1.
Lake District
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The Lake District, also known as the Lakes or Lakeland, is a mountainous region in North West England. A popular holiday destination, it is famous for its lakes, forests and mountains and its associations with the early 19th century writings of William Wordsworth and the other Lake Poets. It is located in the county of Cumbria, and all the land in England higher than 3,000 feet above sea level lies within the National Park, including Scafell Pike, the highest mountain in England. It also contains the deepest and longest bodies of water in England, respectively Wast Water, the Lake District National Park includes nearly all of the Lake District, though the town of Kendal and the Lakeland Peninsulas are currently outside the park boundary. Its aim is to protect the landscape by restricting unwelcome change by industry or commerce, Most of the land in the park is in private ownership, with about 55% registered as agricultural land. Landowners include, Individual farmers and other landowners, with more than half of the agricultural land farmed by the owners. The National Trust owns about a quarter of the total area, the Forestry Commission and other investors in forests and woodland. United Utilities owns 8% Lake District National Park Authority The National Park Authority is based at offices in Kendal and it runs a visitor centre on Windermere at a former country house called Brockhole, Coniston Boating Centre, and Information Centres. Much of the land has statutory open access rights, which cover around 50% of the park. The lakes and mountains combine to form impressive scenery, farmland and settlement have altered the natural scenery, and the ecology has been modified by human influence for millennia and includes important wildlife habitats. However, in 2016 the English Lake District bid for World Heritage Status was submitted to UNESCO in the category of cultural landscape, a decision is expected in 2017. In December 2009, Natural England proposed extending the National Park in the direction of the Yorkshire Dales National Park and this would include land of high landscape value in the Lune Valley. The proposal was opposed by Cumbria County Council who said it would lead to less democratic control, a public inquiry was held into the proposals, which required a decision by the Secretary of State. The decision to recommend approval was announced on October 23,2015, the precise extent of the Lake District was not defined traditionally, but is slightly larger than that of the National Park, the total area of which is about 912 square miles. The park extends just over 32 miles from east to west, the Lake District is one of the most highly populated national parks. There are, however, only a handful of settlements within this mountainous area, the towns of Keswick, Windermere, Ambleside. Villages such as Coniston, Threlkeld, Glenridding, Pooley Bridge, Broughton-in-Furness, Grasmere, Newby Bridge, Staveley, Lindale, Gosforth, the economies of almost all are intimately linked with tourism. Beyond these are a scattering of hamlets and many isolated farmsteads, some of which are tied to agriculture
2.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
3.
William Wordsworth
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William Wordsworth was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads. Wordsworths magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published, before which it was known as the poem to Coleridge. Wordsworth was Britains Poet Laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850 and his sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. Wordsworths father was a representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale and, through his connections. He was frequently away from home on business, so the young William and his siblings had little involvement with him and remained distant from him until his death in 1783. However, he did encourage William in his reading, and in particular set him to commit to memory large portions of verse, including works by Milton, Shakespeare, William was also allowed to use his fathers library. William also spent time at his mothers house in Penrith, Cumberland, where he was exposed to the moors, but did not get along with his grandparents or his uncle. His hostile interactions with them distressed him to the point of contemplating suicide, Wordsworth was taught both the Bible and the Spectator, but little else. It was at the school in Penrith that he met the Hutchinsons, including Mary, after the death of his mother, in 1778, Wordsworths father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire and sent Dorothy to live with relatives in Yorkshire. She and William did not meet again for nine years. Wordsworth made his debut as a writer in 1787 when he published a sonnet in The European Magazine and that same year he began attending St Johns College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791 and he returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape. In 1790 he went on a tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland. In November 1791, Wordsworth visited Revolutionary France and became enchanted with the Republican movement and he fell in love with a French woman, Annette Vallon, who in 1792 gave birth to their daughter Caroline. Financial problems and Britains tense relations with France forced him to return to England alone the following year. The circumstances of his return and his subsequent behaviour raised doubts as to his wish to marry Annette. With the Peace of Amiens again allowing travel to France, in 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited Annette, the purpose of the visit was to prepare Annette for the fact of his forthcoming marriage to Mary Hutchinson
4.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
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Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, literary critic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He wrote the poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan and his critical work, especially on William Shakespeare, was highly influential, and he helped introduce German idealist philosophy to English-speaking culture. Coleridge coined many words and phrases, including suspension of disbelief. He was an influence on Ralph Waldo Emerson and American transcendentalism. Throughout his adult life Coleridge had crippling bouts of anxiety and depression, it has been speculated that he had bipolar disorder and he was physically unhealthy, which may have stemmed from a bout of rheumatic fever and other childhood illnesses. He was treated for these conditions with laudanum, which fostered a lifelong opium addiction, Coleridge was born on 21 October 1772 in the town of Ottery St Mary in Devon, England. He had previously been Master of Hugh Squiers School in South Molton, Devon, John Coleridge had three children by his first wife. Samuel was the youngest of ten by the Reverend Mr. Coleridges second wife, Anne Bowden, probably the daughter of John Bowden, Mayor of South Molton, Devon, Coleridge suggests that he took no pleasure in boyish sports but instead read incessantly and played by himself. At that school Coleridge became friends with Charles Lamb, a schoolmate, in fancy I can almost hear him now, exclaiming Harp. Pen and ink, boy, you mean, oh aye. the cloister-pump, I suppose. Be this as it may, there was one custom of our masters and he would often permit our theme exercises. To accumulate, till each lad had four or five to be looked over, throughout his life, Coleridge idealised his father as pious and innocent, while his relationship with his mother was more problematic. His childhood was characterised by attention seeking, which has linked to his dependent personality as an adult. He was rarely allowed to return home during the term. He later wrote of his loneliness at school in the poem Frost at Midnight, With unclosed lids, from 1791 until 1794, Coleridge attended Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1792, he won the Browne Gold Medal for an ode that he wrote on the slave trade, afterwards, he was rumoured to have had a bout of severe depression. His brothers arranged for his discharge a few months later under the reason of insanity and he was readmitted to Jesus College, at Jesus College, Coleridge was introduced to political and theological ideas then considered radical, including those of the poet Robert Southey. Coleridge joined Southey in a plan, soon abandoned, to found a utopian society, called Pantisocracy
5.
Robert Southey
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Robert Southey was an English poet of the Romantic school, one of the so-called Lake Poets, and Poet Laureate for 30 years from 1813 until his death in 1843. Although his fame has long been eclipsed by that of his contemporaries and friends William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Southey was also a prolific letter writer, literary scholar, essay writer, historian and biographer. His biographies include the life and works of John Bunyan, John Wesley, William Cowper, Oliver Cromwell, the last has rarely been out of print since its publication in 1813 and was adapted for the screen in the 1926 British film, Nelson. He also wrote on issues, which led to a brief, non-sitting. Robert Southey was born in Wine Street, Bristol, to Robert Southey and he was educated at Westminster School, London, and Balliol College, Oxford. Southey later said of Oxford, All I learnt was a little swimming, experimenting with a writing partnership with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, most notably in their joint composition of The Fall of Robespierre, Southey published his first collection of poems in 1794. Each young man should take to himself a mild and lovely woman for his wife, it would be her part to prepare their innocent food, and tend their hardy and beautiful race. Southey was the first to reject the idea as unworkable, suggesting that they move the location to Wales. In 1799 Southey and Coleridge were involved with experiments with nitrous oxide. Southey married Edith Fricker at St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol and she was a sister of Sara Fricker, Coleridges wife. The Southeys made their home at Greta Hall, Keswick, in the Lake District, also living at Greta Hall and supported by him were Sara Coleridge and her three children, after Coleridge abandoned them, as well as the widow of poet Robert Lovell and her son. In 1808 Southey met Walter Savage Landor, whose work he admired and that same year he wrote Letters from England under the pseudonym Don Manuel Alvarez Espriella, an account of a tour supposedly from a foreigners viewpoint. From 1809 Southey contributed to the Quarterly Review and he had become so well known by 1813 that he was appointed Poet Laureate after Walter Scott refused the post. In 1819, through a friend, Southey met the leading civil engineer Thomas Telford. From mid-August to 1 October 1819, Southey accompanied Telford on an tour of his engineering projects in the Scottish Highlands. This was published in 1929 as Journal of a Tour in Scotland in 1819 and he was also a friend of the Dutch poet Willem Bilderdijk, whom he met twice, in 1824 and 1826, at Bilderdijks home in Leiden. In 1837 Southey received a letter from Charlotte Brontë, seeking his advice on some of her poems and he wrote back praising her talents, but also discouraging her from writing professionally. He said Literature cannot be the business of a womans life, years later, Brontë remarked to a friend that the letter was kind and admirable, a little stringent, but it did me good
6.
Dorothy Wordsworth
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Dorothy Mae Ann Wordsworth was an English author, poet and diarist. She was the sister of the Romantic poet William Wordsworth, Wordsworth had no ambitions to be an author, and her writings consist only of series of letters, diary entries, poems and short stories. She was born on Christmas Day in Cockermouth, Cumberland in 1771, despite the early death of her mother, Dorothy, William and their three step-brothers had a happy childhood. When in 1783, their father died and the children were sent to live with relatives, Wordsworth was sent alone to live with her aunt, Elizabeth Threlkeld, in Halifax. After she was able to be reunited with William, firstly at Racedown Lodge in Dorset in 1795 and afterwards at Alfoxden House in Somerset, the pair lived in poverty at first, and would often beg for cast-off clothes from their friends. Wordsworth was a diarist and somewhat amateur poet with little interest in becoming an established writer, I should detest the idea of setting myself up as an author, she once wrote, give Wm. the Pleasure of it. She almost published her account with William to Scotland in 1803 Recollections of a Tour Made in Scotland. Consequently, this story was widely read by the many visitors to the Lake District over more than half of the 19th century. She never married, and after William married Mary Hutchinson in 1802 and she was by now 31, and thought of herself as too old for marriage. In 1829 she fell ill and was to remain an invalid for the remainder of her life. She died at eighty-three in 1855 near Ambleside, having spent the past twenty years in, according to the biographer Richard Cavendish and her Grasmere Journal was published in 1897, edited by William Angus Knight. Dorothys works came to light just as literary critics were beginning to re-examine womens role in literature, the success of the Grasmere Journal led to a renewed interest in Wordsworth, and several other journals and collections of her letters have since been published. The Grasmere Journal and Wordsworths other works revealed how vital she was to her brothers success, William relied on her detailed accounts of nature scenes and borrowed freely from her journals. Her observations and descriptions have been considered to be as if not more so than that of her brother. In her time she was described as being one of the few poets who have lived who could have provided so vivid, archived from the original on 4 July 2013. Works by Dorothy Wordsworth at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Dorothy Wordsworth at Internet Archive
7.
Charles Lamb
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Charles Lamb was an English essayist, poet, and antiquarian, best known for his Essays of Elia and for the childrens book Tales from Shakespeare, co-authored with his sister, Mary Lamb. Friends with such luminaries as Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth. He has been referred to by E. V. Lucas, his principal biographer, Lamb was born in London, the son of Elizabeth Field and John Lamb. Lamb was the youngest child, with a sister 11 years older named Mary and an even older brother named John, there were four others who did not survive infancy. His father John Lamb was a clerk and spent most of his professional life as the assistant to a barrister named Samuel Salt. It was there in Crown Office Row that Charles Lamb was born, Lamb created a portrait of his father in his Elia on the Old Benchers under the name Lovel. Lambs older brother was too much his senior to be a companion to the boy but his sister Mary. Lamb was also cared for by his paternal aunt Hetty, who seems to have had a fondness for him. A number of writings by both Charles and Mary suggest that the conflict between Aunt Hetty and her sister-in-law created a degree of tension in the Lamb household. However, Charles speaks fondly of her and her presence in the house seems to have brought a great deal of comfort to him. After the death of Mrs. Plummer, Lambs grandmother was in charge of the large home and, as Mr. Plummer was often absent. A picture of these visits can be glimpsed in the Elia essay Blakesmoor in H—shire, why, every plank and panel of that house for me had magic in it. Little is known about Charless life before he was seven other than that Mary taught him to read at an early age. It is believed that he suffered from smallpox during his early years, after this period of recovery Lamb began to take lessons from Mrs. Reynolds, a woman who lived in the Temple and is believed to have been the former wife of a lawyer. Mrs. E. V. Lucas suggests that sometime in 1781 Charles left Mrs. Reynolds and began to study at the Academy of William Bird. His time with William Bird did not last long, however, because by October 1782 Lamb was enrolled in Christs Hospital, Years later, in his essay Christ’s Hospital Five and Thirty Years Ago, Lamb described these events, speaking of himself in the third person as L. I remember L. at school, and can well recollect that he had some peculiar advantages, which I and other of his schoolfellows had not. His friends lived in town, and were near at hand, and he had the privilege of going to see them, almost as often as he wished, through some invidious distinction, which was denied to us
8.
Hartley Coleridge
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David Hartley Coleridge was an English poet, biographer, essayist, and teacher. He was the eldest son of the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his sister Sara Coleridge was a poet and translator, and his brother Derwent Coleridge was a scholar and author. Hartley was named after the philosopher David Hartley, Hartley was born in Clevedon, a small village near Bristol. In the Autumn of 1800 Samuel Taylor Coleridge moved his wife and young son Hartley to the Lake District. They took a home in the vale of Derwentwater, on the bank of the Greta River, about a mile away from Greta Hall, Keswick, the home of the poet Robert Southey. Hartley spent his years in the care of Robert Southey at Greta Hall. Hartley received his education from his father. In 1807 he was taken by his father and William Wordsworth to Coleorton, in North West Leicestershire, here he visited the London theatres, and the Tower of London with Walter Scott. He was also introduced to the study of chemistry by Humphry Davy, Hartley spent the next 8 years in constant companionship with his younger brother Derwent, at home and at school. Beginning in the summer of 1808 they attended school as day-scholars at Ambleside, during their time at the school they resided in Clappersgate. Their fellow students included the sons of their fathers friend, the poet Charles Lloyd, Hartley and Derwent lived in the home of an elderly woman, and enjoyed total freedom in their after-school hours. Hartley, who had no aptitude for sports, spent much of his reading and taking walks by himself. He had one friend at the time, a boy named Robert Jameson, not a fellow student. He called this imaginary paracosm Ejuxria, and laid out its geography and history with great care, Derwent believed that Hartley kept up Ejuxria into adulthood. In his time at the school Hartley was in constant contact with William Wordsworth and he pursued his studies of English in Wordsworths library at Allan Bank in Grasmere. His privilege of studying in the Wordsworth library was continued after the Wordsworth family moved to Rydal Mount, in 1815, he went to Oxford, as a scholar of Merton College. From 1816 to 1820 he was in receipt of an exhibition funded from the bequest of James Wood administered by the Worshipful Company of Bowyers of the City of London. On all subjects he spoke his mind, often, through whim or impatience, more than his mind, freely, without regard to consequences
9.
John Wilson (Scottish writer)
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John Wilson of Elleray FRSE was a Scottish advocate, literary critic and author, the writer most frequently identified with the pseudonym Christopher North of Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine. He was professor of Moral Philosophy at Edinburgh University, John Wilson was born at Paisley, the son of John Wilson, a wealthy gauze manufacturer who died in 1796, when John was eleven years old, and Margaret Syme. He was the child, but the eldest son. He was only twelve when he entered the University of Glasgow, during this period Wilson excelled in sport as well as academic subjects, and fell in love with Margaret Fletcher, who was the object of his affections for several years. In 1803 Wilson was entered as a commoner at Magdalen College. He was inspired by Oxford, and in much of his work, notably in the essay called Old North and Young North. But his Magdalen days were not altogether happy, though he obtained a brilliant first class degree. His love affairs did not go happily, his Margaret eloped to New York with his brother, Charles and he made no close friends at his own college. He took his degree in 1807, and at twenty-two was his own master, with an income, no guardian to control him. Instead, his occupation was an estate on Windermere called Elleray and he became intimate with William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey and Thomas de Quincey. Most of his fortune was lost by the dishonest speculation of an uncle, in whose hands Wilson had carelessly left it. His mother had a house in Edinburgh, in which she was able and willing to receive her son and his family, he was not forced to give up Elleray, though he was no longer able to live there. He read law and was elected to the Faculty of Advocates in 1815, still with many outside interests, in 1822 began the series of Noctes Ambrosianae, after 1825 mostly Wilsons work. These are discussions in the form of convivial table-talk, including wonderfully various digressions of criticism, description, there was much ephemeral, a certain amount purely local, and something occasionally trivial in them. The Ettrick Shepherd, a portrait of James Hogg, one of the talkers, is a most delightful creation. Wilson left his mothers house and established himself in Ann Street, Edinburgh, with his wife and five children. His election to the chair of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh was unexpected, and his duties left him plenty of time for magazine work, and for many years his contributions to Blackwood were voluminous, in one year amounting to over fifty separate articles. Most of the best and best known of them appeared between 1825 and 1835, the death of his wife in 1837 was an exceedingly severe blow to him, especially as it followed within three years that of his friend Blackwood
10.
Thomas De Quincey
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Thomas Penson De Quincey was an English essayist, best known for his Confessions of an English Opium-Eater. Many scholars suggest that in publishing this work De Quincey inaugurated the tradition of literature in the West. De Quincey was born at 86 Cross Street, Manchester, Lancashire and his father was a successful merchant with an interest in literature who died when he was quite young. Soon after his birth the family went to The Farm and then later to Greenheys, in 1796, three years after the death of his father, Thomas Quincey, his mother – the erstwhile Elizabeth Penson – took the name De Quincey. In the same year, De Quinceys mother moved to Bath, Somerset, De Quincey was a weak and sickly child. His youth was spent in solitude, and when his brother, William, came home. De Quinceys mother was a woman of character and intelligence. It is purported that at time, in 1799, De Quincey first read Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth. In 1800, De Quincey, aged fifteen, was ready for the University of Oxford and that boy, his master at Bath had said, could harangue an Athenian mob better than you or I could address an English one. He was sent to Manchester Grammar School, in order that after three years stay he might obtain a scholarship to Brasenose College, Oxford, but he took flight after nineteen months. His first plan had been to reach William Wordsworth, whose Lyrical Ballads had consoled him in fits of depression and had awakened in him a reverence for the poet. From July to November 1802, De Quincey lived as a wayfarer and he soon lost his guinea by ceasing to keep his family informed of his whereabouts, and had difficulty making ends meet. Still, apparently fearing pursuit, he borrowed money and travelled to London. Having failed, he lived close to starvation rather than return to his family, discovered by chance by his friends, De Quincey was brought home and finally allowed to go to Worcester College, Oxford, on a reduced income. Here, we are told, he came to be looked upon as a strange being who associated with no one, in 1804, while at Oxford, he began the occasional use of opium. He completed his studies, but failed to take the oral examination leading to a degree and he became an acquaintance of Coleridge and Wordsworth, having already sought out Charles Lamb in London. His acquaintance with Wordsworth led to his settling in 1809 at Grasmere and he lived for ten years in Dove Cottage, which Wordsworth had occupied and which is now a popular tourist attraction, and for another five years at Fox Ghyll near Rydal. De Quincey was married in 1816, and soon after, having no money left and his wife Margaret bore him eight children before her death in 1837
11.
Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey
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Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey was a Scottish judge and literary critic. He was born in Edinburgh, the son of George Jeffrey, after attending the Royal High School for six years, he studied at the University of Glasgow from 1787 to May 1789, and at Queens College, Oxford, from September 1791 to June 1792. He had begun the study of law at Edinburgh before going to Oxford and he became a member of the Speculative Society, where he measured himself in debate with Sir Walter Scott, Lord Brougham, Francis Horner, the Marquess of Lansdowne, Lord Kinnaird and others. He was admitted to the Scottish bar in December 1794, but, having abandoned the Tory principles in which he had been educated, he found that his Whig politics hampered his legal prospects. In consequence of his lack of success at the bar he went to London in 1798 to try his hand at journalism and his marriage to Catherine Wilson in 1801 made the question of a settled income even more pressing. At the outset the Review did not have an editor, the first three numbers were effectively edited by Sydney Smith. On his leaving for England the work devolved chiefly on Jeffrey, who, by an arrangement with Archibald Constable and this article expressed despair of the success of the British arms in Spain, and Scott at once withdrew his subscription, the Quarterly being soon afterwards started in opposition. According to Lord Cockburn the effect of the first number of the Edinburgh Review was electrical, the English reviews were at that time practically publishers organs, with articles by hack writers instructed to obey the publishers interests. The Edinburgh Review, on the hand, enlisted a brilliant and independent staff of contributors, guided by the editor. They received sixteen guineas a sheet, increased subsequently to twenty-five guineas in many cases, the review was not limited to literary criticism but became the accredited organ of moderate Whig public opinion. These general principles and the novelty of the method ensured the success of the undertaking even after the circle of exceptionally able men who founded it had been dispersed. It had a circulation of 12,000, Jeffreys editorship lasted about twenty-six years, ceasing with the ninety-eighth number, published in June 1829, when he resigned in favour of Macvey Napier. Jeffreys own contributions numbered two hundred, all six being written before his resignation of the editorship. He wrote quickly, at odd moments of leisure and with special preparation. A criticism in the number of the Review on the morality of Thomas Moores poems led in 1806 to a duel between the two authors at Chalk Farm. The proceedings were stopped by the police, and Jeffreys pistol was found to contain no bullet, the affair led to a warm friendship, and Moore contributed to the Review, while Jeffrey made ample amends in a later article on Lalla Rookh. Jeffreys wife had died in 1805, and in 1810 he became acquainted with Charlotte, daughter of Charles Wilkes of New York, when she returned to the United States, Jeffrey followed her, and they were married in 1813. Before returning to Scotland, they visited several of the chief American cities, notwithstanding the increasing success of the Review, Jeffrey continued to look to the bar as the chief field of his ambition
12.
Irony
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Irony, in its broadest sense, is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or event in which what appears, on the surface, to be the case, differs radically from what is actually the case. Irony may be divided into such as verbal, dramatic. Verbal, dramatic, and situational irony are often used for emphasis in the assertion of a truth, other forms, as identified by historian Connop Thirlwall, include dialectic and practical irony. Also, Eric Partridge, in Usage and Abusage, writes that Irony consists in stating the contrary of what is meant, the use of irony may require the concept of a double audience. The term is used as a synonym for incongruous and applied to every trivial oddity in situations where there is no double audience. The American Heritage Dictionarys secondary meaning for irony, incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs and this sense, however, is not synonymous with incongruous but merely a definition of dramatic or situational irony. It is often included in definitions of irony not only that incongruity is present, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, The term irony has its roots in the Greek comic character Eiron, a clever underdog who by his wit repeatedly triumphs over the boastful character Alazon. The Socratic irony of the Platonic dialogues derives from this comic origin. e, the word came into English as a figure of speech in the 16th century as similar to the French ironie. It derives from the Latin ironia and ultimately from the Greek εἰρωνεία eirōneía, meaning dissimulation, Romantic irony, A self-aware and self-critical form of fiction. Cosmic irony, A contrast between the absolute and the relative, the general and the individual, which Hegel expressed by the phrase, when the audience knows that the character will die before morning. It is most often used when the author causes a character to speak or act erroneously, in tragic irony, the audience knows the character is making a mistake, even as the character is making it. Verbal irony is distinguished from situational irony and dramatic irony in that it is produced intentionally by speakers, for instance, if a man exclaims, Im not upset. But reveals an upset emotional state through his voice while truly trying to claim hes not upset, but if the same speaker said the same words and intended to communicate that he was upset by claiming he was not, the utterance would be verbal irony. This distinction illustrates an important aspect of verbal irony—speakers communicate implied propositions that are contradictory to the propositions contained in the words themselves. Were left in no doubt as to whos ambitious and whos honourable, the literal truth of whats written clashes with the perceived truth of whats meant to revealing effect, which is irony in a nutshell. Ironic similes are a form of verbal irony where a speaker intends to communicate the opposite of what they mean, a fair amount of confusion has surrounded the issue of the relationship between verbal irony and sarcasm. Fowlers A Dictionary of Modern English Usage states, Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony and irony has often no touch of sarcasm and this suggests that the two concepts are linked but may be considered separately. 2 a, a mode of satirical wit depending for its effect on bitter, caustic, the psychologist Martin, in The Psychology of Humour, is quite clear that irony is where the literal meaning is opposite to the intended and sarcasm is aggressive humor that pokes fun
13.
Romantic poetry
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Romantic poetry is the poetry of the Romantic era, an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century. Although many stress the notion of spontaneity in Romantic poetry, the movement was greatly concerned with the difficulty of composition. Indeed, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, another prominent English Romantic poet and critic, Romantic poetry contrasts with neoclassical poetry, which was the poetry of intellect and reason, while romantic poetry is more the product of emotion. Romantic poetry at the beginning of the century was a reaction against the set standards. According to William J. ” Belief in the importance of the imagination is a feature of romantic poets such as John Keats, Samuel Coleridge. Keats said, “I am certain of nothing but of the holiness of the Hearts affections, the secret of great art, Blake claimed, is the capacity to imagine. To define imagination, in his poem Auguries of Innocence, Blake said, To see a world in a grain of sand, And heaven in a wild flower, love for nature is another important feature of romantic poetry, as a source of inspiration. This poetry involves a relationship with nature and places. However, the romantic poets differed in their views about nature, wordsworth recognized nature as a living thing, teacher, god and everything. These feelings are developed and expressed in his epic poem The Prelude. In his poem The Tables Turn he writes, One impulse from the vernal wood Can teach you more of man, Of moral evil and good, Shelley was another nature poet, who believed that nature is a living thing and there is a union between nature and man. Wordsworth approaches nature philosophically, while Shelley emphasises the intellect, John Keats is another a lover of nature, but Coleridge differs from other romantic poets of his age, in that he has a realistic perspective on nature. He believes that nature is not the source of joy and pleasure, Coleridge believed that joy does not come from external nature, but that it emanates from the human heart. Melancholy occupies a prominent place in poetry, and is an important source of inspiration for the Romantic poets. In Ode to a Nightingale, Keats wrote, Romantic poetry was attracted to nostalgia and medievalism is another important characteristic of romantic poetry, especially in the works of John Keats and Coleridge. They were attracted to exotic, remote and obscure places, the world of classical Greece was important to the Romantics. John Keats poetry is full of allusions to the art, literature and culture of Greek, most of the romantic poets used [[supernaturalism|supernatural elements\\ in their poetry. Samuel Coleridge is the romantic poet in this regard
14.
Dove Cottage
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Dove Cottage is a house on the edge of Grasmere in the Lake District of England. It is best known as the home of the poet William Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy Wordsworth from December 1799 to May 1808, where they spent over eight years of plain living, but high thinking. William Wordsworth married his wife Mary in 1802, and she, the family quickly expanded, with the arrival of three children in four years, and the Wordsworths left Dove Cottage in 1808 to seek larger lodgings. The cottage was occupied by Thomas de Quincey for a number of years. The cottage was acquired by the Wordsworth Trust in 1890 and opened to the public as a home museum in 1891. The house is a Grade 1 listed building, and remains unchanged from Wordsworths day. It receives approximately 70,000 visitors a year, Dove Cottage was built in the early 17th century, beside the main road from Ambleside to the south to Keswick to the north. It was probably purpose-built as a house, and it is first recorded as the Dove and Olive. It remained a house, sometimes called the Dove and Olive Branch. The building is constructed from stone, with limewashed walls. There are four rooms downstairs, and another four upstairs, the ground floor rooms retain the oak panels and slate floors often found in well-built Lakeland houses of the period, and appropriate to their original function as drinking rooms in a public house. The fireplaces were altered in the 1790s to burn rather than the traditional Lakeland peat. William Wordsworth had been born in Cockermouth in Cumberland in 1770 and he moved away to study at the University of Cambridge in 1787, and then travelled in Britain and Europe for 12 years. William first encountered Dove Cottage when on a tour of the Lake District with Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1799. William had been close to his sister Dorothy in their childhood, although they had lived together in Somerset in 1797 and in Germany in 1798, William wanted to find a permanent home for them together. Dove Cottage was empty and available for rent, and they took up residence on 20 December that year, paying £5 a year to John Benson of Grasmere. On the ground floor, the reception room was the houseplace or kitchen-parlour, by the main door. A smaller room next to the houseplace was used by the Wordsworths as Dorothys bedroom, a separate kitchen was used for the more arduous task of the domestic routine, with the fourth room being a small buttery, used as a larder
15.
Grasmere
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Grasmere is a village and tourist destination in the centre of the English Lake District. It takes its name from the adjacent lake, and is associated with the Lake Poets, the poet William Wordsworth, who lived in Grasmere for 14 years, described it as the loveliest spot that man hath ever found. Before 1974, Grasmere lay within the county of Westmorland. Today it is part of the county of Cumbria, the lake flanked by grass, gres, mere. Plus the element mere OE, ModE lake, pool, the village is on the river Rothay which flows into Grasmere lake, which lies about 0.5 km to the south. The village is overlooked from the NW by the hill of Helm Crag, popularly known as The Lion. These names are derived from the shape of rock formations on its summit, a number of popular walks begin in the village, including the ascent of Helm Crag, a longer route up to Fairfield and a moderate 200-metre ascent to Easedale Tarn. The village is also on the route of Alfred Wainwrights Coast to Coast Walk, the A591 connects Grasmere to the Vale of Keswick over Dunmail Raise to the north, and Ambleside to the south. In other directions, Grasmere is surrounded by high ground, to the west, a long ridge comes down from High Raise and contains the lesser heights of Blea Rigg and Silver How. To the east, Grasmere is bordered by the ridge of the Fairfield horseshoe. Grasmere is served by the Stagecoach 555 bus service connecting towns in and near the Lake District, such as Keswick, in summer it is also served by an open top double-decker 599 service, operated by Stagecoach, which runs between Grasmere and Bowness-on-Windermere. Grasmeres famous Rushbearing Ceremony, centred on St Oswalds Church, has ancient origins, the present-day ceremony is an annual event which features a procession through the village with bearings made from rushes and flowers. In this procession there are also six Maids of Honour, a band, the church choir. The annual Grasmere Sports take place in August and were first held in 1852 and this is the main event in the villages calendar and one of the most popular traditional events in the Lake District. Participants compete in a variety of sports, including Cumberland Wrestling, fell running, Grasmere is now home to the winner of the Get Started Award 2014 awarded by the Institute of Enterprise and Entrepreneurs, the Handmade Chocolate Shop. Todays Grasmere Gingerbread is made to a secret recipe popularised by Sarah Nelson, by the early nineteenth century, Grasmere gingerbread was already being sold as fairings, as well as being a popular seller in its own right. Poet Dorothy Wordsworth wrote in 1803 that she and her brother William craved for the gingerbread, until September 2013, Grasmeres three main church parishes gathered three times a year to celebrate mass in the Catholic Church of Our Lady of the Wayside. The former civil parish was for a time governed by a district council before becoming part of the Lakes UDC in 1934
16.
Cockermouth
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The mid-2010 census estimates state that Cockermouth has a population of 8,204, increasing to 8,761 at the 2011 Census. Historically a part of Cumberland, Cockermouth is situated outside the English Lake District on its northwest fringe, much of the architectural core of the town remains unchanged since the basic medieval layout was filled in the 18th and 19th centuries. The regenerated Market place is now an historical focus within the town. The town is prone to flooding, being flooded in 2005, again much more severely on 19 November 2009, Cockermouth, is the mouth of the River Cocker, and the river takes its name from the Brythonic Celtic word kukrā, meaning the crooked one. It has frequently noted on lists of unusual place names. Cockermouth is situated a few minutes travelling distance from such as Crummock Water, Loweswater. Cockermouth has a climate that is influenced by the Irish Sea. Cockermouth receives slightly below average compared to the UK average. Temperatures are also round about average compared to parts of the UK. The nearest weather station for which records are available is Aspatria. West Cumbria gets relatively little snow in comparison to The Lake District and Eastern Cumbria due to its proximity to the Irish Sea, and its low height above sea level. The Romans built a fort at Derventio Carvetiorum, now the village of Papcastle. The layout is preserved, leading the British Council for Archaeology to say in 1965 that it was worthy of special care in preservation. The town market pre-dates 1221, when the day was changed from Saturday to Monday. Market charters were granted in 1221 and 1227 by King Henry III, in recent times, the trading farmers market now only occurs seasonally, replaced by weekend continental and craft markets. The Market Bell remains as a reminder of this period, while the 1761 and Castle pub have been renovated to reveal medieval stonework and 16th and 18th century features. Much of the centre of the town is of medieval origin substantially rebuilt in Georgian style with Victorian infill, the tree lined Kirkgate offers examples of unspoilt classical late 17th and 18th century terraced housing, cobbled paving and curving lanes which run steeply down to the River Cocker. Most of the buildings are of slate and stone construction with thick walls
17.
Penrith, Cumbria
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Penrith is a market town and civil parish in the county of Cumbria, England. Penrith lies less than 3 miles outside the boundaries of the Lake District National Park, historically a part of Cumberland, Penriths local authority is currently Eden District Council, which is based in the town. Penrith was formerly the seat of both Penrith Urban and Rural District Councils, from 1974 to 2015, Penrith had no town council of its own, and was an unparished area. Penrith Town Council was formed in 2015 and the first elections to the Town Council Civil parish took place on May 7,2015, the exact etymology of the name has been debated. Several toponymists favour a derivation from the Cumbric or Welsh pen head, chief, end + Cumbric rid, on this basis, the name would mean chief ford, hill ford, ford end or Whaleys suggestion, the head of the ford or headland by the ford. Penrith, however, lies around 1 mile from the nearest crossing point on the River Eamont at Eamont Bridge, an alternative has been suggested consisting of the same pen element meaning head, end, top + the equivalent of Welsh rhudd crimson. The name red hill may refer to the large Beacon Hill to the north east of the current town, there is also a place called Redhills to the south west near the M6 motorway. The Roman fort of Voreda occupied the now known as Old Penrith. The Roman road from Manchester to Carlisle ran through the area, excavations in advance of an extension to Penrith Cemetery showed that the road survived better at the edges of the field. The cobble and gravel surfaces appeared to have been ploughed out at the centre. The road was constructed by excavating a wide, shallow trench below the level of subsoil, large cobbles were probably obtained from nearby, as they did not appear frequently within the subsoil in the excavated area. The cobbles were added to the subsoil and this was dumped back into the cut to form a stable foundation. Penrith was a district between 1894 and 1974, when it was merged into Eden District. The authoritys area was coterminous with the parish of Penrith although when the council was abolished Penrith became an unparished area. The area had previously been a urban sanitary district presided over by the Local Board of Health, as well as the town of itself the district also contained the hamlets of Carleton, Bowscar, Plumpton Head and part of the village of Eamont Bridge. The district was divided into 4 wards, North, South, East and West, from 1906 the council was based at Penrith Town Hall which had previously been two houses believed to have been designed by Robert Adam. In the 1920s Penrith Castle came into the possession of the council, the grounds were turned into a public park, and Castle Hill or Tyne Close Housing Estate was built nearby. Penrith North, part of the centre, the New Streets, most of Townhead
18.
Picturesque
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Picturesque is an aesthetic ideal introduced into English cultural debate in 1782 by William Gilpin in Observations on the River Wye, and Several Parts of South Wales, etc. Picturesque, along with the aesthetic and cultural strands of Gothic, the term “picturesque” needs to be understood in relationship to two other aesthetic ideals, the beautiful and the sublime. By the last third of the 18th century, Enlightenment and rationalist ideas about aesthetics were being challenged by looking at the experiences of beauty and sublimity as being non-rational. Aesthetic experience was not just a rational decision – one did not look at a curved form and decide it was beautiful. Picturesque arose as a mediator between these ideals of beauty and the sublime, showing the possibilities that existed in between these two rationally idealised states. As Thomas Gray wrote in 1765 of the Scottish Highlands, “The mountains are ecstatic, none but those monstrous creatures of God know how to join so much beauty with so much horror. ”See also Gilpin and the picturesque. Gilpin’s Essay on Prints defined picturesque as “a term expressive of that kind of beauty. The pictorial genre called “Picturesque” appeared already in the 17th century, as well as portraying beauty in the classical manner, eighteenth-century artists could overdo it from top to bottom. Their preromantic sensitivity could aspire to the sublime or be pleased with the picturesque and this triple definition by Hussey, although modern, is true to the concept of the epoch, as Uvedale Price explained in 1794. The examples Price gave of these three aesthetic tendencies were Handel as the sublime, a pastorale by Arcangelo Corelli as the beautiful, during the mid 18th century the idea of purely scenic pleasure touring began to take hold among the English leisured class. This new image disregarded the principles of symmetry and perfect proportions while focusing more on accidental irregularity, the irregular, anti-classical, ruins became sought after sights. Gilpin himself asked, “shall we suppose it a pleasure to the sportsman to pursue a trivial animal, than it is to the man of taste to pursue the beauties of nature. ”After 1815 when Europe was available to travel again after the wars. Though seemingly vague and far away, the Far East, China and Japan, sir William Temple was a statesman and essayist who traveled throughout Europe. His essay Upon the Gardens of Epicurus, or Of Gardening, in the Year 1685 described what he called the taste of the “Chineses” for a beauty without order. The Chineses scorn this way of planting, and say, a boy, that can tell an hundred, may plant walks of trees in straight lines, and over-against one another, and to what length and extent he pleases. And whoever observes the work upon the best India gowns, or the painting upon their best screens or purcellans, imaginations of Far Eastern irregularity and sharawadgi returns frequently in the eighteenth and nineteenth century discourse. Multiple authors have attempted to trace the etymology of sharawadgi to various Chinese and Japanese terms for garden design, E. V. Gatenby proposed English sharawadgi derived from Japanese sorowaji not being regular, an older form of sorowazu incomplete, unequal, uneven, irregular. S. Lang and Nikolaus Pevsner dismissed these two unattested Chinese terms, doubted the Japanese sorowaji, and suggested that Temple coined the word sharawadgi himself and these authors placed Temples discovery in the context of upcoming ideas on the picturesque
19.
The Prelude
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The Prelude or, Growth of a Poets Mind, An Autobiographical Poem is an autobiographical poem in blank verse by the English poet William Wordsworth. Intended as the introduction to the more philosophical Recluse, which Wordsworth never finished, The Prelude is an extremely personal, Wordsworth began The Prelude in 1798 at the age of 28 and continued to work on it throughout his life. He never gave it a title, he called it the Poem to Coleridge, the poem was unknown to the general public until published three months after Wordsworths death in 1850, its final name given to it by his widow Mary. The Prelude is widely regarded as Wordsworths greatest work, there are three versions of the poem, The 1799 Prelude, called the Two-Part Prelude, composed 1798–99, containing the first two parts of the later poem. The 1805 Prelude, which was found and printed by Ernest de Sélincourt in 1926, the 1850 Prelude, published shortly after Wordsworths death, in 14 books. The poem was intended as the prologue to a long three-part epic and philosophical poem, Wordsworth planned to write this work together with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, their joint intent being to surpass John Miltons Paradise Lost. Coleridges inspiration and interest is evidenced in his letters, for instance, in 1799 he writes to Wordsworth, I am anxiously eager to have you steadily employed on The Recluse. It would do good, and might form a Part of The Recluse. According to Monique R. Morgans Narrative Means to Lyric Ends in Wordsworths Prelude, the goal of the poem is to demonstrate his fitness to produce great poetry, and The Prelude itself becomes evidence of that fitness. It traces the growth of the mind by stressing the mutual consciousness. But its focus and mood present a sharp fundamental fall away from the neoclassical and into the Romantic. Whilst Milton in Paradise Lost rewrites Gods creation and The Fall of Man so as to justify the ways of God to men, Wordsworth chooses his own mind and imagination as a subject worthy of epic. This spiritual autobiography evolves out of Wordsworths persistent metaphor a circular journey whose end is to arrive where we started / And know that place for the first time, Wordsworths Prelude opens with a literal journey whose chosen goal is the Vale of Grasmere. The Prelude narrates a number of journeys, most notably the crossing of the Alps in Book VI and, in the beginning of the final book. In the course of the poem, such literal journeys become the vehicle for a spiritual journey—the quest within the poets memory. 1799 in poetry 1805 in poetry 1850 in poetry Complete text of 1799 Version of The Prelude at Rutgers Complete text of 1850 Version of The Prelude at Bartleby. com
20.
Enclosure
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Enclosure was the legal process in England during the 18th century of enclosing a number of small landholdings to create one larger farm. Once enclosed, use of the land became restricted to the owner, in England and Wales the term is also used for the process that ended the ancient system of arable farming in open fields. Under enclosure, such land is fenced and deeded or entitled to one or more owners, the process of enclosure began to be a widespread feature of the English agricultural landscape during the 16th century. By the 19th century, unenclosed commons had become restricted to rough pasture in mountainous areas. Enclosure could be accomplished by buying the rights and all common rights to accomplish exclusive rights of use. The other method was by passing laws causing or forcing enclosure, the latter process of enclosure was sometimes accompanied by force, resistance, and bloodshed, and remains among the most controversial areas of agricultural and economic history in England. Marxist and neo-Marxist historians argue that rich landowners used their control of processes to appropriate public land for their private benefit. The process of created a landless working class that provided the labour required in the new industries developing in the north of England. For example, In agriculture the years between 1760 and 1820 are the years of wholesale enclosure in which, in village after village, thompson argues that Enclosure was a plain enough case of class robbery. We should be not to ascribe to developments that were the consequence of a much broader. He impact of eighteenth and nineteenth century enclosure has been grossly exaggerated, Enclosure is considered one of the causes of the British Agricultural Revolution. Enclosed land was under control of the farmer who was free to adopt better farming practices, there was widespread agreement in contemporary accounts that profit making opportunities were better with enclosed land. Following enclosure, crop yields increased while at the same time productivity increased enough to create a surplus of labour. The increased labour supply is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution, Enclosure of manorial common land was authorized by the Statute of Merton and the Statute of Westminster. Throughout the medieval and modern periods, piecemeal enclosure took place in which adjacent strips were fenced off from the common field and this was sometimes undertaken by small landowners, but more often by large landowners and lords of the manor. Significant enclosures took place to establish deer parks, some of these enclosures took place with local agreement. Most if not all emparkments were of already fenced land, there was a significant rise in enclosure during the Tudor period. These enclosures largely resulted in conversion of land use from arable to pasture – usually sheep farming and these enclosures were often undertaken unilaterally by the landowner
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Vernacular
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Some linguists use vernacular and nonstandard dialect as synonyms. The use of vernacular is not recent, here vernacular, mother language and dialect are already in use in a modern sense. The figurative meaning was broadened from the diminutive extended words vernaculus, varro, the classical Latin grammarian, used the term vocabula vernacula, termes de la langue nationale or vocabulary of the national language as opposed to foreign words. In general linguistics, a vernacular is contrasted with a lingua franca, for instance, in Western Europe until the 17th century, most scholarly works had been written in Latin, which was serving as a lingua franca. Works written in Romance languages are said to be in the vernacular, the Divina Commedia, the Cantar de Mio Cid, and The Song of Roland are examples of early vernacular literature in Italian, Spanish, and French, respectively. In Europe, Latin was used instead of vernacular languages in varying forms until c. 1701, in its latter stage as New Latin, in Catholicism, vernacular bibles were later provided, but Latin was used at Tridentine Mass until the Second Vatican Council of 1965. Certain groups, notably Traditionalist Catholics, continue to practice Latin Mass, in India, the 12th century Bhakti movement led to the translation of Sanskrit texts to the vernacular. In science, a user of the vernacular was Galileo. 1600, though some of his works remained in Latin, a later example is Isaac Newton, whose 1687 Principia was in Latin, but whose 1704 Opticks was in English. Latin continues to be used in fields of science, notably binomial nomenclature in biology, while other fields such as mathematics use vernacular. In diplomacy, French displaced Latin in Europe in the 1710s, certain languages have both a classical form and various vernacular forms, with two widely used examples being Arabic and Chinese, see Varieties of Arabic and Chinese language. In the 1920s, due to the May Fourth Movement, Classical Chinese was replaced by written vernacular Chinese, the vernacular is also often contrasted with a liturgical language, a specialized use of a former lingua franca. Similarly, in Hindu culture, traditionally religious or scholarly works were written in Sanskrit or in Tamil in Tamil country. With the rise of the movement from the 12th century onwards, religious works were created in the other languages, Hindi, Kannada, Telugu. These circumstances are a contrast between a vernacular and language variant used by the same speakers, according to one school of linguistic thought, all such variants are examples of a linguistic phenomenon termed diglossia. In it, the language is bifurcated, i. e. the speaker learns two forms of the language and ordinarily uses one but under special circumstances the other. The one most frequently used is the low variant, equivalent to the vernacular, the concept was introduced to linguistics by Charles A. Ferguson, but Ferguson explicitly excluded variants as divergent as dialects or different languages or as similar as styles or registers
