed the War of the Austrian Succession. He was cleared after the first court hearing before the decision was overturned by the Parlement of Paris and he continued to sit in parliament, and wrote Reflections on the Rise and Fall of the Antient Republics. His father left him an annuity of £1000, the bulk of the property going to his sister Lady Bute and he set out for extended travel in the East, and George Romney describes him as living in the Turkish manner at Venice. Fluent in Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldaic, and Persian he was also an excellent orator and his family thought him mad, and his mother left him a single guinea in her will, but her annuity devolved on him at her death. He died at Padua in Italy, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Montagu, Edward Wortley. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Montagu. Edward Wortley Montagu 1713–1776, The Man in the Iron Wig, isobel Grundy, Edward Wortley Montagu, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Gruber, Ira. Books and the British Army in the Age of the American Revolution, chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press
5.
Jean Baptiste Vanmour
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Jean Baptiste Vanmour or Van Mour was a Flemish-French painter, remembered for his detailed portrayal of life in the Ottoman Empire during the Tulip Era and the rule of Sultan Ahmed III. Van Mour was a native of Valenciennes, a Flemish town that at the time of his birth belonged to the Spanish Netherlands, but since 1678 to France. He studied art in the studio of Jacques-Albert Gérin, and his work attracted the attention of an aristocrat and statesman of the time, Van Mour was invited to go to Constantinople when De Ferriol was appointed there as the French Ambassador in 1699. De Ferriol commissioned van Mour to do one hundred portraits of the local people, in 1711 De Ferriol returned to France and van Mour worked for a variety of other diplomats. In the meantime De Ferriol published a series of one hundred engravings in Recueil de cent estampes représentant différentes nations du Levant, the book had a great influence in Western Europe and was published in at least five languages. Painting audiences with the Sultan became van Mours speciality, he only had to change the setting, Van Mour worked with assistants to fulfill all his obligations. In 1725 he was granted the title of Peintre Ordinaire du Roy en Levant in recognition of both his and the Levants importance to the French government. In 1727 the Dutch ambassador Cornelis Calkoen asked Van Mour to record his audience with Sultan Ahmed III on canvas, Calkoen took many paintings of Jean Baptiste Vanmour with him, when he was appointed as ambassador in Dresden for the Dutch Republic. In his will of 1762 the bachelor Calkoen forbade his heirs to sell the paintings and it is said Van Mour was buried next to Baron de Salagnac in the graveyard of the Jesuit Church of St Louis in the district of Beyoglu. Media related to Jean Baptiste Vanmour at Wikimedia Commons The Rijksmuseum on Vanmour Friends of Vanmour
6.
Baptism
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Baptism is a Christian sacrament of admission and adoption, almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally. The canonical Gospels report that Jesus was baptized—a historical event to which a degree of certainty can be assigned. Baptism has been called a sacrament and an ordinance of Jesus Christ. In some denominations, baptism is also called christening, but for others the word christening is reserved for the baptism of infants, Baptism has also given its name to the Baptist churches and denominations. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the candidate to be immersed, in v.16, Matthew will speak of Jesus coming up out of the water. The traditional depiction in Christian art of John the Baptist pouring water over Jesus head may therefore be based on later Christian practice, other common forms of baptism now in use include pouring water three times on the forehead, a method called affusion. Martyrdom was identified early in Church history as baptism by blood, later, the Catholic Church identified a baptism of desire, by which those preparing for baptism who die before actually receiving the sacrament are considered saved. Today, some Christians, particularly Christian Scientists, Quakers, The Salvation Army, and Unitarians, do not see baptism as necessary, among those that do, differences can be found in the manner and mode of baptizing and in the understanding of the significance of the rite. Most Christians baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, much more than half of all Christians baptize infants, many others hold that only believers baptism is true baptism. Some insist on submersion or at least partial immersion of the person who is baptized, others consider that any form of washing by water, as long as the water flows on the head, is sufficient. The term baptism has also used to refer to any ceremony, trial, or experience by which a person is initiated, purified. The Greek verb baptō, dip, from which the verb baptizo is derived, is in turn hypothetically traced to a reconstructed Indo-European root *gʷabh-, the Greek words are used in a great variety of meanings. John the Baptist, who is considered a forerunner to Christianity, the apostle Paul distinguished between the baptism of John, and baptism in the name of Jesus, and it is questionable whether Christian baptism was in some way linked with that of John. Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism, though whether Jesus intended to institute a continuing, the earliest Christian baptisms were probably normally by immersion, complete or partial. Though other modes may have also been used, at the hour in which the cock crows, they shall first pray over the water. When they come to the water, the water shall be pure and flowing, that is, then they shall take off all their clothes. The children shall be baptized first, all of the children who can answer for themselves, let them answer. If there are any children who cannot answer for themselves, let their parents answer for them, after this, the men will be baptized
7.
St Paul's, Covent Garden
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As well as being the parish church of Covent Garden, the church has gained the nickname of the actors church by a long association with the theatre community. Completed in 1633, St Pauls was the first entirely new church to be built in London since the Reformation and its design and the layout of the square have been attributed to Inigo Jones since the 17th century, although firm documentary evidence is lacking. The building is described by Sir John Summerson as a study in the strictly Vitruvian Tuscan Order and it has been seen as a work of deliberate primitivism, the Tuscan order is associated by Palladio with agricultural buildings. In 1630, the 4th Earl of Bedford was given permission to demolish buildings on an area of land he owned north of the Strand, the result was the Covent Garden Piazza, the first formal square in London. The new buildings were classical in character, at the west end was a church, linked to two identical houses. The south side was left open, work on the church was completed in 1633, at a cost of to Bedford estate of £4,886, but it was not consecrated until 1638 due to a dispute between the earl and the vicar of St Martin-in-the-Fields. It remained a chapel within the parish of St Martin-in-the-Fields until 1645, when Covent Garden was made a separate parish, in 1789 there was a major restoration of the church, under the direction of the architect Thomas Hardwick. Six years later, in September 1795, the church was burnt out by a fire, a survey of the damage found that the outer walls were still structurally sound, but that the portico would have to be reconstructed. It is unclear whether this was in fact done, having been restored once more, again under Hardwicks supervision, the church was reconsecrated on 1 August 1798. Despite the destruction, the records were saved, as was the pulpit — the work of Grinling Gibbons. The puritan Thomas Manton ministered from the pulpit of St Pauls until the Great Ejection, on 23 September 1662 Simon Patrick, later Bishop of Ely, was preferred to the rectory of St. Paul’s where he served during the plague. The first known victim of the 1665–1666 outbreak of the Plague in England, the east end, facing the piazza, is faced in stone, with a massive portico, its boldly-projecting pediment supported by two columns and two piers. There were originally three doorways behind the portico, the one, which survives, was built as a false door as the interior wall behind it is occupied by the altar. The other two were blocked up in the 19th century, when the floor was raised. The main entrance to the church is through the plainer west front, which has a pediment, but no portico. William Prynne, writing in 1638 said that it was intended to have the altar at the west end. The earliest existing detailed description, dating from 1708, says that the exterior was not of bare brick, in 1789 it was decided to case the walls in Portland stone as part of a major programme of renovation, which Thomas Hardwick was chosen to supervise. When Hardwicks stone facing was removed from the church in 1888, the building was then reclad in the present unrendered red brick
8.
Covent Garden
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Covent Garden is a district in London on the eastern fringes of the West End, between St Martins Lane and Drury Lane. It is associated with the former fruit-and-vegetable market in the square, now a popular shopping and tourist site, and with the Royal Opera House. The area was settled in the 7th century when it became the heart of the Anglo-Saxon trading town of Lundenwic. By 1200 part of it had been walled off by Westminster Abbey for use as arable land, referred to as the garden of the Abbey and Convent, and later the Covent Garden, it was seized by Henry VIII and granted to the Earls of Bedford in 1552. The 4th Earl commissioned Inigo Jones to build fine houses to attract wealthy tenants. Jones designed the Italianate arcaded square along with the church of St Pauls, the design of the square was new to London and had a significant influence on modern town planning, acting as the prototype for new estates as London grew. By 1654 a small open-air fruit-and-vegetable market had developed on the side of the fashionable square. Gradually, both the market and the area fell into disrepute, as taverns, theatres, coffee-houses. By the 18th century it had become a well-known red-light district, an Act of Parliament was drawn up to control the area, and Charles Fowlers neo-classical building was erected in 1830 to cover and help organise the market. The market grew and further buildings were added, the Floral Hall, Charter Market, by the end of the 1960s traffic congestion was causing problems, and in 1974 the market relocated to the New Covent Garden Market about three miles south-west at Nine Elms. With the postcode WC2, Covent Garden falls within the London boroughs of Westminster and Camden, the area has been served by the Piccadilly line at Covent Garden tube station since 1907, the journey from Leicester Square, at 300 yards, is the shortest in London. What would become the Strand on the boundary of the future Covent Garden was used during the Roman period as part of a route to Silchester. Excavations in 2006 at St Martin-in-the-Fields revealed a late Roman grave and these revealed Covent Garden as the centre of a trading town called Lundenwic, developed around 600 AD, which stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually shifted the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, a document from 1200 AD mentions a walled garden owned by the Benedictine monks of the Abbey of St Peter, Westminster. A later document, dated between 1250 and 1283, refers to the garden of the Abbot and Convent of Westminster. By the 13th century this had become a 40-acre quadrangle of mixed orchard, meadow, pasture and arable land and this is how it was recorded from then on. After the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1540, Henry VIII took the land belonging to Westminster Abbey for himself and his son, Edward VI, granted it to John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford, in 1552. The Russell family, who in 1694 were advanced in their peerage from Earl to Duke of Bedford, held the land until 1918
9.
Evelyn Pierrepont, 1st Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull
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Evelyn Pierrepont, 1st Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull KG PC was an English aristocrat. He had been the member of parliament for East Retford before his accession to the peerage as fifth Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull in 1690. While serving as one of the commissioners for the union with Scotland he was created Marquess of Dorchester in 1706 and he was made a privy councillor and in 1715 was created Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull, afterwards serving as Lord Privy Seal and Lord President of the Council. The Duke was a prominent figure in the society of his day. His first wife was Lady Mary Feilding, a daughter of William Feilding, 3rd Earl of Denbigh and he was succeeded by his grandson Evelyn Pierrepont, 2nd Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull, whose sister was Lady Frances Pierrepont
10.
Kit-Cat Club
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The first meetings were held at a tavern in Shire Lane run by an innkeeper called Christopher Catt. He gave his name to the mutton pies known as Kit Cats from which the name of the club is derived. The club later moved to the Fountain Tavern on The Strand, and latterly into an especially built for the purpose at Barn Elms. In summer, the club met at the Upper Flask, Hampstead Heath, the origin of the name Kit-Cat Club is unclear. In 1705 Thomas Hearne wrote, The Kit Cat Club got its name from Christopher Catling, using a branch of the theopolyism, other sources give his surname as Catt John Timbs, Ophelia Field, John Macky A nickname for Christopher is Kit. Christopher Catt was the keeper of a pie-house in Shire Lane, by Temple Bar and his famous mutton pies were named after him, and formed a standing dish at meetings of the club, the pie is thus itself sometimes regarded as the origin of the clubs name. It is possible that the club began at the end of the 17th century as the so-called Order of the Toast. Indeed, a characteristic of the Kit-Kat was its toasting-glasses, used for drinking the healths of the reigning beauties of the day. If so, one can place the date before 1699, when Elkanah Settle wrote a poem To the most renowned the President and it was this very habit of toasting that led Dr. From no trim beaus its name it boasts Grey statesmen or green wits But from the pack of toasts Of old Cats. Those objectives were a strong Parliament, a monarchy, resistance to France. Horace Walpole, son of Kit-Cat Robert Walpole, refers to the respectable middle-aged 18th century Kit-Cat club as mentioned as a set of wits. Other notables included Garth, Charles Dartiquenave, Count Saint Germain, Steele, and the Dukes of Grafton, Devonshire, Kingston, Richmond, Manchester, Dorset, of some notoriety were Lord Mohun and the Earl of Berkeley. Many of these portraits currently hang in galleries created in a partnership between the National Portrait Gallery and the National Trust at Beningbrough Hall in Yorkshire. The toasts of the Kit-Kat Club were famous at the time, Hearne, Thomas Ductor historicus, or a short system of universal history 1698—ed. 2, augmented and improvd 1704–05 Field, Ophelia, the Works of Jonathan Swift, D. D. Volume XIII reprinted, Edinburgh, Walter Scott Kit-Cat Club
11.
Thoresby Hall
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Thoresby Hall is a grade I listed 19th-century country house in Budby, Nottinghamshire, some 4 km north of Ollerton. It is one of four neighbouring houses and estates in the Dukeries in north Nottinghamshire all occupied by dukes at one time during their history. The hall is constructed of rock-faced ashlar with ashlar dressings and it is built in four storeys with a square floor plan surrounding a central courtyard, nine bays wide and eight bays deep. The Queens Royal Lancers and Nottinghamshire Yeomanry Museum occupies part of the courtyard, robert Pierrepont, 1st Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull acquired the Thoresby lands in 1633, but was killed in the Civil War in 1643. His son Henry Pierrepont, the 2nd Earl, built the first grand house, attributed to the architect Talman, the 5th Earl was created the 1st Duke of Kingston in 1715. The estate passed to Evelyn Pierrepont, 2nd Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull, twenty years later the architect John Carr during 1767–1772 built a new house on the same site. Humphry Repton landscaped the park at the same time, when the 2nd Duke died in 1773 he left the estate to his wife, Elizabeth Chudleigh, the former wife of the Earl of Bristol. After a very public court case, she was declared married bigamously to the duke and obliged to surrender the property on her death in 1786 to the nephew, Charles Medows. He adopted the name Pierrepont and later became the 1st Earl Manvers and it measures 55 metres on its east and south fronts and 48 metres on its west front. The impressive Great Hall, with gallery at the west end, is 19 metres long and 14 metres high. The house descended to the 6th Earl who died in 1955 without a male heir, the house remained with the family. To minimise a perceived threat from mining subsidence the buildings were sold to the National Coal Board in 1979. After a number of owners it was acquired by Warner Leisure Hotels, the core of the Thoresby furniture collection was retained by the family, while the remainder was sold at auction by Sothebys in 1989. The 8, 400-square-metre Salvin house had a new wing added before opening as a 200-room country house hotel with spa facilities. The house was the birthplace of Lady Mary Pierrepont, wife of Edward Wortley Montagu, history from Worksop Heritage Trail A short history from nottshistory. org A longer history from the same site The official Warner website about the hotel
12.
Holme Pierrepont Hall
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Holme Pierrepont Hall is a medieval hall in Holme Pierrepont near Nottingham. It is a Grade I listed building, the Pierrepont family have lived at Holme Pierrepont since around 1280, following the marriage of Henry de Pierrepont to Annora de Manvers. Originally the area was only as Holme, but later adopted the family surname as a suffix. The hall was built by Sir William Pierrepont around 1500 and he was succeeded by Sir George Pierrepont, Sir Henry Pierrepont and Sir Robert Pierrepont, who was created 1st Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull. The north range of the house was rebuilt by the 1st Earl in 1628 and his son Henry Pierrepont, 2nd Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull was created Marquess of Dorchester in 1645. The family rose to be Dukes of Kingston in 1715, when the 5th Earl was created 1st Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull, by this time their principal seat was Thoresby Hall in the dukeries area on the other side of Nottingham, which the family had bought in 1633. Holme Pierrepont became a house and was reduced in size. The 1st Earls north range was demolished around 1730, after the Dukedom died out when the 2nd Duke died childless in 1773, the estate passed in 1788 to his nephew Charles Medows, a naval officer. Charles changed his surname to Pierrepont and was created 1st Earl Manvers in 1806, the 3rd Earl rebuilt the North Wing around 1870 and was succeeded by the 4th Earl. The Hall was requisitioned for military purposes in both World Wars and left unoccupied between them, during the Second War it was used as a base for training young soldiers of the 70th Sherwood Foresters after which it was reoccupied by Lady Sibell Argles, sister of the 5th Earl. Their son Robert Brackenbury also lives in a quarters in the house with his wife Charlotte. The house is set in 30 acres of parkland, Holme Pierrepont is regularly open to the public on a few days in February and March each year. All house opening details can be found on the website, the house is also now a luxury function venue, available for weddings and corporate events, and is used for filming and photo shoots. Adjacent to the house is St. Edmunds Church, Holme Pierrepont, english Heritage, Images of England,2005 photograph and 1952 description of listed building The Buildings of England, Nottinghamshire. Nikolaus Pevsner Holme Pierrepont Hall website
13.
Epistolary novel
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An epistolary novel is a novel written as a series of documents. The usual form is letters, although diary entries, newspaper clippings, recently, electronic documents such as recordings and radio, blogs, and e-mails have also come into use. The word epistolary is derived from Latin from the Greek word ἐπιστολή epistolē, the epistolary form can add greater realism to a story, because it mimics the workings of real life. It is thus able to demonstrate differing points of view without recourse to the device of an omniscient narrator, there are two theories on the genesis of the epistolary novel. The first claims that the genre originated from novels with inserted letters, the other theory claims that the epistolary novel arose from miscellanies of letters and poetry, some of the letters were tied together into a plot. The first truly epistolary novel, the Spanish Prison of Love by Diego de San Pedro, other well-known examples of early epistolary novels are closely related to the tradition of letter-books and miscellanies of letters. The founder of the novel in English is said by many to be James Howell with Familiar Letters, who writes of prison, foreign adventure. The first novel to expose the complex play that the genre allows was Aphra Behns Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister, which appeared in three volumes in 1684,1685, and 1687. The novel shows the results of changing perspectives, individual points were presented by the individual characters. Behn furthermore explored a realm of intrigue with letters that fall into the hands, faked letters, letters withheld by protagonists. The epistolary novel as a genre popular in the 18th century in the works of such authors as Samuel Richardson, with his immensely successful novels Pamela. In Germany, there was Johann Wolfgang von Goethes Die Leiden des jungen Werthers, the first North American novel, The History of Emily Montague by Frances Brooke was written in epistolary form. Starting in the 18th century, the form was subject to much ridicule. The most notable example of these was Henry Fieldings Shamela, written as a parody of Pamela, in it, the female narrator can be found wielding a pen and scribbling her diary entries under the most dramatic and unlikely of circumstances. Oliver Goldsmith used the form to satirical effect in The Citizen of the World, so did the diarist Fanny Burney in a successful comic first novel, Evelina. The epistolary novel slowly fell out of use in the late 18th century, although Jane Austen tried her hand at the epistolary in juvenile writings and her novella Lady Susan, she abandoned this structure for her later work. The epistolary form nonetheless saw continued use, surviving in exceptions or in fragments in nineteenth-century novels, in Honoré de Balzacs novel Letters of Two Brides, two women who became friends during their education at a convent correspond over a 17-year period, exchanging letters describing their lives. Mary Shelley employs the epistolary form in her novel Frankenstein, in the late 19th century, Bram Stoker released one of the most widely recognized and successful novels in the epistolary form to date, Dracula
14.
Thomas Tenison
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Thomas Tenison was an English church leader, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1694 until his death. During his primacy, he crowned two British monarchs and he was born at Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, the son and grandson of Anglican clergymen, who were both named John Tenison, his mother was Mercy Dowsing. He was educated at Norwich School, going on to Corpus Christi College, Cambridge and he graduated in 1657, and was chosen fellow in 1659. For a short time he studied medicine, but in 1659 was privately ordained, as vicar of St Andrew-the-Great, Cambridge, he set an example by his devoted attention to the sufferers from the plague. In 1667 he was presented to the living of Holywell-cum-Needingworth, Huntingdonshire, by the Earl of Manchester, to whose son he had been tutor, and in 1670 to that of St Peter Mancroft, Norwich. In 1680 he received the degree of Doctor of Divinity, and was presented by King Charles II to the important London church of St Martins-in-the-Fields. Being a strenuous opponent of the Church of Rome, and Whitehall lying within that parish, Tenisons reputation as an enemy of Romanism led the Duke of Monmouth to send for him before his execution in 1685, when Bishops Thomas Ken and Francis. A sermon he preached on the commission was published the same year and he preached a funeral sermon for Nell Gwyn in 1687, in which he represented her as truly penitent – a charitable judgment that did not meet with universal approval. The general liberality of Tenisons religious views won him royal favour and he attended Queen Mary during her last illness and preached her funeral sermon in Westminster Abbey. When William in 1695 went to command of the army in the Netherlands. After Marys death, Tenison was one of those who persuaded the King that his long and bitter quarrel with her sister Anne must be ended, along with Gilbert Burnet he attended the King on his deathbed. Only with great difficulty did he persuade her to appoint his nominee William Wake, increasingly he lost influence to John Sharp, Archbishop of York, whom the Queen found far more congenial. Tenison died in London a year later and he was instrumental in the last years of his life in the literary executorship of Sir Thomas Brownes manuscript writings known as Christian Morals. He married Anne, daughter of Richard Love, but died without issue, edward Tenison LL. B, his cousin, became Bishop of Ossory. Another relative, Richard Tennison, became Bishop of Meath, Thomas is said to have advanced Richard in his career, in his will he left legacies to all of Richards five sons. In appearance he was described as a large, brawny, hulking figure, very strong when young, the personal coat of arms of Archbishop Tenison consist of the arms of the see of Canterbury impaled with the Tenison family arms. The former, placed on the side of honour, are blazoned as, Azure. The arms of Tenison, placed on the side of the escutcheon are blazoned as, Gules
15.
Charles Jervas
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Charles Jervas was an Irish portrait painter, translator, and art collector of the early 18th century. Born in Clonlisk, County Offaly, Ireland around 1675, the son of John Jervas and Elizabeth, daughter of Captain John Baldwin of Shinrone Castle & Corolanty, Jervas studied in London, England as an assistant under Sir Godfrey Kneller between 1694 and 1695. With his growing reputation, Jervas succeeded Kneller as Principal Portrait Painter to King George I in 1723, and continued to live in London until his death in 1739. His translation of Cervantes novel Don Quixote, published posthumously in 1742 as being made by Charles Jarvis – because of a printers error – has since come to be known as the Jarvis translation. Jervas was first to provide an introduction to the novel including an analysis of previous translations of Don Quixote. According to one account, after comparing a painting he had copied from Titian, he was said to have stated Poor little Tit, how he would starve. Upon being told that Jervas had set up a carriage with four horses, Kneller replied, Ach, mein Gott, if his horses do not draw better than he does, he will never get to his journeys end. Grove Dictionary of Art, Charles Jervas The Twickenham Museum, Charles Jervas AbsoluteArts. com - Charles Jervas National Portrait Gallery - Charles Jervas UK Government Art Collection - Charles Jervas
16.
John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey
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John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey PC, English courtier and political writer and memoirist, was the eldest son of John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol, by his second wife, Elizabeth. Hervey was educated at Westminster School and at Clare College, Cambridge and his father then sent him to Paris in 1716, and thence to Hanover to pay court to George I. In 1723 Johns elder half-brother Carr died, whereby he became apparent to the Earldom of Bristol with the courtesy title of Lord Hervey. In 1725 he was elected M. P. for Bury St Edmunds, Hervey had been at one time on very friendly terms with Frederick, Prince of Wales, but in about 1723 they quarrelled, apparently because they were rivals for the affection of Anne Vane. These differences probably account for the picture he draws of the Princes callous conduct. Hervey had been hesitating between William Pulteney and Robert Walpole, but in 1730 he definitely took sides with Walpole and he was assumed by Pulteney to be the author of Sedition and Defamation displayd, with a Dedication to the patrons of The Craftsman. Hervey is said to have denied the authorship of both the pamphlet and its dedication, but a note on the manuscript at Ickworth, apparently in his own hand and he was able to render valuable service to Walpole from his influence with the Queen. Through him the minister governed Queen Caroline and indirectly George II, Hervey was vice-chamberlain in the royal household and a member of the Privy Council. In 1733 he was called to the House of Lords by writ of acceleration in his fathers Barony and he was then elected a governor of the Foundling Hospital prior to its foundation in 1739. In spite of repeated requests he received no further preferment until after 1740, after the fall of Sir Robert Walpole he was dismissed from his office. He predeceased his father, but three of his sons became successively Earls of Bristol, Hervey wrote detailed and brutally frank memoirs of the court of George II from 1727 to 1737. He gave a most unflattering account of the King, and of Frederick, Prince of Wales, in 1848 they were published under the editorship of JW Croker, but the manuscript had been subjected to a certain amount of mutilation before it came into his hands. Croker also softened in some cases the plainspokenness of the original, until the publication of the Memoirs Hervey was chiefly known as the object of savage satire on the part of Alexander Pope, in whose works he figured as Lord Fanny, Sporus, Adonis and Narcissus. The quarrel is generally put down to Popes jealousy of Herveys friendship with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, in the first of the Imitations of Horace, addressed to William Fortescue, Lord Fanny and Sappho were generally identified with Hervey and Lady Mary, although Pope denied the personal intention. Hervey had already been attacked in the Dunciad and the Peribathous, there is no doubt that he had a share in the Verses to the Imitator of Horace and it is possible that he was the sole author. In the Letter from a nobleman at Hampton Court to a Doctor of Divinity, he scoffed at Popes deformity and humble birth. Popes reply was a Letter to a Noble Lord, dated November 1733, and the portrait of Sporus in the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot, many of the insinuations and insults contained in it are borrowed from Pulteneys libel. Some literary critics, such as Martin C, battestin, suggest that Popes friend and fellow-satirist, Henry Fielding intended the character of Beau Didapper in Joseph Andrews to be read as Hervey
17.
Mary Astell
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Mary Astell was an English feminist writer and rhetorician. Her advocacy of equal opportunities for women has earned her the title the first English feminist. Few records of Mary Astells life have survived, as biographer Ruth Perry explains, as a woman she had little or no business in the world of commerce, politics, or law. She was born, she died, she owned a house for some years, she kept a bank account, she helped to open a charity school in Chelsea. Only four of her letters were saved and these because they had written to important men of the period. Mary Astell was born in Newcastle upon Tyne on 12 November 1666, to Peter and her parents had two other children, William, who died in infancy, and Peter, her younger brother. She was baptized in St. Johns Church in Newcastle and her family was upper-middle-class and lived in Newcastle throughout her early childhood. Her father was a conservative royalist Anglican who managed a coal company. Though suspended from the Church, he was affiliated with the Cambridge-based philosophical school that based its teachings around radical philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato and her father died when she was 12 years old, leaving her without a dowry. With the remainder of the family finances invested in her brothers education, Mary. She was one of the first English women to advocate the idea that women were just as rational as men, in 1700, Astell published Some Reflections upon Marriage. She wittily critiques the philosophical underpinnings of the institution of marriage in 1700s England, the Duchess of Mazarine is used as an example of the dangers of an ill Education and unequal Marriage. Astell warns that disparity in intelligence, character, and fortune may lead to misery, a woman should look for a good Understanding, a Vertuous Mind, and in all other respects let there be as much equality as may be. Astell expanded on this theme in response to critics in the edition of Some Reflections upon Marriage. When she was 60 years old, Astell was invited to live with Lady Catherine Jones, Astell died in 1731, a few months after a mastectomy to remove a cancerous right breast. In her last days, she refused to see any of her acquaintances and stayed in a room with her coffin, thinking only of God and she suggests extending womens career options beyond mother and nun. Astell wanted all women to have the opportunity as men to spend eternity in heaven with God. The nunnery style education she proposed would enable women to live in a protected environment and her proposal was never adopted because critics said it seemed too Catholic for the English
18.
Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough
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Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough rose to be one of the most influential women of her time through her close friendship with Queen Anne of Great Britain. Sarahs friendship and influence with Princess Anne was widely known, as a result, by the time Anne became queen, Sarah’s knowledge of government, and intimacy with the Queen, had made her a powerful friend and a dangerous enemy. Sarah enjoyed a long and devoted relationship with her husband of more than 40 years, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. She acted as Annes agent after Annes father, James II, was deposed during the Glorious Revolution, Sarah tirelessly campaigned on behalf of the Whigs, while also devoting much of her time to building projects such as Blenheim Palace. She died in 1744 at the age of eighty-four, a strong-willed woman who liked to get her own way, Sarah tried the Queens patience whenever she disagreed with her on political, court or church appointments. After her final break with Anne in 1711, Sarah and her husband were dismissed from the court, the money she inherited from the Marlborough trust left her one of the richest women in Europe. Sarah Jennings was born on 5 June 1660, probably at Holywell House, St Albans and her uncle was a prominent naturalist. Richard Jennings came into contact with James, Duke of York, in 1663, during negotiations for the recovery of an estate in Kent that had been the property of his mother-in-law, Susan Lister. Jamess first impressions were favourable, and in 1664 Sarah’s sister, Frances, was appointed maid of honour to the Duchess of York, although James forced Frances to give up the post because of her marriage to a Catholic, James did not forget the family. In 1673, Sarah entered court as maid of honour to James’s second wife, Sarah became close to the young Princess Anne in about 1675, and the friendship grew stronger as the two grew older. In late 1675, when she was only fifteen, she met John Churchill,10 years her senior. Churchill, who had previously been a lover of Charles II’s mistress, Barbara Palmer, Duchess of Cleveland, had little to offer financially, as his estates were deeply in debt. Sarah had a rival for Churchill in Catherine Sedley, a mistress of James II and the choice of Churchills father, Sir Winston Churchill. In 1677, Sarahs brother Ralph died, and she and her sister, Frances, became co-heirs of the Jennings estates in Hertfordshire and Kent. John chose Sarah over Catherine Sedley, but both Johns and Sarahs families disapproved of the match, therefore they married secretly in the winter of 1677–78, John and Sarah were both Protestants in a predominantly Catholic court, a circumstance that would influence their political allegiances. Although no date was recorded, the marriage was announced only to the Duchess of York, when Sarah became pregnant, her marriage was announced publicly, and she retired from the court to give birth to her first child, Harriet, who died in infancy. The Duke of York returned to England after the tension had eased. The early reign of James II was relatively successful, it was not expected that a Catholic king could control in a fiercely Protestant
19.
Alexander Pope
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Alexander Pope was an 18th-century English poet. He is best known for his verse and for his translation of Homer. He is the second-most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations after Shakespeare, Alexander Pope was born to Alexander Pope Senior, a linen merchant of Plough Court, Lombard Street, London, and his wife Edith, who were both Catholics. Ediths sister Christiana was the wife of the miniature painter Samuel Cooper. Pope was taught to read by his aunt, and went to Twyford School in about 1698/99 and he then went to two Catholic schools in London. Such schools, while illegal, were tolerated in some areas, in 1700, his family moved to a small estate at Popeswood in Binfield, Berkshire, close to the royal Windsor Forest. This was due to strong anti-Catholic sentiment and a statute preventing Catholics from living within 10 miles of either London or Westminster, Pope would later describe the countryside around the house in his poem Windsor Forest. He also studied languages and read works by English, French, Italian, Latin. After five years of study, Pope came into contact with figures from the London literary society such as William Wycherley, William Congreve, Samuel Garth, William Trumbull, at Binfield, he also began to make many important friends. One of them, John Caryll, was twenty years older than the poet and had many acquaintances in the London literary world. He introduced the young Pope to the ageing playwright William Wycherley and to William Walsh, a minor poet and he also met the Blount sisters, Teresa and Martha, both of whom would remain lifelong friends. From the age of 12, he suffered health problems, such as Potts disease. His tuberculosis infection caused other problems including respiratory difficulties, high fevers, inflamed eyes. He grew to a height of only 1.37 m. Pope was already removed from society because he was Catholic, although he never married, he had many female friends to whom he wrote witty letters. Allegedly, his lifelong friend Martha Blount was his lover, in May,1709, Popes Pastorals was published in the sixth part of Tonsons Poetical Miscellanies. This brought Pope instant fame, and was followed by An Essay on Criticism, published in May 1711, around 1711, Pope made friends with Tory writers John Gay, Jonathan Swift, Thomas Parnell and John Arbuthnot, who together formed the satirical Scriblerus Club. The aim of the club was to satirise ignorance and pedantry in the form of the fictional scholar Martinus Scriblerus and he also made friends with Whig writers Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. In March 1713, Windsor Forest was published to great acclaim, during Popes friendship with Joseph Addison, he contributed to Addisons play Cato, as well as writing for The Guardian and The Spectator
20.
John Gay
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John Gay was an English poet and dramatist and member of the Scriblerus Club. He is best remembered for The Beggars Opera, a ballad opera, the characters, including Captain Macheath and Polly Peachum, became household names. Gay was born in Barnstaple, England, and was educated at the grammar school. John Hanmer, the Nonconformist minister of the town, the dedication of his Rural Sports to Alexander Pope was the beginning of a lasting friendship. In 1714, Gay wrote The Shepherds Week, a series of six pastorals drawn from English rustic life, Gays pastorals achieved this goal and his ludicrous pictures of the English country lads and their loves were found to be entertaining on their own account. In 1715, probably with help from Pope, he produced What dye call it. A dramatic skit on contemporary tragedy, with reference to Thomas Otways Venice Preservd. It left the public so ignorant of its meaning that Lewis Theobald. In 1716 appeared his Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London and it contains graphic and humorous descriptions of the London of that period. In taking a form, Gays poem was able to poke fun at the notion of complete reformation of street civility. In January 1717 he produced the comedy, Three Hours After Marriage, which was thought to be grossly indecent and he had assistance from Pope and John Arbuthnot, but they allowed it to be assumed that Gay was the sole author. Gay had numerous patrons, and in 1720 he published Poems on Several Occasions by subscription, in that year James Craggs, the secretary of state, presented him with some South Sea stock. Gay, disregarding the advice of Pope and others of his friends, invested all his money in South Sea stock, the shock is said to have made him dangerously ill. His friends did not fail him at this juncture and he had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards Earl of Bath, in the third Earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him at Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the third Duke of Queensberry. He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received unvarying kindness from William Congreve and he was offered the situation of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa, who was also still a child. He refused this offer, which all his friends seem to have regarded as an indignity and he had never rendered any special services to the court. This famous piece, which was said to have made Rich gay and Gay rich, was an innovation in many respects, the satire of the play has a double allegory. Gays decision to launch the work was also influenced by the huge interest that the Jack Sheppard
21.
Caroline of Ansbach
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Wilhelmina Charlotte Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach, commonly known as Caroline of Ansbach, was Queen of Great Britain as the wife of King George II. Her father, Margrave John Frederick of Brandenburg-Ansbach, belonged to a branch of the House of Hohenzollern and was the ruler of a small German state, the Principality of Ansbach. Caroline was orphaned at an age and moved to the enlightened court of her guardians, King Frederick I. As a young woman, Caroline was much sought-after as a bride and they had eight children, seven of whom grew to adulthood. Caroline moved permanently to Britain in 1714 when her husband became Prince of Wales, as Princess of Wales, she joined her husband in rallying political opposition to his father King George I. In 1717, her husband was expelled from court after a family row, Caroline came to be associated with Robert Walpole, an opposition politician who was a former government minister. Walpole rejoined the government in 1720, and Carolines husband and King George I reconciled publicly, over the next few years, Walpole rose to become the leading minister. Caroline succeeded as queen and electress consort in 1727, when her husband became King George II and her eldest son, Frederick, became Prince of Wales. He was a focus for the opposition, like his father before him, as princess and as queen, Caroline was known for her political influence, which she exercised through and for Walpole. Her tenure included four regencies during her husbands stays in Hanover, Caroline was widely mourned following her death in 1737, not only by the public but also by the King, who refused to remarry. Caroline was born on 1 March 1683 at Ansbach, the daughter of John Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and her father was the ruler of one of the smallest German states, he died of smallpox at the age of 32, when Caroline was three years old. Caroline and her full sibling, her younger brother Margrave William Frederick, left Ansbach with their mother. In 1692, Carolines widowed mother was pushed into a marriage with the Elector of Saxony. Eleonore Erdmuthe was widowed two years later, after her unfaithful husband contracted smallpox from his mistress. Eleonore remained in Saxony for another two years, until her death in 1696, the orphaned Caroline and William Frederick returned to Ansbach to stay with their elder half-brother, Margrave George Frederick II. Frederick and Sophia Charlotte became king and queen of Prussia in 1701, the queen was the daughter of Dowager Electress Sophia of Hanover, and the sister of George, Elector of Hanover. She was renowned for her intelligence and strong character, and her uncensored and liberal court attracted a great many scholars, Caroline was exposed to a lively intellectual environment quite different from anything she had experienced previously. Before she began her education under Sophia Charlottes care, Caroline had received formal education
22.
Istanbul
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Istanbul, historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the countrys economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side, the city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is one of the worlds most populous cities and ranks as the worlds 7th-largest city proper, founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as a capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine, the Latin. Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in, arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network, considered a global city, Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years, the first known name of the city is Byzantium, the name given to it at its foundation by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name, ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local Thracian or Illyrian origin. He also attempted to promote the name Nova Roma and its Greek version Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Romē, the use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, pera was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu. The name İstanbul is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν and this reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was reflected by its Ottoman name Der Saadet meaning the gate to Prosperity in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first, a Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol plenty of Islam because the city was called Islambol or Islambul as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire
23.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
24.
Edirne
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Edirne served as the third capital city of the Ottoman Empire from 1363 to 1453, before Constantinople became the empires fourth and final capital. At present, Edirne is the capital of Edirne Province in Turkish Thrace, the citys estimated population in 2014 was 165,979. The city was founded as Hadrianopolis, named for the Roman Emperor Hadrian and this name is still used in the Modern Greek. The name Adrianople was used in English, until the Turkish adoption of Latin alphabet in 1928 made Edirne the internationally recognized name. The Turkish, Edirne, Bulgarian, Одрин, Albanian, Edrêne, Slovene, Одрин and Serbian, Једрене / Jedrene are adapted forms of the name Hadrianopolis or of its Turkish version, see also its other names. The area around Edirne has been the site of no fewer than 16 major battles or sieges, military historian John Keegan identifies it as the most contested spot on the globe and attributes this to its geographical location. According to Greek mythology, Orestes, son of king Agamemnon, built this city as Orestias, at the confluence of the Tonsus and the Ardiscus with the Hebrus. The city was founded eponymously by the Roman Emperor Hadrian on the site of a previous Thracian settlement known as Uskadama, Uskudama, Uskodama or Uscudama and it was the capital of the Bessi, or of the Odrysians. Hadrian developed it, adorned it with monuments, changed its name to Hadrianopolis after himself, licinius was defeated there by Constantine I in 323, and Emperor Valens was killed by the Goths in 378 during the Battle of Adrianople. In 813, the city was seized by Khan Krum of Bulgaria who moved its inhabitants to the Bulgarian lands towards the north of the Danube. During the existence of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, the Crusaders were decisively defeated by the Bulgarian Emperor Kaloyan in the Battle of Adrianople. Later Theodore Komnenos, Despot of Epirus, took possession of it in 1227, in 1369, the city was conquered by the Ottoman sultan Murad I. The city remained the Ottoman capital for 90 years until 1453, Edirne is famed for its many mosques, domes, minarets, and palaces from the Ottoman period. Under Ottoman rule, Edirne was the city of the administrative unit, the eponymous Eyalet of Edirne, and after land reforms in 1867. Sultan Mehmed II, the conqueror of Constantinople, was born in Edirne, Sultan Mehmed IV left the palace in Constantinople and died in Edirne in 1693. During his exile in the Ottoman Empire, the Swedish king Charles XII stayed in the city during most of 1713, baháulláh, the founder of the Baháí Faith, lived in Edirne from 1863 to 1868. He was exiled there by the Ottoman Empire before being banished further to the Ottoman penal colony in Akka and he referred to Edirne in his writings as the Land of Mystery. Edirne was briefly occupied by imperial Russian troops in 1829 during the Greek War of Independence, the city suffered a fire in 1905
25.
Mary Stuart, Countess of Bute
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Mary Stuart, Countess of Bute, 1st Baroness Mount Stuart was the wife of John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, who was Prime Minister of Great Britain between 1762 and 1763. Lady Bute was born in 1718, the daughter of Sir Edward Wortley Montagu and Lady Mary Pierrepont. She was born during her fathers tenure as ambassador to Turkey, on 24 August 1736 she married John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, who became Prime Minister of Great Britain in 1762. James Archibald Stuart, politician and author Lady Jane Stuart, married George Macartney, later created Earl Macartney, on 1 February 1768. Lady Louisa Stuart, writer who died unmarried In 1761, she was created Baroness Mount Stuart, of Wortley in the county of York, Lady Bute died on 6 November 1794 in Isleworth, Middlesex. Her eldest son, John, succeeded to her title, miss Mary Wortley Montagu The Rt. The Countess of Bute The Rt
26.
Orientalism
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In particular, Orientalist painting, representing the Middle East, was a genre of Academic art in the 19th century. Orientalism refers to the Orient, in reference and opposition to the Occident, the East, the word Orient entered the English language as the Middle French orient. In the “Monks Tale”, Geoffrey Chaucer wrote, “That they conquered many regnes grete / In the orient, with many a fair citee. ”The term “orient” refers to countries east of the Mediterranean Sea and Southern Europe. In Place of Fear, Aneurin Bevan used an expanded denotation of the Orient that comprehended East Asia, “the awakening of the Orient under the impact of Western ideas”. Edward Said said that Orientalism “enables the political, economic, cultural and social domination of the West, not just during colonial times, but also in the present. ”In art history, the term Orientalism refers to the works of the Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in Western Asia, during the 19th century. In that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France, in the 18th and 19th centuries, the term Orientalist identified a scholar who specialized in the languages and literatures of the Eastern world. Among such scholars is the philologist William Jones, whose studies of Indo-European languages established modern philology, additionally, Hebraism and Jewish studies gained popularity among British and German scholars in the 18th and 19th century. The academic field of Oriental studies, which comprehended the cultures of the Near East, the thesis of Orientalism develops Antonio Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony, and Michel Foucaults theorisation of discourse to criticise the scholarly tradition of Oriental studies. Said criticised contemporary scholars who perpetuated the tradition of outsider-interpretation of Arabo-Islamic cultures, especially Bernard Lewis, the analyses are of Orientalism in European literature, especially French literature, and do not analyse visual art and Orientalist painting. In that vein, the art historian Linda Nochlin applied Said’s methods of analysis to art. In the academy, the book Orientalism became a text of post-colonial cultural studies. Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent is known as Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, one of the earliest examples is the façade of Guildhall, London. The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of India by William Hodges, examples of Hindoo architecture are Sezincote House in Gloucestershire, built for a nabob returned from Bengal, and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton. Venice, the trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre. Chinoiserie is the term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially Rococo Chinoiserie. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success, Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active East India companies, England, Denmark, the Netherlands and France. Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine Ming-era blue, Early ceramic wares made at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares. Pleasure pavilions in Chinese taste appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, Thomas Chippendales mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, ca 1753–70
27.
Turkish bath
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A Turkish bath is the Islamic variant of the Roman bath, steambath, sauna, or Russian banya, distinguished by a focus on water, as distinct from ambient steam. In Western Europe, the Turkish bath as a method of cleansing, the process involved in taking a Turkish bath is similar to that of a sauna, but is more closely related to ancient Greek and ancient Roman bathing practices. The Turkish bath starts with relaxation in a room that is heated by a flow of hot, dry air. Bathers may then move to an even hotter room before they wash in cold water, after performing a full body wash and receiving a massage, bathers finally retire to the cooling-room for a period of relaxation. The difference between the Islamic hammam and the Victorian Turkish bath is the air, the hot air in the Victorian Turkish bath is dry, in the Islamic hammam the air is often steamy. The bather in a Victorian Turkish bath will often take a plunge in a pool after the hot rooms. In the Islamic hammams the bathers splash themselves with cold water and it is not wet air, nor moist air, nor vapoury air, it is not vapour in any shape or form whatever. It is an immersion of the body in hot common air. One of the Five Pillars of Islam is prayer and it is customary before praying for Muslims to perform ablutions. The two Islamic forms of ablution are ghusl, a cleansing, and wudu, a cleansing of the face, hands. In the most extreme of cases, cleansing with pure soil or sand is also permissible, often, hammams are located close to mosques and other places for prayer for those who wish to perform deeper cleansing. Islamic hammams, particularly in the Moroccan case, evolved from their Roman roots to adapt to the needs of ritual purification according to Islam, for example, in most Roman-style hammams, one finds a cold pool for full submergence of the body. The style of bathing is less preferable in the Islamic faith, for al-Ghazali, the hammam is a primarily male experience, and he cautions that women are to enter the hammam only after childbirth or illness. Even then al-Gazali finds it admissible for men to prohibit their wives or sisters from using the hammam, the major point of contention surrounding hammams in al-Ghazalis estimation is nakedness. In his work he warns that overt nakedness is to be avoided, … he should shield it from the sight of others and second, guard against the touch of others. He focuses extensively in his writing on the avoidance of touching the penis during bathing and he writes that nakedness is decent only when the area between the knees and the lower stomach of a man are hidden. For women, exposure of only the face and palms is appropriate, according to al-Gazali, the prevalence of nakedness in the hammam could incite indecent thoughts or behaviours and so it is a controversial space. Ritual ablution is also required before or after sexual intercourse, during those centuries of war, peace, alliance, trade and competition, the two cultures had tremendous influence on each other
28.
Sofia
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Sofia is the capital and largest city of Bulgaria. The city has a population of 1.26 million, while 1.68 million people live in its metropolitan area, the city is located at the foot of Vitosha Mountain in the western part of the country, within less than 50 kilometres drive from the Serbian border. Its location in the centre of the Balkan peninsula means that it is the midway between the Black Sea and the Adriatic Sea, whereas the Aegean Sea is the closest to it, Sofia has been an area of human habitation since at least 7000 BC. Being Bulgarias primate city, Sofia is a hometown of many of the local universities, cultural institutions. Sofia is one of the top 10 best places for business in the world. Sofia is Europes most affordable capital to visit as of 2013, for the longest time the city possessed a Thracian name, derived from the tribe Serdi, who were either of Thracian, Celtic, or mixed Thracian-Celtic origin. It seems that the first written mention of Serdica was made during his reign, during the Romans civitas Serdenisium was mentioned the brightest city of the Serdi in official inscriptions. The city was major throughout the past ever since Antiquity, when Roman emperor Constantine the Great referred to it as my Rome, other names given to Sofia, such as Serdonpolis and Triaditza, were mentioned by Byzantine Greek sources or coins. The Slavic name Sredets, which is related to middle and to the citys earliest name, the city was called Atralissa by the Arab traveller Idrisi and Strelisa, Stralitsa or Stralitsion by the Crusaders. The name Sofia comes from the Saint Sofia Church, as opposed to the prevailing Slavic etymology among Bulgarian cities and towns. It is ultimately derived from the Egyptian Kemetic word sbÅ, meaning star, door, teaching and wisdom and this was a tradition of collection of wise literature, shared between Mediterranean cultures, which was called sophia in Greek. In these documents the city is called Sofia, but at the time the region and the citys inhabitants are still called Sredecheski. The city became popular to the Ottomans by the name Sofya. In 1879 there was a dispute about what the name of the new Bulgarian capital should be, the citys name is pronounced by Bulgarians with a stress on the o, in contrast with the tendency of foreigners to place the stress on i. The female given name Sofia is pronounced by Bulgarians with a stress on the i, Sofia has an area of 492 km2, while Sofia City Province has an area of 1344 km2. Sofias development as a significant settlement owes much to its position in the Balkans. It is situated in western Bulgaria, at the foot of the Vitosha mountain, in the Sofia Valley that is surrounded by the Balkan mountains to the north. The valley has an altitude of 550 metres
29.
Variolation
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The procedure was most commonly carried out by inserting/rubbing powdered smallpox scabs or fluid from pustules into superficial scratches made in the skin. The patient would develop pustules identical to those caused by naturally occurring smallpox, eventually, after about two to four weeks, these symptoms would subside, indicating successful recovery and immunity. The method was first used in China and the Middle East before it was introduced into England, the method is no longer used today. It was replaced by smallpox vaccine, a safer alternative and this in turn led to the development of the many vaccines now available against other diseases. The terminology used to describe the prevention of smallpox can cause confusion, in 18th-century medical terminology, inoculation refers to smallpox inoculation. Confusion is caused by writers who interchange variolation and vaccination through either mistranslation or misinterpretation, the term variolation refers solely to inoculation with smallpox virus and is not interchangeable with vaccination. The latter term was first used in 1800 soon after Edward Jenner introduced smallpox vaccine derived from cowpox, the term variolation was then used from the 19th century to avoid confusion with vaccination. Most modern writers tend to refer to smallpox inoculation as variolation throughout without regard for chronology, further confusion was caused when, in 1891, Louis Pasteur honoured Jenner by widening the terms vaccine/vaccination to refer to the artificial induction of immunity against any infectious disease. Inoculation is used synonymously with injection in connection with the use of vaccines or other biopharmaceuticals, the Chinese practiced the oldest documented use of variolation, dating back to the fifteenth century. They implemented a method of nasal insufflation administered by blowing powdered smallpox material, usually scabs, various insufflation techniques have been recorded throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries within China. According to such documentation, mild smallpox cases were selected as donors in order to prevent serious attack, the technique used scabs that had been left to dry out for some time. Fresh scabs were more likely to lead to a full-blown infection, three or four scabs were ground into powder or mixed with a grain of musk and bound in cotton. Infected material was packed into a pipe and puffed up the patients nostril. The practice of variolation is believed to have been ritualized by the Chinese, the blowpipe used during the procedure was made of silver. The right nostril was used for boys and the left for girls, variolated cases were treated as if they were as infectious as those who had acquired the disease naturally. These patients were kept apart from others until the rash had cleared. Similar methods were seen through the Middle East and Africa, two similar methods were described in Sudan during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Both had been established and stemmed from Arabic practices
30.
Lichfield Cathedral
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Lichfield Cathedral is situated in Lichfield, Staffordshire, England. It is the only medieval English cathedral with three spires, the Diocese of Lichfield covers all of Staffordshire, much of Shropshire and part of the Black Country and West Midlands. The 99th and current Bishop of Lichfield is the Right Rev Michael Ipgrave who was appointed on 10 June 2016, the cathedral is dedicated to St Chad and Saint Mary. Its internal length is 113 metres, and the breadth of the nave is 21m, the central spire is 77m high and the western spires are about 58m. The stone is sandstone and came from a quarry on the side of Lichfield. Lichfield suffered severe damage during the English Civil War in which all of the glass was destroyed. In spite of this the windows of the Lady Chapel contain some of the finest medieval Flemish painted glass in existence. Dating from the 1530s it came from the Abbey of Herkenrode in Belgium, in 1801 and it was sold on to the cathedral for the same price. There are also some fine windows by Betton and Evans, and many fine late 19th century windows, there were originally two volumes but one went missing around the time of the English Civil War. It is closely related in style to the Lindisfarne Gospels, the manuscript is on display in the Chapter House from Easter to Christmas. The Close is one of the most complete in the country, the three spires are often referred to as the Ladies of the Vale. When Chad was made Bishop of Mercia in 669 he moved his See from Repton to Lichfield, possibly because this was already a holy site, as the scene of martyrdoms during the Roman period. Offa, King of Mercia seemed to resent his own bishops paying allegiance to the Archbishop of Canterbury in Kent who, Offa therefore created his own archbishopric in Lichfield, who presided over all the bishops from the Humber to the Thames. All this began in 786, with the consent of Pope Adrian and it was vehemently opposed, but Offa and the papal representatives defeated Archbishop Jaenbert, installing Higbert as the new Archbishop of Lichfield. Pope Adrian sent Higbert the pallium, denoting his support for this move, in gratitude, Offa promised to send an annual shipment of gold to the pope for alms and supplying the lights in St. Peters church in Rome. However, The Archbishopric of Lichfield lasted for only 16 years, ending soon after Offas death and it was completed by the building of the Lady Chapel in the 1330s. The Choir dates from 1200, the Transepts from 1220 to 1240, there were three great sieges of Lichfield during the period 1643–1646 as the cathedral was surrounded by a ditch and defensive walls it made a natural fortress. The cathedral authorities with a certain following were for the king, but the townsfolk generally sided with the parliament, brookes deputy Sir John Gell, took over the siege
31.
Zenana
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The literal meaning of the word zenana is of the women or pertaining to women. It contextually refers to the part of a house belonging to a Hindu or Muslim family in South Asia which is reserved for the women of the household, the Zenana are the inner apartments of a house in which the women of the family live. The outer apartments for guests and men are called the Mardana, conceptually in those that practice purdah it is the South Asian equivalent of the harem. Physically, the zenana of the Mughal court consisted of exceptionally luxurious conditions, particularly for princesses, because of the extreme restrictions placed on access to the womens quarters, very few reliable accounts of their description are available. Still, modern scholars evaluating court records and travelogues contemporary with the Mughal period detail the womens lodgings as offering courtyards, ponds, the palaces themselves were decorated with mirrors, paintings and marble. Jahanara, daughter of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal, famously lived in her own apartment decorated with valuable carpets, other amenities depicted in illustrations of court life include running water and meticulous gardens. In addition to the women of rank, the zenana was populated by attendants of various skill and purpose to provide for the needs of the ladies residing within. According to Abul-Fazl ibn Mubarak, author of the Akbarnama, the zenana of Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri was home to more than five thousand women, the size of the zenana meant that it was a community within itself, and it thus required systematic administration to maintain. Abul Fadl describes the zenana as being divided into sections, with daroghas appointed to tend to the financial and organizational needs of the residents, other administrative positions within the zenana included the Tehwildar, or accounts officer responsible for the salaries and financial requests of the zenana inhabitants. Then there were the mahaldars, the servant of highest authority chosen from within the ranks of the daroghas. The anagas, or royal wet-nurses, were elevated to positions of rank though their purpose was not strictly administrative and that less-constrictive interpretation of purdah allowed the ladies of the Mughal court to indirectly participate in public life, most notably in civic building projects. Jahanara herself was responsible for the alteration of Shahjahanabad, by constructing the now famous Chandni Chowk market. Altogether, wives, daughters, and even a courtesan were the patrons to 19 major structures in the city. Despite the social freedom that came with being a member of the royal household, when entering or exiting the zenana itself, female pall bearers carried their palanquins, and they were only transferred to male servants and eunuchs outside the walls of the zenana. Andaruni The dictionary definition of zenana at Wiktionary
32.
Edward Jenner
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Edward Jenner, FRS was an English physician and scientist who was the pioneer of smallpox vaccine, the worlds first vaccine. The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae, the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 in the title of his Inquiry into the. Variolae vaccinae. known. the Cow Pox. Jenner is often called the father of immunology, and his work is said to have saved more lives than the work of any other human. A member of the Royal Society, in the field of zoology he was the first person to describe the brood parasitism of the cuckoo, in 2002, Jenner was named in the BBCs list of the 100 Greatest Britons. Edward Anthony Jenner was born on 17 May 1749 in Berkeley, Gloucestershire and his father, the Reverend Stephen Jenner, was the vicar of Berkeley, so Jenner received a strong basic education. He went to school in Wotton-under-Edge and Cirencester, during this time, he was inoculated for smallpox, which had a lifelong effect upon his general health. At the age of 14, he was apprenticed for seven years to Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon of Chipping Sodbury, South Gloucestershire, in 1770, Jenner became apprenticed in surgery and anatomy under surgeon John Hunter and others at St Georges Hospital. William Osler records that Hunter gave Jenner William Harveys advice, very famous in medical circles, Dont think, Hunter remained in correspondence with Jenner over natural history and proposed him for the Royal Society. Returning to his native countryside by 1773, Jenner became a family doctor and surgeon. Jenner contributed papers on angina pectoris, ophthalmia, and cardiac valvular disease and he also belonged to a similar society which met in Alveston, near Bristol. He became a mason on 30 December 1802, in Lodge of Faith. From 1812–1813, he served as master of Royal Berkeley Lodge of Faith. He described how the newly hatched cuckoo pushed its hosts eggs, the adult does not remain long enough in the area to perform this task. Jenners findings were published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1788, when it is about twelve days old, this cavity is quite filled up, and then the back assumes the shape of nestling birds in general. Jenners nephew assisted in the study and he was born on 30 June 1737. Jenners understanding of the behaviour was not entirely believed, until the artist Jemima Blackburn. Her description and illustration of this were enough to convince Charles Darwin to revise a later edition of On the Origin of Species, Jenner married Catherine Kingscote in March 1788
33.
Vaccination
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Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material to stimulate an individuals immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen. Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate morbidity from infection, when a sufficiently large percentage of a population has been vaccinated, this results in herd immunity. The effectiveness of vaccination has been studied and verified, for example, the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine. The World Health Organization reports that licensed vaccines are available to prevent or contribute to the prevention. The active agent of a vaccine may be intact but inactivated or attenuated forms of the causative pathogens, toxoids are produced for immunization against toxin-based diseases, such as the modification of tetanospasmin toxin of tetanus to remove its toxic effect but retain its immunogenic effect. Smallpox was most likely the first disease people tried to prevent by inoculating themselves and was the first disease for which a vaccine was produced, Louis Pasteur furthered the concept through his work in microbiology. The immunization was called vaccination because it was derived from a virus affecting cows, smallpox was a contagious and deadly disease, causing the deaths of 20–60% of infected adults and over 80% of infected children. When smallpox was finally eradicated in 1979, it had killed an estimated 300–500 million people in the 20th century. In common speech, vaccination and immunization have a similar meaning and this distinguishes it from inoculation, which uses unweakened live pathogens, although in common usage either can refer to an immunization. Vaccination efforts have met with some controversy on scientific, ethical, political, medical safety. In rare cases, vaccinations can injure people and, in the United States, early success and compulsion brought widespread acceptance, and mass vaccination campaigns have greatly reduced the incidence of many diseases in numerous geographic regions. Generically, the process of induction of immunity, in an effort to protect against infectious disease. Stimulating immune responses with an agent is known as immunization. Vaccination includes various ways of administering immunogens, some vaccines are administered after the patient already has contracted a disease. The first rabies immunization was given by Louis Pasteur to a child after he was bitten by a rabid dog, other examples include experimental AIDS, cancer and Alzheimers disease vaccines. Such immunizations aim to trigger a response more rapidly and with less harm than natural infection. Most vaccines are given by injection as they are not absorbed reliably through the intestines. Live attenuated polio, some typhoid, and some cholera vaccines are given orally to produce immunity in the bowel, while vaccination provides a lasting effect, it usually takes several weeks to develop, while passive immunity has immediate effect
34.
Francesco Algarotti
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Count Francesco Algarotti was an Venetian polymath, philosopher, poet, essayist, anglophile, art critic and art collector. His father and uncle were art collectors, unlike his older brother Bonomo he did not step into the company, but decided to become an author. Francesco studied natural sciences and mathematics in Bologna under Francesco Maria Zanotti, first he travelled in the North of Italy, but moved to Florence, and Rome. At the age of twenty, he went to Cirey and Paris, two years later he was in London, where he was made a fellow of the Royal Society. He became embroiled in a lively bisexual love-triangle with the politician John Hervey, Algarotti left for Italy and finished his Neutonianismo per le dame, a work on optics, dedicated to Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle. In the meantime Algarotti had made acquaintance with Antiochus Kantemir, a Moldavian diplomat, poet and he was invited to visit Russia for the wedding of Duke Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick. In 1739 he left with Lord Baltimore from Sheerness to Newcastle upon Tyne, because of a heavy storm the ship sheltered in Harlingen. Algarotti was discovering this new city, returning from Saint Petersburg, they visited Frederick the Great in Rheinsberg. Algarotti had obligations in England and came back the year after, then Algarotti went together with Frederick to Königsberg where he was crowned. Frederick, who was impressed with this walking encyclopedia, made him, Algarotti accompanied Frederick to Bayreuth, Kehl, Strasbourg and Moyland Castle where they met with Voltaire, who was taking baths in Kleve for his health. In 1741 Algarotti went to Turin as his diplomat, Frederick had offered him a salary, but Algarotti refused. First he went to Dresden and Venice, where he bought 21 paintings, Algarotti did not succeed to have the Kingdom of Sardinia attack Austria in the back. He wantedsuggetti graziosi e leggeri from Balestra, Boucher, and Donato Creti, other artist he protected were Giuseppe Nogari, Bernardo Bellotto, and Francesco Pavona. In 1747 Algarotti went back to Potsdam and became court chamberlain, in 1749 he moved to Berlin. Algarotti was involved in finishing the architectural designs of Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff who had fallen ill, in February 1753, after several years residing in Prussia he returned to Italy, living most of the time in Bologna. In 1759 Algarotti was involved in a new opera-style in the city of Parma and he influencing Guillaume du Tillot and the Duke of Parma. Algarottis Essay on the Opera was an influence on the librettist Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni and the composer Tommaso Traetta. Algarotti proposed a simplified model of opera seria, with the drama pre-eminent, instead of the music
35.
Warsaw
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Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It stands on the Vistula River in east-central Poland, roughly 260 kilometres from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population is estimated at 1.750 million residents within a metropolitan area of 3.101 million residents. The city limits cover 516.9 square kilometres, while the area covers 6,100.43 square kilometres. Once described as Paris of the East, Warsaw was believed to be one of the most beautiful cities in the world until World War II. On 9 November 1939, the city was awarded Polands highest military decoration for heroism, Warsaw is one of Europe’s most dynamic metropolitan cities. In 2012 the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Warsaw as the 32nd most liveable city in the world, in 2017 the city came 4th in the “Business-friendly” category and 8th in the “Human capital and life style”. It was also ranked as one of the most liveable cities in Central, Warsaw is considered an Alpha– global city, a major international tourist destination and a significant cultural, political and economic hub. The city is a significant centre of research and development, BPO, ITO, the Warsaw Stock Exchange is the largest and most important in Central and Eastern Europe. Frontex, the European Union agency for external security, has its headquarters in Warsaw. Together with Frankfurt, London and Paris, Warsaw is also one of the cities with the highest number of skyscrapers in the European Union, the city is the seat of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra and the University of Warsaw. The historic city-centre of Warsaw with its picturesque Old Town in 1980 was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, buildings represent examples of nearly every European architectural style and historical period. Warsaw provides many examples of architecture from the gothic, renaissance, baroque, neoclassical and modern periods, furthermore, the city is positioning itself as Europes chic cultural capital with thriving art and club scenes and renowned restaurants. Folk etymology attributes the city name to a fisherman, Wars, according to legend, Sawa was a mermaid living in the Vistula River with whom Wars fell in love. In actuality, Warsz was a 12th/13th-century nobleman who owned a village located at the site of Mariensztat neighbourhood. See also the Vršovci family which had escaped to Poland, the official city name in full is miasto stołeczne Warszawa. A native or resident of Warsaw is known as a Varsovian – in Polish warszawiak, warszawianin, warszawianka, warszawiacy, other names for Warsaw include Varsovia and Varsóvia, Varsovie, Varsavia, Warschau, װאַרשע /Varshe, Варшава /Varšava /Varshava, Varšuva, Varsó. The first fortified settlements on the site of todays Warsaw were located in Bródno, after Jazdów was raided by nearby clans and dukes, a new similar settlement was established on the site of a small fishing village called Warszowa
36.
Robert Walpole
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Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, KG, KB, PC, known before 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British statesman who is generally regarded as the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain. Although the exact dates of his dominance are a matter of scholarly debate and he dominated the Walpole–Townshend ministry and the Walpole ministry and holds the record as the longest-serving Prime Minister in British history. Speck says that Walpoles uninterrupted run of 20 years as Prime Minister is rightly regarded as one of the feats of British political history. He was a Whig from the class, who was first elected to Parliament in 1701. He was a squire and looked to country gentlemen for his political base. Hoppit says Walpoles policies sought moderation, he worked for peace, lower taxes, growing exports and he avoided controversy and high-intensity disputes, as his middle way attracted moderates from both the Whig and Tory camps. Dickinson sums up his role, Walpole was one of the greatest politicians in British history. He played a significant role in sustaining the Whig party, safeguarding the Hanoverian succession and he established a stable political supremacy for the Whig party and taught succeeding ministers how best to establish an effective working relationship between Crown and Parliament. Walpole was born in Houghton, Norfolk, in 1676, Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole was his younger brother. As a child, Walpole attended a school at Massingham. Walpole entered Eton College in 1690 where he was considered an excellent scholar and he left Eton on 2 April 1696 and matriculated at Kings College, Cambridge on the same day. On 25 May 1698 he left Cambridge after the death of his only remaining brother, Edward. Walpole had planned to become a clergyman but as he was now the eldest surviving son in the family, in November 1700 his father died, and Walpole succeeded to the estate. A paper in his fathers handwriting, dated 9 June 1700, shows the estate in Norfolk and Suffolk to have been nine manors in Norfolk. As a young man, Walpole had bought shares in the South Sea Company, which monopolized trade with Spain, the speculative market for slaves, rum and mahogany spawned a frenzy that had ramifications throughout Europe when it collapsed. However, Walpole had bought at the bottom and sold at the top, adding greatly to his inherited wealth, Walpoles political career began in January 1701 when he won a seat in the general election at Castle Rising. He left Castle Rising in 1702 so that he could represent the borough of Kings Lynn. Like his father, Robert Walpole was a member of the Whig Party, in 1705, Walpole was appointed by Queen Anne to be a member of the council for her husband, Prince George of Denmark, Lord High Admiral
37.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
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Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres was a French Neoclassical painter. A man profoundly respectful of the past, he assumed the role of a guardian of orthodoxy against the ascendant Romantic style represented by his nemesis. His exemplars, he explained, were the great masters which flourished in that century of glorious memory when Raphael set the eternal. I am thus a conservator of good doctrine, and not an innovator, Ingres was born in Montauban, Tarn-et-Garonne, France, the first of seven children of Jean-Marie-Joseph Ingres and his wife Anne Moulet. From his father the young Ingres received early encouragement and instruction in drawing and music, and his first known drawing, the deficiency in his schooling would always remain for him a source of insecurity. In 1791, Joseph Ingres took his son to Toulouse, where the young Jean-Auguste-Dominique was enrolled in the Académie Royale de Peinture, Sculpture et Architecture, there he studied under the sculptor Jean-Pierre Vigan, the landscape painter Jean Briant, and the neoclassical painter Guillaume-Joseph Roques. Roques veneration of Raphael was an influence on the young artist. Ingres won prizes in several disciplines, such as composition, figure and antique and his musical talent was developed under the tutelage of the violinist Lejeune, and from the ages of thirteen to sixteen he played second violin in the Orchestre du Capitole de Toulouse. Ingres followed his masters neoclassical example but revealed, according to David and his trip to Rome, however, was postponed until 1806, when the financially strained government finally appropriated the travel funds. Working in Paris alongside several other students of David in a provided by the state. He found inspiration in the works of Raphael, in Etruscan vase paintings, in 1802 he made his debut at the Salon with Portrait of a Woman. The following year brought a commission, when Ingres was one of five artists selected to paint full-length portraits of Napoleon Bonaparte as First Consul. These were to be distributed to the towns of Liège, Antwerp, Dunkerque, Brussels. In the summer of 1806 Ingres became engaged to Marie-Anne-Julie Forestier, although he had hoped to stay in Paris long enough to witness the opening of that years Salon, in which he was to display several works, he reluctantly left for Italy just days before the opening. Chaussard condemned Ingress style as gothic and asked, How, with so much talent, a line so flawless, the answer is that he wanted to do something singular, something extraordinary. M. Ingress intention is nothing less than to make art regress by four centuries, to carry us back to its infancy, Ingres stylistic eclecticism represented a new tendency in art. As art historian Marjorie Cohn has written, At the time, Artists and critics outdid each other in their attempts to identify, interpret, and exploit what they were just beginning to perceive as historical stylistic developments. From the beginning of his career, Ingres freely borrowed from earlier art, adopting the style appropriate to his subject
38.
Lady Louisa Stuart
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Lady Louisa Stuart was a British writer of the 18th and 19th centuries. Her long life spanned nearly ninety-four years, Stuart was one of the six daughters of John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, who at the time of her birth in 1757 was the closest friend of the future King George III. Her mother was Mary Stuart, Countess of Bute, Lord and Lady Bute also had five sons. Although Bute was Scottish, he spent much of his time at his grand London house in Berkeley Square, in 1762, he bought the estate of Luton Hoo in Bedfordshire. George III came to the throne in 1760, and in 1762 his friend Bute became prime minister, as a statesman, Bute was massively unpopular with the English, for a variety of reasons. He was a Scot, a Royal favourite, and a man who was lampooned for his vanity, and was constantly the butt of biting political satire, scandal. This included frequent allegations of an affair with Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, Stuarts mother, the Countess of Bute, was herself the daughter of the famous writer and traveller Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. By the time she was ten, Stuart had begun to follow in the footsteps of her writer grandmother and she had begun a French novel and had also started planning a Roman play. She felt threatened by her brothers, who teased her about her learning, with her mother, the young Lady Louisa Stuart attended the balls, routs and soirées of London society, but she also followed the literature of the day and corresponded with friends. She had great powers of observation from an age. Fanny Burney often met Lady Bute and her daughter Lady Louisa and described Lady Bute as forbidding to strangers, Burney writes of mother and daughter on one occasion. Both in such high spirits themselves that they kept up all the conversation between them, with a vivacity, an acuteness, an archness, and an observation on men and manners so clear and sagacious. On another occasion, in 1786, Burney found both Stuart and her mother at the house of Mary Delany after a return from the spa town of Bath and writes that they were. Full fraught with anecdote and character, which dealt out to their hearers with so much point. Louisas own brothers included John Stuart, 1st Marquess of Bute, a Tory Member of Parliament from 1766 to 1776, later a Privy Councillor, John Dawson, later first Earl of Portarlington. Medows was then a forty-one-year-old lieutenant-colonel of the 5th Regiment of Foot and she wrote of Medows, He seems to have that independent spirit which fortune cannot depress or exalt. He is really a character unlike anything but himself, au reste, the most agreeable man I ever met with, and one of the most humorous. Later the same year, Medows married another lady, Frances Augusta Hammerton, and went on to become a Lieutenant-General, a Knight of the Bath, Stuart was not a beautiful woman
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 746–747.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
