1.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
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Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
3.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
4.
Thunder Bay
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Thunder Bay is a city in, and the seat of, Thunder Bay District, Ontario, Canada. It is the most populous municipality in Northwestern Ontario with a population of 108,359 as of the Canada 2011 Census, European settlement in the region began in the late 17th century with a French fur trading outpost on the banks of the Kaministiquia River. Forestry and manufacturing played important roles in the citys economy and they have declined in recent years, but have been replaced by a knowledge economy based on medical research and education. Thunder Bay is the site of the Thunder Bay Regional Research Institute, the city takes its name from the immense Thunder Bay at the head of Lake Superior, known on 18th-century French maps as Baie du Tonnerre. The city is referred to as the Lakehead, or Canadian Lakehead. European settlement at Thunder Bay began with two French fur trading posts which were subsequently abandoned, in 1803, the Montreal-based North West Company established Fort William as its mid-continent entrepôt. The fort thrived until 1821 when the North West Company merged with the Hudsons Bay Company, by the 1850s, the Province of Canada began to take an interest in its western extremity. Discovery of copper in the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan had prompted a demand for mining locations on the Canadian shores of Lake Superior. In 1849, French-speaking Jesuits established the Mission de lImmaculée-Conception on the Kaministiquia to evangelize the Ojibwe, the Province of Canada negotiated the Robinson Treaty in 1850 with the Ojibwa of Lake Superior. As a result, an Indian reserve was set aside for them south of the Kaministiquia River, in 1859–60, the Department of Crown Lands surveyed two townships and the Town Plot of Fort William for European-Canadian settlement. Another settlement developed a few miles to the north of Fort William after construction by the federal Department of Public Works of a road connecting Lake Superior with the Red River Colony, the work was directed by Simon James Dawson. This public works depot or construction headquarters acquired its first name in May 1870 when Colonel Garnet Wolseley named it Prince Arthurs Landing and it was renamed Port Arthur by the Canadian Pacific Railway in May 1883. The arrival of the CPR in 1875 sparked a rivalry between the towns, which did not end until the amalgamation of 1970. Until the 1880s, Port Arthur was a larger and dynamic community. The CPR, in collaboration with the Hudsons Bay Company, preferred east Fort William, provoked by a prolonged tax dispute with Port Arthur and its seizure of a locomotive in 1889, the CPR relocated all its employees and facilities to Fort William. The collapse of silver mining after 1890 undermined the economy of Port Arthur and it had an economic depression, while Fort William thrived. In the era of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Thunder Bay began a period of growth, based on improved access to markets via the transcontinental railway. The CPR double-tracked its Winnipeg–Thunder Bay line, the Canadian Northern Railway established facilities at Port Arthur
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Orillia
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Orillia /əˈrɪliə/ is a Canadian city located in Simcoe County between Lake Couchiching and Lake Simcoe. Although located in Simcoe County, the city is politically independent and it is part of the Huronia region of Central Ontario. Originally incorporated as a village in 1867, the history of what is today the City of Orillia dates back at least several thousand years. Known as the Sunshine City, the large waterfront attracts many tourists to the area every year, as do a good number of annual festivals. The site of an Ojibwa reserve from 1830 to 1838, Orillia subsequently prospered as an agricultural, transportation links with Toronto and Georgian Bay stimulated Orillias development as a commercial centre and summer resort. The village of Orillia was incorporated in 1867, became a town in 1875, the city of Orillia is located on the shores of two connected lakes, Lake Simcoe and Lake Couchiching. Both lakes are part of the Trent-Severn Waterway, travel north on Lake Couchiching, then through three locks and the only marine railway in North America leads to Georgian Bay on Lake Huron. Travel south-east across Lake Simcoe, through many locks eventually leads to Lake Ontario, from either of these Great Lakes one can connect to the St. Lawrence and thence to the Atlantic Ocean. Also, there are archaeological sites in the surrounding area that provide evidence of trading, fishing. Also of historical note, the famed French explorer Samuel de Champlain visited the area that would later become Orillia in the early 17th century, ecole Samuel de Champlain, a local francophone elementary school, is named in his honour. A monument to Samuel de Champlain can also be found in Couchiching Beach Park, the book was based on Leacocks experiences in the town and the city has since the books release attempted to mimic the fictional location in as many ways as possible. The Stephen Leacock Museum, located in Orillia, is a National Historic Site, william E. Orillia was the first municipality in North America to introduce daylight saving time and had the first municipal hydro electric transmission plant in North America. Further backing the theory of a Spanish origin are the names of surrounding communities and landmarks, which include Oro for gold, Mariposa for butterfly, and Mono for monkey. Historical documents contain a second spelling of the name which was never officially recognised, Aurelia, according to the 2006 Canada Census, Orillia has a population of 30,259 living in an area of 28.61 square kilometres. The city has experienced growth, with a population increase of over 1,000 residents since the 2001 census. The median household income in 2005 for Orillia was $46,722, Orillia is governed by the Orillia City Council, which consists of 8 city councillors and a mayor. There are four wards in the city, from 1875 to 1969 was led by a reeve or mayor. From 1969 onwards the head of council was the Mayor, initial interest in Orillia came from fur traders who used the gathering place at the Narrows to do business with the many tribes that came there each spring and fall
6.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Rural area
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In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Whatever is not urban is considered rural, typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are rural, though so are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of rural for statistical and administrative purposes, in Canada, the census division has been used to represent regions and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent communities. Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Ehrensaft, as well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Statistics Canada defines rural for their population counts and this definition has changed over time. Typically, it has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or less inhabitants, the current definition states that census rural is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometre. 84% of the United States inhabitants live in suburban and urban areas, Rural areas occupy the remaining 90 percent. The U. S. Census Bureau, the USDAs Economic Research Service, an urbanized area consists of a central surrounding areas whose population is greater than 50,000. USDA The USDAs Office of Rural Development may define rural by various population thresholds, for example, a metropolitan county is one that contains an urbanized area, or one that has a twenty-five percent commuter rate to an urbanized area regardless of population. In 2014, the USDA updated their rural / non-rural area definitions based on the 2010 Census counts, Rural health definitions can be different for establishing under-served areas or health care accessibility in rural areas of the United States. This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural, health care delivery in rural areas of the United States can be challenging. From 2005-2011, the rate of potentially preventable hospitalizations for acute conditions was highest in rural areas, in Brazil, theres different notions of rural area and countryside. Rural areas are any place outside an urban development and its carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside are officially defined as all municipalities outside the capitals metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul doesnt have any metropolitan region, thus all of the state, Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and its de facto a metropolitan state, as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio
9.
Suburban
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A suburb is a residential area or a mixed use area, either existing as part of a city or urban area or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of a city. In some areas, such as Australia, China, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and a few U. S. states, new suburbs are routinely annexed by adjacent cities. In others, such as Arabia, Canada, France, and much of the United States, Suburbs first emerged on a large scale in the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of improved rail and road transport, which led to an increase in commuting. Suburbs tend to proliferate around cities that have an abundance of adjacent flat land, the English word is derived from the Old French subburbe, which is in turn derived from the Latin suburbium, formed from sub and urbs. The first recorded usage of the term in English, was made by John Wycliffe in 1380, in Australia and New Zealand, suburbs have become formalised as geographic subdivisions of a city and are used by postal services in addressing. In rural areas in both countries, their equivalents are called localities, the terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density suburbs in proximity to the city center, and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area. The term middle suburbs is also used, Suburbs, in this sense, can range from areas that seem more like residential areas of a city proper to areas separated by open countryside from the city centre. In large cities such as London, suburbs include formerly separate towns and villages that have been gradually absorbed during a growth and expansion. In the United States and Canada, suburb can refer either to an residential area of a city or town or to a separate municipality or unincorporated area outside a town or city. The earliest appearance of suburbs coincided with the spread of the first urban settlements, large walled towns tended to be the focus around which smaller villages grew up in a symbiotic relationship with the market town. The word suburbani was first used by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas, as populations grew during the Early Modern Period in Europe, urban towns swelled with a steady influx of people from the countryside. In some places, nearby settlements were swallowed up as the city expanded. The peripheral areas on the outskirts of the city were generally inhabited by the very poorest, by the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city became more overcrowded and unsanitary. A major catalyst in suburban growth came from the opening of the Metropolitan Railway in the 1860s, the line joined the capitals financial heart in the City to what were to become the suburbs of Middlesex. Harrow was reached in 1880, and the line extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles from Baker Street. Unlike other railway companies, which were required to dispose of surplus land, in 1912, it was suggested that a specially formed company should take over from the Surplus Lands Committee and develop suburban estates near the railway. However, World War I delayed these plans and it was only in 1919, with expectation of a housing boom. The term Metro-land was coined by the Mets marketing department in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide and this promoted the land served by the Met for the walker, visitor and later the house-hunter
10.
Universities Canada
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Universities Canada is an organization that represents Canadas colleges and universities. It is a non profit organization that coordinates university policies, guidance. Formed in 1911, as the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, it represents 97 public and private not-for-profit Canadian Universities and it provides member services in public policy and advocacy, communications, research and information-sharing, and scholarships and international programs. In April 2015, the organization renamed itself Universities Canada, Universities Canada is not a national accreditation body. Membership in the association requires universities to meet strict criteria and adhere to set principles of institutional quality assurance that must be reaffirmed every five years and this reinforces the recognition of a Canadian university degree around the world as a high-quality academic achievement. The association produces a number of publications, such as University Affairs magazine, the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canadas Arms, Supporters and Badge were registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority on May 10,2004. On 25 October 2011, the AUCC announced a new Statement on Academic Freedom which was adopted unanimously by the membership at its centennial meeting, Universities Canada works in an advocacy role with governments to promote higher education and awareness of the contributions Canadas universities make to the country. Its priorities are increasing funding for operating and capital costs, research. It is also involved in the copyright reform process. The association is active in managing government-funded international partnership programs. In partnership with Community Foundations of Canada and Rideau Hall Foundation, u15 Group of Canadian Research Universities Association of Commonwealth Universities Official website
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U Sports
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U Sports is the national sport governing body of university sport in Canada, comprising the majority of degree-granting universities in the country. Its equivalent body for organized sports at colleges in Canada is The Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association, some institutions are members of both bodies for different sports. The name until October 20,2016 was Canadian Interuniversity Sport, on that date, the organization rebranded as U Sports. The original Canadian Interuniversity Athletic Union Central was founded in 1906 and existed until 1955, composed only of universities from Ontario, with the collapse of the CIAU Central in the mid-1950s, calls for a new, national governing body for university sport accelerated. Major McLeod ran the CIAU from his office at RMC as the first CIAU Secretary-Treasurer, in the 1960s the CIAU functioned as a voluntary, autonomous, educational sport organization which represented by the various universities from coast to coast. In 1978, the CIAU changed its name to the Canadian Interuniversity Athletics Union, according to the organization, the name change to U Sports came about in part due to a desire for a brand that was instantly recognizable and identical in both French and English. The rebrand was accompanied by a new approach to presentation of Canadian University sports, its teams, and its players. The new, singular logo and name came with a new website to better present stories taking place throughout the athletics programs U Sports governs, bolstered by a new approach to social media. Source, On October 20,2016, CIS announced that it would be changing its name to U Sports, accompanied by a new logo, the name was chosen in part to better represent Canada as a bilingual nation with a united name as opposed to separate acronyms. The new name and look are also intended to increase the marketability of Canadian University sports through a more marketable presentation, signifying a major shift in the presentation of Canadian University sports, U Sports aims to better engage with Canadian sports fans and present the athletes it governs. The U Sports member institutions offer athletic scholarships known as Athletic Financial Awards, the AFAs are capped and may not exceed the value of the tuition and compulsory fees for the student-athlete. The University of Windsor has an Adopt-A-Lancer program, for example, U Sports has no regulations regarding how much each school can provide to teams through private support. The Université Lavals Rouge et Or football team, winner of seven the last 12 Vanier Cups, is so successful with fund raising, Hockey players who play in the CHL are ineligible for NCAA athletic scholarships, although many attend a CHL training camp. However, they can stay a max of 48 hours. Source, There are 56 member Universities in U Sports, the 56 member universities of U Sports are currently organized into the four following regional associations. In some of these sports, these associations are sometimes referred to as conferences, CWUAA has two divisions, Pioneer and Explorer, while the OUA has four, North, East, Central, and West. As of the 2016-2017 U Sports season,47 of the 56 member institutions have both mens and womens basketball teams, the U Sports mens and womens basketball teams are organized in the following way,27 of the 56 member schools participated in the 2016 CIS football season. The U Sports football teams are organized in the way, As of the 2017–18 academic year
12.
University of the Arctic
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UArctic was launched on June 12,2001, endorsed by the Arctic Council and in conjunction with the 10th anniversary of the Rovaniemi Process and the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy. There are 143 members of UArctic, which includes 174 members, most UArctic members are higher education institutions, but other members include circumpolar indigenous organizations and research institutions. The University of the Arctic is governed by a structure in which the institutions are represented through various mechanisms. It has evolved steadily since the founding in 2001, with the latest addition being the Rectors Forum. The foundation of the structure is the annual UArctic Council, which consists of representatives from all member institutions and it holds powers roughly corresponding to the parliament of a parliamentary democracy. Between Council meetings, the committee, Toyon, deals with relevant issues. Toyon consists of the Chair, the Vice-secretary and the Chairs of all standing committees, all these positions are elected by the Council. The government of UArctic is the Board of Governors, which is elected by the council. At the Board meetings, the President and leader of the International Secretariat also participate, the Board works with the Council and Administration on relevant issues, and may delegate specific tasks. The President of UArctic is the chief executive officer and is responsible for overall administration. S/he is accountable to the Board for the management of the University. The President participates ex officio in meetings of the Council, Toyon and the Board, the Secretariat has the primary responsibility for coordinating internal and external information, examples of which are the monthly UArctic newsletter, Shared Voices, the website and news services. The Secretariat provides support for the rest of the UArctic structure, the Rectors Forum brings together university and college Presidents, Rectors, Provosts, Chancellors and Vice-Presidents around specific themes. The member organizations contribute resources to the University of the Arctic, a small membership fee is also collected from member organizations. Special emphasis is given to matters concerning Indigenous people of the Circumpolar North, the Circumpolar Studies program consists of two required components, The BCS Core and an Advanced Emphasis. The BCS Core consists of one lower-level introductory course and six upper-level advanced courses in three fields of study. As a north2north participant, students travel to another institution for a period of 3–12 months. This time period is dependent on the needs of the student, as well as the structures of their home, students have the advantage of taking courses that may not be available at their home institution and the courses taken during the exchange year are credited towards their degree
13.
Association of Commonwealth Universities
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The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents 535 universities from 37 Commonwealth countries. It is the worlds first and oldest international university network, established in 1913, a UK-registered charity, the ACU has over 500 member institutions in developed and developing countries across the Commonwealth. Drawing on the experience and expertise, the ACU seeks to address issues in international higher education through a range of projects, networks. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is governed by its member institutions through an elected Council, as the ACU is a UK-registered charity, Council members also act as its Trustees. The ACU Council comprises up to 23 members,20 elected Council members, in 1912, the University of London took the initiative to assemble 53 representatives of universities in London to hold a Congress of Universities of the Empire. They decided they needed a bureau of information and its affairs would be handled by a committee representing universities at home and abroad. In 1913 the office opened as the Universities Bureau of the British Empire, in 1948 the name was changed to Association of Universities of the British Commonwealth, and in 1963 it changed to its current name. Dr Anastasios Christodoulou was the Secretary General of the Association of Commonwealth Universities from 1980 to 1996, in 1986, Queen Elizabeth II became patron of the Association of Commonwealth Universities. Currently 37 countries from the Commonwealth are represented in the Association
14.
Ontario University Athletics
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This is similar to what would be called a college athletic conference in the United States. OUA, which covers Ontario, is one of four such bodies that are members of the governing body for university athletics. OUA came into being in 1997 with the merger of the Ontario Universities Athletics Association, the first formal organization of intercollegiate athletics in Canada took place in 1906 with the formation of the Canadian Interuniversity Athletic Union. This organization had four members, Ottawa College, Trinity College, McMaster College. As the years passed, the CIAU expanded until in 1954 the union had nineteen members, in 1954, the administration of the CIAU was becoming somewhat unwieldy. It was also felt that the name Canadian Intercollegiate Athletic Union was not truly appropriate since intercollegiate athletic associations were also in existence in other parts of the country. The original members of the O-QAA had been joined by the Assumption College and were joined in 1961 by Waterloo and 1968 by Carleton University, in 1968, the O-QAA was divided into Eastern and Western Divisions in order to facilitate the scheduling of events. The 1960s also saw the creation of Canadas first national governing body for university athletics, in 1971, the Quebec-based universities in the O-QAA withdrew from the Association. Laval, McGill and Montreal elected to pursue their future athletic endeavours in the newly formed Quebec Universities Athletic Association, in the resulting reorganization meetings, the remaining members of the O-QAA voted to change their name to the OUAA. Invitations were extended to all Ontario universities to participate in the reorganization meeting, as part of the reorganization, it was decided that all the trophies, records, etc. of the O-QAA would remain with and be recognized by the OUAA. The Ontario Womens Interuniversity Athletic Association was founded in 1971, which provided competition for women students in the universities of Ontario. The OWIAA was unique in North America in both its longevity and singleness of purpose and this coalition was the only association for womens athletics to have survived through 60 years of commitment to women athletes in Ontario universities. The Royal Military College of Kingston was admitted to the OUAA in 1973, also in 1973, Waterloo Lutheran University changed its name to Wilfrid Laurier University. The continuing evolution of the OUAA saw three Quebec-based universities receive playing privileges in the OUAA football league in 1974, in 1978, the CIAU changed its name to Canadian Interuniversity Athletics Union. In 1980, football was reorganized so that the teams of the Ontario-Quebec Intercollegiate Football Conference- West Division would form the new OUAA Football League, the OQIFC East teams, Ottawa, Carleton and Queens would join the three Quebec schools in the new OQIFC. In 1987, the OUAA awarded playing privileges in hockey to three Quebec schools, McGill, Concordia and Trois Rivieres, nipissing University was admitted in 1993 with full membership. July 1,1997 marked a new era of university sport in Ontario, both the OUAA and the OWIAA amalgamated to form one association, Ontario University Athletics. In November,1997 the OUA hired the organization’s first Executive Director. The “new” OUA office opened on September 1,1998 in Hamilton
15.
Canadian University Press
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Canadian University Press is a non-profit co-operative and newswire service owned by more than 50 student newspapers at post-secondary schools in Canada. Founded in 1938, CUP is the oldest student newswire service in the world, many successful Canadian journalists got their starts in CUP and its member papers. CUP began as a syndication services that facilitated transnational story-sharing and this newswire continued as a private function until 2010 when it was turned into a competitive source for campus news in the form of an online public wire at cupwire. ca. CUPs head office is in Toronto, prior to April 1995, the head office was located in Ottawa. In Ottawa, CUP ran a company, called Common Printing Group, which was owned jointly with the National Union of Students. A national conference, which doubles as a general meeting, is held once a year in a different city. Each member paper exercises one vote at conferences, each region has an annual event subsidy which can be used to host events within the region, or jointly with other regions. This usually takes the form of conferences held in the spring. January 2011 will mark CUPs first fully bilingual national conference, in Montreal, hosted in part by the McGill Daily and Le Delit. The current structure for CUP, of a permanent newswire offered to Canadian University newspapers including the president, was established at CUP22 in Quebec City in 1959. Prior to this date the service was looser and more oriented towards an exchange of clippings between the papers, one of the delegates at CUP22 was future Canadian Prime Minister, Joe Clark, representing the University of Alberta paper, The Gateway. CUP is divided into six regions, WRCUP, PNCUP, ORCUP, CUPbeq, ARCUP, other acronyms for regions include CUPberta, and CCUP. Member papers contribute articles to the CUP wire, which runs stories authored by CUP staff. There are news, features, opinions, arts, sports, after stories are edited by the national bureau chief, they are made available on the wire for publication in CUP member papers. CUP formerly owned a multi-market ad placement agency, Canadian University Press Media Services Limited, Campus Plus declared bankruptcy in 2013. Until 2007, CUP was the member of the John H. McDonald Journalism Foundation, a charity named after CUPs first president, though the charity has been folded, it lives on through the yearly John H. Now and in recent years, the bureau chief has also served as CUPs vice-president
16.
Canadian Federation of Students
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The Canadian Federation of Students is the largest student organization in Canada, representing over 650,000 students from across Canada. Formed in 1981, the goal of the Federation is to represent the collective voice of Canadian students and work at the federal level for high quality. CFS is composed of local student unions. All members of the Canadian Federation of Students pay membership dues as a part of their membership, CFS and CFS-Services share the same bylaws and decision-making structures. In October 2009 CFS-Quebec ceased to operate as a provincial affiliate of the CFS. The goal of the merger was to create a student movement in Canada that could provide student-oriented services. Part of the impetus to organize came from the governments announcement of $2 billion of cuts from Established Program Financing. Another impetus was raising tuition fees, which had been an issue for CFS precursor organization. The NUS, starting in the late 1970s, the founding conference was held at Carleton University between October 14–19,1981. Mike McNeil was elected as the organizations first Chairperson, along with Mike Walker, former NUS treasurer Kirk Falconer, Kathie Cram, Brian Robinson, Ben Freedman, the Federations bylaws and constitution were finalized and over 50 motions were passed during the plenary. After hearing speeches by Salvadoran and Chilean students, delegates passed motions condemning human rights violations, a campaign strategy was also launched to oppose the federal governments planned cut to Established Program Financing. The slogan for the campaign was Access not axe us and it called for an establishment of an all-grant system, the campaign also called for alliance building with community groups and public sector workers to gain support and fight against cutbacks to social programs. The campaign was named after a report of the same name. The report focused on effects of the Government of Canadas cutback to education and highlighted issues such as access, delegates attending Question Period were denied entry by security guards. Mike McNeil and delegates were not satisfied with the outcome of the meeting with Gerald Regan. In 1992, the CFS resolved that it would be a “partner in the International Student Trade, overall,20 membership votes were held in 1994-1995, with the net result that 59 member students unions formed the CFS in September 1996. Between 1995 and 2007, over twenty students unions joined the CFS, including graduate students associations. Several large undergraduate students voted to certify during the same period
17.
Lakehead Thunderwolves
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The Lakehead Thunderwolves are the varsity athletic teams that represent Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada in Canadian Interuniversity Sport. Varsity teams include mens hockey, mens and womens track, womens volleyball, mens and womens basketball, Nordic skiing, cross country running, the Lakehead Thunderwolves are perennial powers in the OUA and CIS in Nordic Skiing and wrestling. The womens and mens Nordic ski teams won both the OUA conference and CIS-CCUNC national team championships in both 2005 and 2006, the womens and mens team four-peated for the OUA Championships in 2008 while the women won their fifth consecutive CIS-CCUNC national championship. The mens wrestling team is ranked in the CIS Top 10 each year, as of 2012, the women have continued their string of dominant performances, having now accomplished the 8-peat for CCUNC championships. Their mens hockey program, started in 2001-02, annually leads the CIS in attendance with minor pro attendance numbers and has one of the better programs in CIS mens hockey. In each of its seven seasons, the team has won at least one playoff round and has gone 14-2 on home ice in the playoffs. The Thunderwolves have qualified for the CIS National Championship twice in seven seasons of play and they hosted the CIS National Championships in 2009 and 2010. It has an intense, and at times violent, rivalry with the University of Western Ontario Mustangs. Mens and womens basketball, womens volleyball, track, and cross country have had varying degrees of success, and most of these programs have shown improvement over the past couple seasons. The alpine skiing team competes as one of a handful of Canadian schools in the United States Collegiate Ski and Snowboard Association, including University of British Columbia. Lakehead broadcasts many games with live video webcasts which can be accessed off Lakeheads two athletic sites, all sports are broadcast except Nordic skiing. Basketball is carried live on radio station CILU-FM and webcast on SSN Canada. Mens away hockey games used to be carried by commercial station Rock94, Canadian Interuniversity Sport Ontario university athletics Official website Thunderwolves Hockey
18.
Northern Ontario School of Medicine
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The school describes its campus as Northern Ontario. This is evidenced by the relationship between the school and various communities and First Nations throughout the region. All students complete a month-long placement in an Aboriginal or Métis community in May of their first year, in second year, they travel to smaller communities for two, month-long placements. The third year is clerkship and is spent living in one of the medium sized communities for the entire year, the fourth year of studies is completed in Sudbury or Thunder Bay. As a result, a plan was adopted by the province, including the creation of NOSM. A study of services in Ontario, released in August 2005, found that for the first time in many years. Construction on both campuses began in mid-2004, and the buildings were completed in August 2005, NOSM accepted its charter class of 56 students in September of that same year and the school was officially opened by Premier Dalton McGuinty on 13 September 2005. The school received accreditation from the Committee on Accreditation of Canadian Medical Schools. A fictionalized version of the school, renamed Boreal Medical School, is the setting of the Canadian television drama series Hard Rock Medical, which debuted on TVOntario and APTN in July 2013. The Northern Ontario School of Medicine is one of two medical schools in Canada outside of Quebec that does not require an MCAT score to be considered for admission. Furthermore, the only prerequisite is a university undergraduate degree with a minimum GPA of 3.0 out of 4.0. To help further its social accountability mandate, NOSM does take into account where candidates are from, for each entering class since the schools inception in 2005, approximately 90-95% were from Northern Ontario. Each year, approximately 2000 applicants compete for the 64 spots in each class, applicants request their preferred campus at the time of their interview. The HSL aims to meet the traditional and expanding information needs of NOSMs learners and faculty and it sponsors in-person and technologically mediated instruction on the latest health sciences resources and information technology, among other topics
19.
Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
20.
Legislative Assembly of Ontario
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The Legislative Assembly of Ontario is one of two components of the Legislature of Ontario, the other being the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario. The Legislative Assembly is the second largest Canadian provincial deliberative assembly by number of members after the National Assembly of Quebec, the Assembly meets at the Ontario Legislative Building at Queens Park in the provincial capital of Toronto. The premier is Ontarios head of government, while the Lieutenant Governor, as representative of the Queen, the largest party not forming the government is known as the Official Opposition, its leader being recognized as Leader of the Opposition by the Speaker. The Ontario Legislature is sometimes referred to as the Ontario Provincial Parliament, Members of the assembly refer to themselves as Members of the Provincial Parliament as opposed to Members of the Legislative Assembly as in many other provinces. Ontario is the province to do so, in accordance with a resolution passed in the Assembly on April 7,1938. However, the Legislative Assembly Act refers only to members of the Assembly, the current assembly was elected on June 12,2014 as part of the 41st Parliament of Ontario. The first session of the 41st Parliament opened on July 2,2014, on Friday May 2,2014, the 40th Parliament of Ontario was dissolved by Lieutenant Governor David C. Onley on the advice of Premier Kathleen Wynne after the NDP, the election was held on June 12,2014, as a result of which Kathleen Wynnes Liberal Party formed a majority government. Queens Park is a metonym for the Legislative Assembly, in accordance with the traditions of the Westminster System, most laws originate with the cabinet, and are passed by the legislature after stages of debate and decision-making. Ordinary Members of the Legislature may introduce privately, play an role in scrutinizing bills in debate and committee. Members are expected to be loyal to both their parliamentary party and to the interests of their constituents, in the Ontario legislature this confrontation provides much of the material for Oral Questions and Members Statements. Legislative scrutiny of the executive is also at the heart of much of the carried out by the Legislatures Standing Committees. Finally, it is the task of the legislature to provide the personnel of the executive, as already noted, under responsible government, ministers of the Crown are expected to be Members of the Assembly. The Legislative Assembly of Ontario is the first and the legislature in Canada to have a Coat of Arms separate from the provincial coat of arms. Green and gold are the colours in the shield of arms of the province. The Mace is the symbol of the authority of the Speaker. Shown on the left is the current Mace, on the right is the original Mace from the time of the first parliament in 1792. The crossed Maces are joined by the shield of arms of Ontario, the crown on the wreath represents national and provincial loyalties, its rim is studded with the provincial gemstone, the amethyst
21.
Laurentian University
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Laurentian University, which was incorporated on March 28,1960, is a mid-sized bilingual university in Greater Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. While primarily focusing on programming, Laurentian also features the east campus of Canadas newest medical school—the Northern Ontario School of Medicine—which opened in 2005. Its school of Graduate Studies offers a number of graduate-level degrees. Laurentian is the largest bilingual provider of education in Canada. The citys Idylwylde golf course also borders on the university campus, the university has a federated school structure, similar to that of the University of Toronto. The school also has an unusual and sometimes controversial student government structure — there are two student unions. The Francophone Students Association is for francophones, while the Students General Association is for both anglophones and francophones, consequently, in practice, the two student unions often compete with each other rather than serving distinct groups. Laurentians historical roots lie in the Roman Catholic church, a university federation combining representatives from the Roman Catholic, United, and Anglican churches was formed in the 1959–60 academic year. Marie were previously affiliated with Laurentian, nipissing University and Algoma University were established as independent universities, in 1992 and in 2008 respectively. There is a plaque at the entrance to the R. D. Parker Building, in 2004, the university, along with Lakehead University, formed the Northern Ontario Medical School. In addition, Laurentian University has a partnership with St. Lawrence College Tri-campus. The university is a member of LAssociation des universités de la francophonie canadienne, upon the resignation of the last president, Judith Woodsworth, Dominic Giroux became the president of Laurentian University. Woodsworth had been president of Laurentian University since July 2002, in April 2006, she had been reappointed by the Board of Governors for a second five-year term which commenced in July 2007. She left the university as the new President and Vice-Chancellor of Concordia University, the Board of Governors heads the university with the president. Directly to the left and right of the president is the assistant to the president, aline Chrétien, the wife of former Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, was named the universitys first chancellor on September 22,2010. She was succeeded by Steve Paikin on October 26,2013, Laurentian Universitys affiliate universities each have a chancellor. The chancellor is largely a ceremonial role, and has participation in the day-to-day operations of the university. The chancellor for the affiliated University of Sudbury is prominent Sudbury lawyer André Lacroix Q. C. /c. r, the chancellor for the affiliated Thorneloe University is Ernie Checkeris
22.
Greater Sudbury
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Greater Sudbury, commonly referred to as Sudbury, is a city in Ontario, Canada. It is the largest city in Northern Ontario by population, with a population of 161,531 in the Canada 2016 Census, by land area, it is the largest city in Ontario and the seventh largest municipality by area in Canada. It is administratively a single-tier municipality, and thus not part of any district, county, Sudbury was founded following the discovery of nickel ore by Tom Flanagan, a Canadian Pacific Railway blacksmith in 1883, when the transcontinental railway was near completion. Greater Sudbury was formed in 2001 by merging the cities and towns of the former Regional Municipality of Sudbury with several previously unincorporated geographic townships, the population resides in an urban core and many smaller communities scattered around 300 lakes and among hills of rock blackened by historical smelting activity. Sudbury was once a major centre and a world leader in nickel mining. Mining and related industries dominated the economy for much of the 20th century, the two major mining companies which shaped the history of Sudbury were Inco, now Vale Limited, which employed more than 25% of the population by the 1970s, and Falconbridge, now Glencore. Sudbury has since expanded from its economy to emerge as the major retail, economic, health. Sudbury is also home to a large Franco-Ontarian population that influences its arts, Sudbury has a humid continental climate with warm and often hot summers and long, cold, snowy winters. The Sudbury region was inhabited by the Ojibwe people of the Algonquin group as early as 9,000 years ago following the retreat of the last continental ice sheet. The land was first occupied by Europeans when the Jesuits established a mission called Sainte-Anne-des-Pins just before the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1883, the Sainte-Anne-des-Pins church played a prominent role in the development of Franco-Ontarian culture in the region. During construction of the railway in 1883, blasting and excavation revealed high concentrations of ore at Murray Mine on the edge of the Sudbury Basin. This discovery brought the first waves of European settlers, who arrived not only to reap the benefits of the mines, the community was named for Sudbury, Suffolk, in England, which was the hometown of Canadian Pacific Railway commissioner James Worthingtons wife. Sudbury was incorporated as a town in 1893, and its first mayor was Stephen Fournier, the construction of the railway allowed exploitation of these mineral resources as well as large-scale lumber extraction. Mining began to lumber as the primary industry as improvements to the areas transportation network, including trams, made it possible for workers to live in one community. Sudbury’s economy was dominated by the industry for much of the 20th century. Two major mining companies were created, Inco in 1902 and Falconbridge in 1928 and they became two of the city’s major employers and two of the worlds leading producers of nickel. Through the decades that followed, Sudburys economy went through boom, demand was high during the First World War when Sudbury-mined nickel was used extensively in the manufacturing of artillery in Sheffield, England. It bottomed out when the war ended and then again in the mid-1920s as peacetime uses for nickel began to develop
23.
Northern Ontario
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Northern Ontario is a primary geographic and administrative region of the Canadian province of Ontario, the other primary region being Southern Ontario. Most of Northern Ontario is situated on the Canadian Shield, a vast rocky plateau, the climate is characterized by extremes of temperature, extremely cold in winter and hot in summer. The principal industries are mining, forestry, and hydroelectricity, for some purposes, Northern Ontario is further subdivided into Northeastern and Northwestern Ontario. When the region is divided in this way, the three westernmost districts constitute Northwestern Ontario and the other districts constitute Northeastern Ontario, Northeastern Ontario contains two thirds of Northern Ontarios population. In the early 20th century, Northern Ontario was often called New Ontario, the provinces boundaries were provisionally expanded northward and westward in 1874, while the Lake of the Woods region remained subject to a boundary dispute between Ontario and Manitoba. This region was established as the District of Patricia, but was merged into the Kenora District in 1927. The Province of Canada began creating districts in sparsely populated Northern Ontario with the establishment of Algoma District. These districts had no function, they were created for the provision of judicial. Nipissing had no seat until 1895. Up until that date, registry office and higher court services were available at Pembroke in Renfrew County, Nipissing Stipendiary Magistrate and land registrar William Doran established his residence at North Bay in 1885. Following the hotly contested district town election in 1895, North Bay earned the right to become the seat in the new Provisional District of Nipissing. After the creation of the province of Ontario in 1867, the first district to be established was Thunder Bay in 1871 which until then had formed part of Algoma District. The Ontario government was reluctant to establish new districts in the north, Ontarios right to Northwestern Ontario was determined by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1884 and confirmed by the Canada Act,1889 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. By 1899 there were seven districts, Algoma, Manitoulin, Muskoka, Nipissing, Parry Sound, Rainy River. Five more northern districts were created between 1907 and 1922, Cochrane, Kenora, Sudbury, Temiskaming and Patricia, the Patricia District was then merged into the Kenora District in 1927. Districts are too sparsely populated to maintain a county government system, for example, districts have provincially maintained secondary highways instead of county roads. Geographically, the districts in Northern Ontario are Rainy River, Kenora, Thunder Bay, Cochrane, Timiskaming, Algoma, Sudbury, Nipissing andManitoulin. As well, for administrative purposes, the districts of Muskoka, the federal government continues to retain both more southerly districts in the service area of FedNor
24.
Law school
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A law school is an institution specializing in legal education, usually involved as part of a process for becoming a lawyer within a given jurisdiction. Nowadays the legal education consists in a 5-year-long course in which, afterwards, the practice of law is conditioned upon admission to the bar of a particular state or other territorial jurisdiction. Public attorneys, public prossecutors and magistrates admission is made, mainly, through an entrance examination and a constitutional mandatory three years of legal experience. The postgraduation, stricto sensu, consists in a, a) master´s degree, which is usually a two-year degree, and a b) doctorate´s degree, which can take up another four years. The typical law degree required to practice law in Canada is now the Juris Doctor, there is some scholarly content in the coursework. The programs consist of three years, and have content in their mandatory first year courses. Some schools, however, have not switched from LL. B. to the J. D. – one notable university that still awards the LL. B is McGill University. Given that the Canadian legal system includes both the French civil law and the Anglo-American common law, some law schools offer both an LL. B. or J. D. and a B. C. L. LL. L. or LL. B. degree, such as McGill University, University of Ottawa, in particular, McGill University Faculty of Law offers a combined civil law and common law program, which has been called transsystemic. At other faculties, if a person completes a common law degree and this is also true for civil law graduates who wish to complete a common law degree. Despite changes in designation, schools opting for the J. D. have not altered their curricula, neither the J. D. or LL. B. and the École du Barreau du Québec. In France, the education is a three tier system. The student may study for a LLB, then a LLM and, for those interested in Law theory, many French universities offers Law courses in department labelled as Research and Education Units and/or Faculties of Law or Law Schools. Law Degree in Indonesia consists of three tier systems, the first tier is the Degree of which carries the title of Sarjana Hukum/S. H. This can be obtained in 4–7 years after they enter Law School straight from Senior High School, the second tier varies depending on the legal specialties taken after the first tier. The general title for this tier is Magister Hukum / M. H, although it is also common to see other title for secondary tier such as Magister Kenotariatan / M. Kn. for Notarial professionals line of work. The second tier can be obtained normally in 1-2 year, the third tier in Indonesian Law Degree is Doctor / DR. To work in legal professions of choice in Indonesia, a Bachelor Law Degree is obligatory, graduates can pursue their career as Legal in-house counsel, Judge profession, Public Prosecutor, other legal-related work and Advocate
25.
Port Arthur Collegiate Institute
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Port Arthur Collegiate Institute was a collegiate institute operated by the Lakehead District School Board in Thunder Bay, Ontario from 1910 to 2007. The building was designated a historic building in 1984 and is located at the west end of Waverly Park, the schools teams were named PACI Redmen. Its amenities included a gymnasium, a 200-seat theatre, a large library, the building was granted Historical Heritage Site status in 1983, and was transferred to Lakehead University in 2008. After extensive renovations, the building will become home to Lakeheads new Faculty of Law, the original Port Arthur High School was opened on January 8,1889. The cornerstone of the new building was laid by James Conmee on July 7,1909, the building was designed by architect Henry Simpson in the Queen Anne style using Simpson Island Stone, and opened on September 6,1910. Four more classrooms were added in 1925, and a gymnasium was added in 1974. The first Vox Studentium was published in 1915, howell, staff Messrs Cranston, Milne, Rosevear, and Whiddon and Misses Aitcheson and Cloney. Howell had been appointed principal of the school in 1904. In 2007, students from Port Arthur Collegiate Institute were relocated to Hillcrest High School when their school closed, Hillcrest High School closed in 2009, and in September of that year students will attend Superior Collegiate and Vocational Institute. The school song was titled Cheer
26.
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
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Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design is one of the most popular green building certification programs used worldwide. Developed by the non-profit U. S. LEED also has grown from six volunteers on one committee to 119,924 staff, volunteers, LEED standards have been applied to approximately 83,452 registered and certified LEED projects worldwide, covering around 13.8 billion square feet. Many U. S. federal agencies and states and local governments require or reward LEED certification, however, four states have effectively banned the use of LEED in new public buildings, preferring other industry standards that the USGBC considers too lax. Proposals to modify the LEED standards are offered and publicly reviewed by USGBCs member organizations, GBCI also certifies projects pursuing LEED. LEED has evolved since 1998 to more accurately represent and incorporate emerging green building technologies, the pilot version, LEED New Construction v1.0, led to LEED NCv2.0, LEED NCv2.2 in 2005, and LEED2009 in 2009. LEED v4 was introduced in November,2013, until October 31,2016, new projects may choose between LEED2009 and LEED v4. New projects registering after October 31,2016 must use LEED v4, LEED2009 encompasses ten rating systems for the design, construction and operation of buildings, homes and neighborhoods. Five overarching categories correspond to the available under the LEED professional program. Up to 10 additional points may be earned, four points may be received for Regional Priority Credits. Its owner must share data on the energy and water use for five years after occupancy or date of certification. Each of the categories also have mandatory measures in each category. The weighting process has three steps, A collection of buildings are used to estimate the environmental impacts of any building seeking LEED certification in a designated rating scheme. NIST weightings are used to judge the importance of these impacts in each category. Data regarding actual impacts on environmental and human health are used to assign points to individual categories and measures and this system results in a weighted average for each rating scheme based upon actual impacts and the relative importance of those impacts to human health and environmental quality. The LEED council also appears to have assigned credit and measure weighting based upon the market implications of point allocation, in 2003, the Canada Green Building Council received permission to create LEED Canada-NC v1.0, which was based upon LEED-NC2.0. Many buildings in Canada are LEED certified in part due to their Rainwater harvesting practices, LEED certification is granted by the Green Building Certification Institute, which handles the third-party verification of a projects compliance with the LEED requirements. The certification process for design teams is made up of two applications, one including design credits, and one including construction credits. All of the LEED credits in each rating system are assigned to either the design application or the construction application, the design credits include those that are the purview of the architect and the engineer, and are documented in the official construction drawings
27.
U.S. News & World Report
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U. S. News & World Report is an American media company that publishes news, opinion, consumer advice, rankings, and analysis. Founded as a magazine in 1933, U. S. News transitioned to primarily web-based publishing in 2010. The rankings are popular in North America but have drawn criticism from colleges, administrations, and students for their dubious, disparate. The ranking system by U. S. News is usually contrasted with the Washington Monthly, United States News was founded in 1933 by David Lawrence, who also started World Report in 1946. The two magazines covered national and international news separately, but Lawrence merged them into U. S. News & World Report in 1948 and subsequently sold the magazine to his employees. Historically, the magazine tended to be more conservative than its two primary competitors, Time and Newsweek, and focused more on economic, health. It also eschewed sports, entertainment, and celebrity news, important milestones in the early history of the magazine include the introduction of the Washington Whispers column in 1934 and the News You Can Use column in 1952. In 1958, the magazines circulation passed one million and reached two million by 1973. Since 1983, it has become known primarily for its influential ranking and annual reports of colleges and graduate schools, spanning across most fields and its print edition was consistently included in national bestseller lists, augmented by online subscriptions. Additional rankings published by U. S. News & World Report include hospitals, in October 1984, publisher and real estate developer Mortimer B. Zuckerman purchased U. S. News & World Report. Zuckerman is also the owner of the New York Daily News, in 1993, U. S. News & World Report entered the digital world by providing content to CompuServe and in 1995, the website usnews. com was launched. In 2001, the won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence Online. In 2007, U. S. News & World Report published its first list of the nations best high schools and its ranking methodology includes state test scores and the success of poor and minority students on these exams, and schools performance in Advanced Placement exams. Starting in June 2008, the magazine reduced its frequency in three steps. It switched in June 2008 from weekly to biweekly, in November 2008 it decreased to monthly. In November 2010, it was reported that U. S, moving forward, the publication expressed its plans to focus mainly on research and the provision of relevant information to students pursuing higher education. Its rankings and university guide books are available in print at the majority of bookstores and magazine vendors in the United States, selling millions of copies on an annual basis. In June 2008, citing the overall magazine circulation and advertising, U. S. News & World Report announced that it would become a biweekly publication
28.
Maclean's
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Macleans is a Canadian news magazine that was founded in 1905, reporting on Canadian issues such as politics, pop culture, and current events. Maclean, established the magazine to provide a uniquely Canadian perspective on current affairs and to entertain and its publisher since 1994, Rogers Media, announced in September 2016 that Macleans would become a monthly beginning January 2017, while continuing to produce a weekly issue on the Texture app. The Business Magazine was founded in October 1905 by 43-year-old publisher, John Bayne Maclean, who wrote the magazines aim was not merely to entertain but also to inspire its readers. Maclean renamed the magazine after himself in 1911, dropping the title as too evocative of a business magazine for what had become a general interest publication. Costain was ordered to remove an article by Maclean himself as it was too critical of war policy, in 1919, the magazine moved from monthly to fortnightly publication and ran an exposé of the drug trade by Emily Murphy. In 1925 the circulation of the magazine was 82,013 copies, costain left the magazine to become a novelist and was replaced by J. Vernon Mackenzie who remained at the helm until 1926. During his tenure, Macleans achieved national stature, after Mackenzie, H. Napier Moore became the new editor. An Englishman, he saw the magazine as an expression of Canadas role in the British Empire, under Irwins influence, the magazines covers promoted Canadian scenery and imagery. The magazine also sponsored a short story contest on Canadian themes. Irwin was also responsible for orienting the magazine towards both small and big L Liberalism, during the Second World War, Macleans ran an overseas edition for Canadian troops serving abroad. By the time of its run in 1946, the bantam edition had a circulation of 800,000. Macleans war coverage featured war photography by Yousuf Karsh, later an internationally acclaimed portrait photographer, Allen became editor upon Irwins acceptance of a diplomatic posting in 1950. This era of the magazine was noted for its articles on the Canadian landscape and profiles of town, the feature article, Canadas North, by Pierre Berton, promoted a new national interest in the Arctic. Prominent writers during this period included Robert Fulford, Peter Gzowski, Newman, Trent Frayne, June Callwood, McKenzie Porter, Robert Thomas Allen and Christina McCall. Exposés in the 1950s challenged the criminal justice system, explored LSD, Macleans published an editorial the day after the 1957 federal election announcing the predictable re-election of the St. Laurent Liberal Party. Written before the results were known, Allen failed to anticipate the upset election of the Progressive Conservative Party under John Diefenbaker. Templeton quit after a time at the helm due to his frustration with interference by the publishing company. In 1961, Macleans began publishing a French-language edition, Le Magazine Maclean, which survived until 1976, Newman became editor in 1971, and attempted to revive the magazine by publishing feature articles by writers such as Barbara Frum and Michael Enright, and poetry by Irving Layton
29.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
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Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
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Natural resource management
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Natural resource management deals with managing the way in which people and natural landscapes interact. It brings together land use planning, water management, biodiversity conservation, Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those resources. Environmental management is similar to natural resource management. In academic contexts, the sociology of natural resources is closely related to and this type of analysis coalesced in the 20th century with recognition that preservationist conservation strategies had not been effective in halting the decline of natural resources. A more integrated approach was implemented recognising the social, cultural, economic. A more holistic, national and even global form evolved, from the Brundtland Commission, in 2005 the government of New South Wales, established a Standard for Quality Natural Resource Management, to improve the consistency of practice, based on an adaptive management approach. In the United States, the most active areas of natural resource management are wildlife management often associated with ecotourism, in Australia, water sharing, such as the Murray Darling Basin Plan and catchment management are also significant. Individuals or groups may be able to use of the resources. National forest, National parks and military reservations are some US examples, private property, Any property owned by a defined individual or corporate entity. Both the benefit and duties to the fall to the owner. Private land is the most common example, Common property, It is a private property of a group. The group may vary in size, nature and internal structure e. g. indigenous neighbours of village, some examples of common property are community forests. Non-property, There is no owner of these properties. Each potential user has equal ability to use it as they wish and these areas are the most exploited. It is said that Everybodys property is nobodys property, an example is a lake fishery. Common land may exist without ownership, in case in the UK it is vested in a local authority. Stakeholder analysis originated from business management practices and has incorporated into natural resource management in ever growing popularity. Stakeholder analysis in the context of natural resource management identifies distinctive interest groups affected in the utilisation and conservation of natural resources, There is no definitive definition of a stakeholder as illustrated in the table below
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Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
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Environmental Studies
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Environmental studies is a multidisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment in the interests of solving complex problems. Environmental studies brings together the principles of sciences, commerce/ economics and it is a broad field of study that includes the natural environment, built environment, and the sets of relationships between them. The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University established a BS in environmental studies degree in the 1950s, middlebury College established the major there in 1965. The Environmental Studies Association of Canada was established in 1993 to further research, eSACs magazine, A\J, Alternatives Journal was first published by Robert A. Paehlke on 4 July 1971. The Association for Environmental Studies and Sciences was founded in 2008 as the first professional association in the field of environmental studies in the United States. The Associations scholarly journal, the Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, Association for Environmental Studies and Sciences Environmental Studies Association of Canada Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences
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Social science
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Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
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Humanities
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Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human culture. In the Middle Ages, the term contrasted with divinity and referred to what is now called classics, today, the humanities are more frequently contrasted with natural, and sometimes social, sciences as well as professional training. The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, religion, art, scholars in the humanities are humanity scholars or humanists. The term humanist also describes the position of humanism, which some antihumanist scholars in the humanities refuse. The Renaissance scholars and artists were also called humanists, some secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting of English literature, global studies and art. Human disciplines like history and cultural anthropology study subject matters that the method does not apply to—and instead mainly use the comparative method. Anthropology is the science of humans, a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the sciences, humanities. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been divided into three broad domains. The natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments, the humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields, archaeology, physical or biological anthropology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural anthropology. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions, the word anthropos is from the Greek for human being or person. Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, the goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological and it is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. Archaeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture, the archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a science and a branch of the humanities. It has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time
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Graduate school
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A graduate school is a school that awards advanced academic degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned a previous undergraduate degree with a high grade point average. The distinction between schools and professional schools is not absolute, as various professional schools offer graduate degrees. Also, some graduate degrees train students for a specific profession, many universities award graduate degrees, a graduate school is not necessarily a separate institution. Those attending graduate schools are called students, or often in British English as postgraduate students and, colloquially, postgraduates. Degrees awarded to students include masters degrees, doctoral degrees. Producing original research is a significant component of graduate studies in the humanities, sciences and this research typically leads to the writing and defense of a thesis or dissertation. In graduate programs that are oriented towards professional training, the degrees may consist solely of coursework, the term graduate school is primarily North American. Unlike in undergraduate programs, however, it is common for graduate students to take coursework outside their specific field of study at graduate or graduate entry level. Some institutions designate separate graduate versus undergraduate staff and denote other divisions, Graduate degrees in Brazil are called postgraduate degrees, and can be taken only after an undergraduate education has been concluded. Lato sensu graduate degrees, degrees that represent a specialization in a certain area, sometimes it can be used to describe a specialization level between a masters degree and a MBA. However, since there are no norms to regulate this, both names are used indiscriminately most of the time, stricto sensu graduate degrees, degrees for those who wish to pursue an academic career. Usually serves as qualification for those seeking a differential on the job market. Most doctoral programs in Brazil require a degree, meaning that a Lato Sensu Degree is usually insufficient to start a doctoral program. Doctors / PhD, 3–4 years for completion, usually used as a stepping stone for academic life. In Canada, the Schools and Faculties of Graduate Studies are represented by the Canadian Association of Graduate Studies or Association canadienne pour les études supérieures and its mandate is to promote, advance, and foster excellence in graduate education and university research in Canada. In addition to a conference, the association prepares briefs on issues related to graduate studies including supervision, funding. Admission to a masters program generally requires a degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades usually ranging from B+ and higher. Some schools require samples of the writing as well as a research proposal
