1.
Raja Ravi Varma
–
Raja Ravi Varma was a celebrated Indian painter and artist. He is considered among the greatest painters in the history of Indian art for a number of aesthetic, firstly, his works are held to be among the best examples of the fusion of European techniques with a purely Indian sensibility. While continuing the tradition and aesthetics of Indian art, his paintings employed the latest European academic art techniques of the day. Secondly, he was notable for making affordable lithographs of his paintings available to the public, indeed, his lithographs increased the involvement of common people with fine arts and defined artistic tastes among common people for several decades. Raja Ravi Varma was closely related to the family of Travancore of present day Kerala state in India. Raja Ravi Varma was born M. R. Ry, the title Raja was conferred as a personal title by the Viceroy and Governor-General of India. Ravi Varma was the son of Ezhumavil Neelakanthan Bhattatiripad and Umayamba Thampurratti and his mother, Uma Ambabayi Thampuratty, belonged to the baronial family which ruled the Kilimanoor feudal estate within the kingdom of Travancore. She was a poet and writer of talent, whose work Parvati Swayamvaram was published by Varma after her death. Ravi Varmas father, Ezhumavil Neelakanthan Bhattatiripad, was a scholar of Sanskrit, Ravi Varma had three siblings, a sister named Mangala Bayi, and two brothers named Goda Varma and Raja Varma. The last-named was also a painter and worked closely with Ravi Varma all his life, in 1866, at the age of 18, Varma was married to 12-year-old Bhageerthi Bayi of the royal house of Mavelikkara, another major fief of Travancore kingdom. Notably, the house of Mavellikara was a branch of the Royal House of Travancore, Bhageerthi was the youngest of three sisters, and both of her elder sisters had been adopted into the royal family of Travancore in 1857, in order to carry on the lineage. They were known as the Senior and Junior Rani of Attingal, therefore, Ravi Varmas connection to the royal family became very close due to his marriage with Bhageerthi. Indeed, his children would be royal by birth, the marriage, which was arranged by their parents in the proper Indian manner, was harmonious and successful. The couple were blessed with five children, being two sons and three daughters and their elder son, Kerala Varma was of an excessively spiritual temperament. He never married and eventually renounced the world, leaving home for good in 1912, the younger son, Rama Varma, inherited his fathers artistic talent and studied at the JJ School of Arts, Mumbai. He was married to Gowri Kunjamma, sister of Dewan PGN Unnithan and it was however Ravi Varmas daughters who were singled out by destiny for greatness, although not in the field of art, and not personally but through their daughters. The three daughters of Ravi Varma and Bhageerthi Bayi were Mahaprabha Amma, Uma Amma and Cheria Kochamma, in 1900 CE, the Royal House of Travancore once again faced a succession crisis. Bhageerthis two elder sisters, who had adopted in order to carry forward the lineage, had failed to produce the desired heirs
Raja Ravi Varma
–
Varma's daughter Mahaprabha with one of her sons
Raja Ravi Varma
–
Ravi Varma Koil Thampuran
Raja Ravi Varma
–
Varma's sister-in-law,
Bharani Thirunal Lakshmi Bayi, Senior Rani of
Attingal (or
Travancore), who adopted Varma's granddaughters in 1900 CE
Raja Ravi Varma
–
The studio used by Varma during his stay at the
Laxmi Vilas Palace
2.
Sri
–
It is also widely used in other South and Southeast Asian languages. Derived forms of address are Shrimati for married women and Sushri for women, in Devanagari script for Sanskrit, Hindi and other languages, the word ⟨श्री⟩ is spelled with three conjoined letters, श – र – ी. These are distinct from स and ि, the strict transliteration is śrī or shrii. Some other Indian languages do not distinguish /ʃ/ from /s/ in speech or for native words, for example, Sinhalese and Tamil respectively have, versus. In these cases, the spelling generally reflects Sanscrit śrī, though the pronunciation may be sri, seri, Sri is a polite form of address equivalent to the English Mr. or Ms. The title is derived from Sanskrit श्रीमान् and this use may stem from the Puranic conception of prosperity. Śhrī is also used as an epithet of some Hindu gods. Also in language and general usage, Śhrī if used by itself, Shri Devi is the devi of wealth according to Hindu beliefs. Among todays orthodox Vaishnavas, the English word Shree is a syllable and is used to refer to Lakshmi as the supreme goddess. Śhrī is one of the names of Ganesha, the Hindu god of prosperity, shrī is also used as a title of the Hindu deities Rama, Krishna, Saraswati, Radha, and sometimes Durga. Shri may be repeated depending on the status of the person, Sri, for anybody Sri 2, e. g. Ravi Shankar Sri 3, Title used by former Rana PMs of Nepal Sri 5, Title used by former King of Nepal ( e. g. There is a practice of writing Śhrī as the first word centralised in line at the beginning of a document. On Vidyāraṃbhaṃ ceremony, the mantra Om hari sri ganapataye namah is written on sand or in a tray of rice grains by the child, under the supervision of Guru or Priest. The honorific can also be applied to objects and concepts that are respected, such as the Sikh religious text. Similarly, when the Ramlila tradition of reenacting the Ramayana is referred to as an institution and its usage is common in the names of ragas, either as a prefix or postfix. Some examples are Shree, Bageshree, Dhanashree, Malashree, Jayantashree, Rageshree, Sri is used in most languages of the Indian subcontinent and Seri is used in most of the languages of southeast Asia, The honorific is incorporated into many place names. A partial list, Srimangal, Bangladesh Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh, srikakulam, a town in northern Andhra Pradesh. Sri City an integrated township located in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu border, Shri Khetra Name of the Puri Jagannath Dham, Odisha
Sri
–
Sri is also the name of
Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth.
Sri
–
Shri in Sanskrit
3.
Devanagari
–
Devanagari, also called Nagari, is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines. The Nagari script has roots in the ancient Brāhmī script family, the Nagari script was in regular use by the 7th century CE and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium. Nagari has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts, the Devanagari script is also used for classical Sanskrit texts. The Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly found in ancient manuscripts of South India. Devanagari script has forty-seven primary characters, of which fourteen are vowels, the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters. The script has no distinction similar to the capital and small letters of the Latin alphabet, generally the orthography of the script reflects the pronunciation of the language. Devanagari is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet and it is a descendant of the Gupta script, along with Siddham and Sharada. Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nagari scripts, the 7th-century Tibetan king Srong-tsan-gambo ordered that all foreign books be transcribed into the Tibetan language. Other closely related scripts such as Siddham Matrka was in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan, Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. Nāgarī is the Sanskrit feminine of Nāgara relating or belonging to a town or city and it is a phrasing with lipi as nāgarī lipi script relating to a city, or spoken in city. The use of the name devanāgarī is relatively recent, and the older term nāgarī is still common, the rapid spread of the term devanāgarī may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish Sanskrit texts in print since the 1870s. As a Brahmic abugida, the principle of Devanagari is that each letter represents a consonant. This is usually written in Latin as a, though it is represented as in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter क is read ka, the two letters कन are kana, the three कनय are kanaya, etc. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय knaya is derived क्नय् knay, the halant is often used for consonant clusters when typesetting conjunct ligatures is not feasible. Consonant clusters are written with ligatures, for example, the three consonants क्, न्, and य्, when written consecutively without virāma form कनय, as shown above. Alternatively, they may be joined as clusters to form क्नय knaya, कन्य kanya and this system was originally created for use with the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, which have a very limited number of clusters. When applied to Sanskrit, however, it added a deal of complexity to the script
Devanagari
–
A 19th century
Rigveda manuscript in Devanagari.
Devanagari
–
Devanagiri script (vowels top, consonants bottom) in Chandas font
Devanagari
–
Devanagari text from Vayu Purana.
Devanagari
–
Devanagari देवनागरी
4.
Sanskrit
–
Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
Sanskrit
–
Rigveda (
padapatha) manuscript in
Devanagari, early 19th century
Sanskrit
–
Devi Mahatmya palm-leaf manuscript in an early
Bhujimol script,
Bihar or
Nepal, 11th century
Sanskrit
–
A poem by the ancient Indian poet Vallana (ca. 900 – 1100 CE) on the side wall of a building at the Haagweg 14 in Leiden, Netherlands
Sanskrit
–
Kashmir Shaiva manuscript in the
Śāradā script (c. 17th century)
5.
Devi
–
Devī is the Sanskrit word for goddess, the masculine form is Deva. Devi – the feminine form, and Deva – the masculine form, mean heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, and are also gender specific terms for a deity in Hinduism. The concept and reverence for goddesses appears in the Vedas, which were composed in the 2nd millennium BC, however, goddesses such as Saraswati and Usha have continued to be revered into the modern era. The divine feminine has the strongest presence as Devi in Hinduism, among major world religions, the goddess is viewed as central in Shakti and Saiva Hindu traditions. Devi and Deva are Sanskrit terms found in Vedic literature of the 2nd millennium BC, Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi. Monier Williams translates it as heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of excellence, exalted. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, when capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred to as Devatā, while Devi as Devika, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological root Dev- means a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus. The Devi Sukta of the Rigveda 10.125.1 through 10.125, however, the goddesses are not discussed as frequently as gods. Sri, also called Lakshmi, appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, Devi is the supreme being in the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, while in the Smarta Tradition, she is one of the five primary forms of Brahman revered. She is the power of Shiva, and this theme is also found in the Tripura Upanishad, Bahvricha Upanishad. Devi asserts that she is creator of earth and heaven and resides there and her creation of sky as father, seas as mother is reflected as the Inner Supreme Self. Her creations are not prompted by any Higher being and she resides in all her creations and she is, states Devi, the eternal and infinite consciousness engulfing earth and heaven, and all forms of bliss and non-bliss, knowledge and ignorance, Brahman and Non-Brahman. The tantric aspect in Devi Upanishad, states June McDaniel is the usage of the yantra, bindu, bija, mantra, shakti. Among the major religions, the concept of goddess in Hinduism as the divine feminine, has had the strongest presence since the ancient times. Parvati is the Hindu goddess of love, fertility and devotion and she is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess. She is the goddess in Hinduism and has many attributes. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India, along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses
Devi
–
12th-century Parvati sculpture
Devi
–
Durga (left) killing the demon
Mahishasura. In her most ferocious form, Durga metamorphoses into Kali (right).
Devi
–
Lakshmi
Devi
–
An image of goddess Saraswati
6.
Vaikuntha
–
Vaikuntha, Paramapadam, Vishnupada, or Param Padam is the celestial home of Vishnu. In most of the extant Puranas, and Vaishnava traditions, Vaikuntha is located in the direction of the Makara Rashi, vishnus eye is supposed to be located at the South Celestial Pole as well. Goloka Vrindavana Vaikuntha Chaturdashi Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend by Anna Dallapiccola On the Symbolism of Three- and Four-Faced Vishnu Images, by Adalbert J. Gail, In, Artibus Asiae, Vol.44, No.4
Vaikuntha
–
Vishnu (Narayana), Lord of Vaikuntha
Vaikuntha
–
A Vision of Vishnu (Vaikuntha Darshana) -
Brooklyn Museum
7.
Vahana
–
Vahana denotes the being, typically an animal or mythical entity, a particular Hindu deity is said to use as a vehicle. In this capacity, the vahana is often called the deitys mount, upon the partnership between the deity and his vahana is woven much iconography and mythology. Deities are often depicted riding the vahana, other times, the vahana is depicted at the deitys side or symbolically represented as a divine attribute. The vahana may be considered an accoutrement of the deity, though the vahana may act independently, the deity may be seen sitting or on, or standing on, the vahana. They may be sitting on a platform called a howdah. Vah in Sanskrit means to carry or to transport, in Hindu iconography, positive aspects of the vehicle are often emblematic of the deity that it carries. Nandi the bull, vehicle of Shiva, represents strength and virility, Parvani the peacock, vehicle of Skanda, represents splendor and majesty. The hamsa, vehicle of Saraswati, represents wisdom, grace, however, the vehicle animal also symbolizes the evil forces over which the deity dominates. Mounted on Parvani, Skanda reins in the peacocks vanity, seated on Mushika, Ganesh crushes useless thoughts, which multiply like rats in the dark. Shani, protector of property, has a vulture, raven or crow in which he represses thieving tendencies, under Shanis influence, the vahana can make even malevolent events bring hope. The vehicle of a deity can vary according to the source, the time, in popular tradition, the origin of each vehicle is told in thousands of different ways. Three examples, While the god Ganesha was still a child, Ganesha trapped him with his lasso and made him his mount. Mushika was originally a gandharva, or celestial musician, after absent mindedly walking over the feet of a rishi named Vamadeva, Mushika was cursed and transformed into a mouse. However, after the rishi recovered his temper, he promised Mushika that one day, the prophecy was fulfilled when the mouse became the vahana of Ganesha. Before becoming the vehicle of Shiva, Nandi was a deity called Nandikeshvara, lord of joy and master of music, then, without warning, his name and his functions were transferred to the aspect of Shiva known as the deity Nataraja. From half-man, half-bull, he simply a bull. Since that time, he has watched over each of Shivas temples, kartikeya, the war-god known as Murugan in Southern India, is also mounted on a peacock. This peacock was originally a demon called Surapadma, while the rooster was called the angel, after provoking Murugan in combat, the demon repented at the moment his lance descended upon him
Vahana
–
The eight
Matrikas riding different vahanas like (top row, second from left to right) Garuda, a peacock, Nandi bull, a hamsa (goose/swan); (bottom row, from left) buffalo, elephant and lion
Vahana
–
A Bhagavata Purana manuscript page depicting the story of
Atri and
Anasuya meeting the
Trimurti riding on their respective vahanas. (PhP 4.1.21-25). (Paper, late 18th century,
Jaipur).
Vahana
–
Mouse /
shrew named Mushika
Vahana
–
Horse
8.
Elephant
–
Elephants are large mammals of the family Elephantidae and the order Proboscidea. Three species are recognised, the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, Elephants are scattered throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Elephantidae is the surviving family of the order Proboscidea, other, now extinct, members of the order include deinotheres, gomphotheres, mammoths. Male African elephants are the largest extant terrestrial animals and can reach a height of 4 m, all elephants have several distinctive features, the most notable of which is a long trunk or proboscis, used for many purposes, particularly breathing, lifting water, and grasping objects. Their incisors grow into tusks, which can serve as weapons and as tools for moving objects, Elephants large ear flaps help to control their body temperature. Their pillar-like legs can carry their great weight, African elephants have larger ears and concave backs while Asian elephants have smaller ears and convex or level backs. Elephants are herbivorous and can be found in different habitats including savannahs, forests, deserts and they prefer to stay near water. They are considered to be keystone species due to their impact on their environments, other animals tend to keep their distance from elephants while predators, such as lions, tigers, hyenas, and wild dogs, usually target only young elephants. Females tend to live in groups, which can consist of one female with her calves or several related females with offspring. The groups are led by a known as the matriarch. Elephants have a society in which multiple family groups come together to socialise. Males leave their family groups when they reach puberty and may live alone or with other males, calves are the centre of attention in their family groups and rely on their mothers for as long as three years. Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild and they communicate by touch, sight, smell, and sound, elephants use infrasound, and seismic communication over long distances. Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans and they appear to have self-awareness and show empathy for dying or dead individuals of their kind. African elephants are listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature while the Asian elephant is classed as endangered, one of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks. Other threats to elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people. Elephants are used as working animals in Asia, in the past, they were used in war, today, they are often controversially put on display in zoos, or exploited for entertainment in circuses. Elephants are highly recognisable and have featured in art, folklore, religion, literature
Elephant
Elephant
–
Asian elephant
Elephant
–
African forest elephant
Elephant
–
Mounted skeleton of early proboscid Moeritherium in Japan
9.
Owl
–
Exceptions include the diurnal northern hawk-owl and the gregarious burrowing owl. Owls hunt mostly small mammals, insects, and other birds and they are found in all regions of the Earth except Antarctica and some remote islands. Owls are divided into two families, the Strigidae family of owls, and the Tytonidae family of barn-owls. Owls possess large, forward-facing eyes and ear-holes, a beak, a flat face, and usually a conspicuous circle of feathers. The feathers making up this disc can be adjusted to focus sounds from varying distances onto the owls asymmetrically placed ear cavities. Most birds of prey have eyes on the sides of their heads, although owls have binocular vision, their large eyes are fixed in their sockets—as are those of most other birds—so they must turn their entire heads to change views. As owls are farsighted, they are unable to see anything within a few centimeters of their eyes. Caught prey can be felt by owls with the use of feathers on the beak. Their far vision, particularly in low light, is exceptionally good, Owls can rotate their heads and necks as much as 270°. Owls have 14 neck vertebrae compared to seven in humans, which makes their necks more flexible, other anastomoses between the carotid and vertebral arteries support this effect. The smallest owl—weighing as little as 31 g and measuring some 13.5 cm —is the elf owl, around the same diminutive length, although slightly heavier, are the lesser known long-whiskered owlet and Tamaulipas pygmy owl. The largest owl by length is the great grey owl, which measures around 70 cm on average, however, the heaviest owls are two similarly sized eagle owls, the Eurasian eagle-owl and Blakistons fish owl. These two species, which are on average about 2.53 cm shorter in length than the great grey, as noted above, their facial discs help owls to funnel the sound of prey to their ears. In many species, these discs are placed asymmetrically, for better directional location, Owl plumage is generally cryptic, although several species have facial and head markings, including face masks, ear tufts, and brightly coloured irises. These markings are more common in species inhabiting open habitats. Sexual dimorphism is a difference between males and females of a species. Reverse sexual dimorphism, when females are larger than males, has been observed across multiple owl species, the degree of size dimorphism varies across multiple populations and species, and is measured through various traits, such as wing span and body mass. Overall, female owls tend to be larger than males
Owl
–
Owl Temporal range:
Late Paleocene to recent
Owl
–
Burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia)
Owl
–
Captive short-eared owl chick at about 18 days old
Owl
–
The
serrations on the leading edge of an owl's flight
feathers reduce noise
10.
Diwali
–
Diwali or Deepavali is the Hindu festival of lights celebrated every year in autumn in the northern hemisphere. It is a holiday in Fiji, Guyana, India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago. One of the most popular festivals of Hinduism, it signifies the victory of light over darkness, good over evil, knowledge over ignorance. Its celebration includes millions of lights shining on housetops, outside doors and windows, around temples, in the Gregorian calendar, Diwali night falls between mid-October and mid-November. Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate, and decorate their homes and offices, after puja, fireworks follow, then a family feast including mithai, and an exchange of gifts between family members and close friends. Deepavali also marks a major shopping period in nations where it is celebrated, the name of festive days as well as the rituals of Diwali vary significantly among Hindus, based on the region of India. Dhanteras usually falls eighteen days after Dussehra, Diwali or Sanskrit dīpāvali means series of lights, and is derived from dīpam light, lamp and oli glow of light. Diwali is also known as festival of lights. Diwali dates back to ancient times in India, as a festival after the summer harvest in the Hindu calendar month of Kartika. The diyas are mentioned in Skanda Purana to symbolically represent parts of sun, the giver of light and energy to all life. Hindus in some regions of India associate Diwali with the legend of Yama, the Nachiketa story about right versus wrong, true wealth versus transient wealth, knowledge versus ignorance is recorded in Katha Upanishad composed in 1st millennium BC. King Harsha in the 7th century Sanskrit play Nagananda mentions Deepavali as Deepapratipadutsava, the Persian traveller and historian Al Biruni, in his 11th century memoir on India, wrote of Deepavali being celebrated by Hindus on New Moon day of the month of Kartika. Diwali is one of the happiest holidays in India and Nepal with significant preparations, people clean their homes and decorate them for the festivities. People also buy gifts for family members and friends which typically include sweets, dry fruits and it is also the period when children hear ancient stories, legends about battles between good and evil or light and darkness from their parents and elders. Girls and women go shopping and create rangoli and other creative patterns on floors, near doors, youth and adults alike help with lighting and preparing for patakhe. There is significant variation in practices and rituals. Depending on the region, prayers are offered one or more deities, with most common being Lakshmi – the goddess of wealth. On Diwali night, fireworks light up the neighborhood skies, later, family members and invited friends celebrate the night over food and sweets
Diwali
–
Rangoli decorations, made using coloured powder, are popular during Diwali
Diwali
–
Indoor
Diya decoration on
Naraka Chaturdasi night
Diwali
–
Outdoor Diya decoration on Diwali night
Diwali
–
Diwali lanterns before
Dhanteras in
Maharashtra
11.
Lakshmi Puja
–
Lakshmi Puja is a Hindu religious festival that falls on Purnima of Sukla Paksha in the Vikram Samvat Hindu calendar month of Ashwin, the third day of Tihar or Deepawali. According to legend, Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and Vishnus wife, visits her devotees and bestows gifts, to welcome the Goddess, devotees clean their houses, decorate them with finery and lights, and prepare sweet treats and delicacies as offerings. Devotees believe the happier Lakshmi is with the visit, the more she blesses the family health and wealth. Lakshmi Puja, or the worship of the goddess of wealth, is the event of Diwali in North. It is popularly believed that Lakshmi likes cleanliness and will visit the cleanest house first, hence, the broom is worshiped with offerings of haldi and sindoor on this day. Lamps are lit in the evening to welcome the goddess as they are believed to light up her path, on this day, a supported light of knowledge is said to dawn upon humanity. This self-enlightenment is expressed through the twinkling lamps that illuminate the abode of the worshippers and it is believed that on this day, the goddess walks through the green fields and loiters through the by-lanes and showers her blessings on mankind for glory and prosperity. The third day of Diwali is believed to be the most auspicious day, with pomp and ceremony, Lakshmi is invited into the homes of devotees to partake of the gifts that are a part of the puja. The most auspicious time for the puja is decided when amavasya tithi prevails during pradosh kaal or the evening time, on this day, the sun enters its second course and passes the constellation Libra, which is represented by the balance or scale. Hence, the sign of Libra is believed to suggest the balancing and closing of account books, Lakshmi Puja is celebrated as a part of Tihar, a second national festival of Nepal after Dashain. On Lakshmi Puja in Nepal, people buy gold and silver, precious gemstones, new utensils of copper, brass and bronze as a sign of luck, prosperity, money. These are then used to Lakshmi at night, nepalese people perform this worship at a place cleansed with holy water, cow dung and red mud, they light the whole house with candles and lamps. From Lakshmi Puja, Deusi and Bhailo is played by gathering with friends, Kubera the treasurer of the gods is also worshiped. In the beginning, the houses are cleaned and a rangoli is drawn at the doorstep to welcome Goddess Lakshmi, the puja requires the following elements, The puja begins by laying down a piece of new cloth on a raised platform. Handfuls of grains are sprayed in the center of the cloth, three-quarters of the kalasha is filled with water and betel nut, a flower, a coin, and some rice grains are added to it. Five kinds of leaves are arranged, if a species is not available. A small dish filled with rice grains is placed on the kalasha, a lotus is drawn over the rice grains with turmeric powder and the idol of Goddess Lakshmi is placed over the top of the kalasha, and coins are placed around it. The idol of Lord Ganesha is placed in front of the kalasha, ink and account books of the worshippers business are kept on the platform
Lakshmi Puja
–
Goddess
Lakshmi
Lakshmi Puja
–
After Lakshmi Puja, lamps are lit all over the house
12.
Varalakshmi Vratam
–
Varalakshmi Vrata is a festival to propitiate the goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity. Varalakshmi is one who grants boons and it is an important pooja performed by many women in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Varalakshmi Vrata is performed by married woman for the well being of all the members, especially husband. It is believed that worshiping Goddess Varalakshmi on this day is equivalent to worshiping Ashtalaksmi – the eight goddesses of Wealth, Earth, Learning, Love, Fame, Peace, Pleasure, and Strength. Because of the popularity in states of India, it is declared as an optional official holiday in India. The 2016 date is August 12, in the Magadha of yore, there lived a Brahmin woman called Charumathi in a town named Kundina. The prosperous town was the home of Charumathi and her husband, impressed by her devotion to her family, Goddess Mahalakshmi appeared in her dream and asked her to worship Vara-Lakshmi and seek to fulfill her wishes. Varalakshmi is yet another form of Lord Vishnus consort, Lakshmi, the prayer/worship was prescribed to be offered on the Friday of Sravana month preceding the night of full moon. When Charumathi explained her dream to her family, she found them encouraging her to perform the pooja, many other women of the village joined her in performing the pooja in a traditional way and offered many sweet dishes to the Goddess Varalakshmi. This pooja can be done with no restriction to caste or creed, to this day many women observe this traditional festival praying Varamahalakshmi for her blessings in the form of wealth and well being of their family. Eight forces or energies are recognised and they are known as Siri, Bhu, Sarasvathi, Prithi, Keerthi, Shanthi, each one of these forces is called a Lakshmi and all the eight forces are called the Ashta Lakshmis or the eight Lakshmis of the Hindus. Vishnu is also called Ashta Lakshmi Pathi which is equivalent to saying that he is the asylum for the eight-Lakshmis or forces, in fact, Vishnu representing the preservative aspect of the universe, radiates these forces from him. These forces are personified and worshiped as Lakshmis, since force is beyond the comprehension of the ordinary people. As health, wealth and prosperity depend upon the play of these forces. This festival is observed largely by women, invoking the blessings of Lakshmi on them, their husbands and their children. As the legend goes, this is a pooja that was pronounced by no other than Lord Parameswara to be performed by his consort Parvathi to seek prosperity and happiness for the family. Thus it came to be emulated by married women who sought boons for the health, wealth, in some cases, women prayed for being blessed with children. The prescribed day for the pooja is the Friday of the month of Sravan in the known as Sukla paksha
Varalakshmi Vratam
–
View of an actual religious ceremony
Varalakshmi Vratam
13.
Navratri
–
Navratri, also spelled Navaratri or Navarathri, is a multi-day Hindu festival celebrated in the autumn every year. It is observed for different reasons and celebrated differently in various parts of the Indian subcontinent, theoretically, there are four seasonal Navratri. However, in practice, it is the post-monsoon autumn festival called Sharad Navratri that is the most observed in the honor of the divine feminine Devi. The festival is celebrated in the half of the Hindu calendar month Ashvin. In the eastern and northeastern states of India, the Durga Puja is synonymous with Navratri, in the northern and western states, the festival is synonymous with Rama Lila and Dussehra that celebrates the battle and victory of god Rama over the demon king Ravana. In southern states, the victory of different goddesses, of Rama or Saraswati is celebrated, in all cases, the common theme is the battle and victory of Good over Evil based on a regionally famous epic or legend such as the Ramayana or the Devi Mahatmya. Celebrations include stage decorations, recital of the legend, enacting of the story, the festival also starts the preparation for one of the most important and widely celebrated Diwali, the festival of lights, which is celebrated twenty days after the Vijayadashami or Dussehra. The word Navratri means nine nights in Sanskrit, nava meaning nine, according to some Hindu texts such as the Shakta and Vaishnava Puranas, Navaratri theoretically falls twice or four times a year. Of these, the Sharada Navaratri near autumn equinox is the most celebrated, in all cases, Navaratri falls in the bright half of the Hindu luni-solar months. The celebrations vary by region, leaving much to the creativity, Sharada Navaratri, the most celebrated of the four navaratris, named after sharada which means autumn. It is observed the lunar month of Ashvin, in many regions the festival falls after autumn harvest, and in others during harvest. Vasanta Navaratri, the second most celebrated, named after vasanta which means spring and it is observed the lunar month of Chaitra. In many regions the festival falls after spring harvest, and in others during harvest, the other two navratris are minor and observed regionally or by individuals, Magha Navaratri, in Magha, winter season. In some regions, the Hindu god of love, Kama is revered, ashada Navaratri, in Ashadha, start of the monsoon season. The Sharada Navratri commences on the first day of the fortnight of the lunar month of Ashvini. The festival is celebrated for nine nights once every year during this month, the festivities extend beyond goddess Durga and god Rama. Various other goddesses such as Saraswati and Lakshmi, gods such as Ganesha, Kartikeya, Shiva, for example, a notable pan-Hindu tradition during Navratri is the adoration of Saraswati, the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning, music and arts through Ayudha Puja. On this day, which falls on the ninth day of Navratri after the Good has won over Evil through Durga or Rama, peace
Navratri
–
Navratri
Navratri
–
Women and men performing
Garba as part of Navaratri celebrations in
Vadodara
Navratri
–
Garba dance in
Ahmedabad during navaratri festivities
Navratri
–
Navratri garba at Ambaji temple
14.
Vishnu
–
Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
Vishnu
–
Four Armed Vishnu
Vishnu
–
A 4th–6th century CE Sardonyx seal representing Vishnu with a worshipper. The inscription in cursive
Bactrian reads: "
Mihira, Vishnu (right) and
Shiva ".
Vishnu
–
A 13th century
Cambodian statue of Vishnu
Vishnu
–
12th century stone sculpture of God Vishnu flanked by two apsaras one with a fan (left) and the other with
Tumburu (right).
15.
Hindu goddess
–
Devī is the Sanskrit word for goddess, the masculine form is Deva. Devi – the feminine form, and Deva – the masculine form, mean heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, and are also gender specific terms for a deity in Hinduism. The concept and reverence for goddesses appears in the Vedas, which were composed in the 2nd millennium BC, however, goddesses such as Saraswati and Usha have continued to be revered into the modern era. The divine feminine has the strongest presence as Devi in Hinduism, among major world religions, the goddess is viewed as central in Shakti and Saiva Hindu traditions. Devi and Deva are Sanskrit terms found in Vedic literature of the 2nd millennium BC, Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi. Monier Williams translates it as heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of excellence, exalted. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, when capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred to as Devatā, while Devi as Devika, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological root Dev- means a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus. The Devi Sukta of the Rigveda 10.125.1 through 10.125, however, the goddesses are not discussed as frequently as gods. Sri, also called Lakshmi, appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, Devi is the supreme being in the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, while in the Smarta Tradition, she is one of the five primary forms of Brahman revered. She is the power of Shiva, and this theme is also found in the Tripura Upanishad, Bahvricha Upanishad. Devi asserts that she is creator of earth and heaven and resides there and her creation of sky as father, seas as mother is reflected as the Inner Supreme Self. Her creations are not prompted by any Higher being and she resides in all her creations and she is, states Devi, the eternal and infinite consciousness engulfing earth and heaven, and all forms of bliss and non-bliss, knowledge and ignorance, Brahman and Non-Brahman. The tantric aspect in Devi Upanishad, states June McDaniel is the usage of the yantra, bindu, bija, mantra, shakti. Among the major religions, the concept of goddess in Hinduism as the divine feminine, has had the strongest presence since the ancient times. Parvati is the Hindu goddess of love, fertility and devotion and she is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess. She is the goddess in Hinduism and has many attributes. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India, along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses
Hindu goddess
–
12th-century Parvati sculpture
Hindu goddess
–
Lakshmi
Hindu goddess
–
An image of goddess Saraswati
Hindu goddess
–
Durga (left) killing the demon
Mahishasura. In her most ferocious form, Durga metamorphoses into Kali (right).
16.
Shakti
–
In Hinduism, Shakti, also spelled as Sakthi, meaning power or empowerment is the primordial cosmic energy and represents the dynamic forces that are thought to move through the entire universe. Shakti is the concept or personification of divine feminine creative power, as the mother she is known as Adi Parashakti or Adishakti. On the earthly plane, Shakti most actively manifests through female embodiment and creativity/fertility, though it is present in males in its potential. Hindus believe that Shakti is both responsible for creation and the agent of all change, Shakti is cosmic existence as well as liberation, its most significant form being the Kundalini Shakti, a mysterious psychospiritual force. In Shaktism, Shakti is worshipped as the Supreme Being, Shakti embodies the active feminine energy of Shiva and is identified as Tripura Sundari or her avatar Parvati. David Kinsley mentions the shakti of Lord Indras as Sachi, meaning power, indrani is part of a group of seven or eight mother goddesses called the Matrikas, who are considered shaktis of major Hindu gods. The Shakti goddess is known as Amma in south India, especially in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Telangana. There are many temples devoted to various incarnations of the Shakti goddess in most of the villages in South India. The rural people believe that Shakti is the protector of the village, the punisher of evil people, the curer of diseases, and they celebrate Shakti Jataras with great interest once a year. Some examples of incarnations are Ganga, Kamakshi, Kanakadurga, Mahalakshmi, Meenakshi, Manasa, Mariamman and it is believed that the cosmic grand design is theoretically a triangular structure of equal sides. The three points of the triangle or the structure of macrocosmic system are occupied by three ultimate manifestations of the trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra. This ultimate indestructible gravity known as Shakti in its three transformative form is connected to the trinity separately, Brahma, by the grace of her creative force creates. Rudra, by the strength of her destructive force destroys, Vishnu, by the unbiased intellectual force sustains. One of the oldest representations of the goddess in India is in a triangular form, the Baghor stone, found in a Paleolithic context in the Son River valley and dating to 9, 000-8,000 years BCE, is considered an early example of a yantra. Kenoyer, part of the team excavated the stone, considered that it was highly probable that the stone is associated with Shakti. Shaktism regards Devi as the Supreme Brahman itself with all forms of divinity considered to be merely Her diverse manifestations. In the details of its philosophy and practice, Shaktism resembles Shaivism, however, Shaktas, practitioners of Shaktism, focus most or all worship on Shakti, as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine. Shiva, the aspect of divinity, is considered solely transcendent
Shakti
–
Adi Para Shakti Lalita Tripura Sundari seated over Brahma Vishnu Shiva Maheswara and Sadashiva
Shakti
–
The goddess
Manasa in a dense jungle landscape with a cobra and a swan.
Shakti
–
Hindu Goddess,
Saraswati
Shakti
–
Sri Guru Amritananda Natha Saraswati, performing the Navavarana Puja, an important ritual in Srividya Tantric
Shaktism, at the Sahasrakshi Meru Temple at Devipuram, Andhra Pradesh, India.
17.
Hinduism
–
Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
Hinduism
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Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing
Vedanta and
Yoga in Europe and USA, raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.
Hinduism
–
Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the
Hoysaleswara temple in
Halebidu, representing the
Trimurti:
Brahma,
Shiva and
Vishnu.
Hinduism
–
The
Rigveda is the first and most important Veda and is one of the oldest
religious texts. This Rigveda
manuscript is in
Devanagari.
Hinduism
–
A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life. A typical
Hindu wedding is solemnized before Vedic
fire ritual (shown).
18.
Jainism
–
Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. The central tenet is non-violence and respect all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada and aparigraha, followers of Jainism take five main vows, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha. Jain monks and nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders observe them within their practical limitations, self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism. The word Jain derives from the Sanskrit word jina, a human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina. Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism. Jains trace their history through a succession of teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded with Mahavira, Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be revived from time to time. With 6-7 million followers, the majority of Jains reside in India, outside of India, some of the largest Jain communities are present in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the UK, Suriname, Fiji, and the United States. Contemporary Jainism is divided into two sects, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Namokar Mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism, major Jain festivals include Paryushana and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali. The principle of ahimsa is the most fundamental and well-known aspect of Jainism, the everyday implementation of the principle of non-violence is more comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity. Jains believe in avoiding harm to others thoughts, speech. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, killing any living being out of passions is hiṃsā, Jains extend the practice of nonviolence and kindness not only towards other humans but towards all living beings. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity, if there is violence against animals during the production of dairy products, veganism is encouraged. Jainism has an elaborate framework on types of life and includes life-forms that may be invisible. Therefore, after humans and animals, insects are the living being offered protection in Jain practice. For example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed, Jainism teaches that intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent
Jainism
–
Sculpture depicting Ahimsa, the fundamental tenet of Jainism (Photo:
Ahinsa Sthal)
Jainism
–
Mahāvīra employed anekānta extensively to explain Jain philosophical concepts (painting from
Rajasthan, ca. 1900)
Jainism
–
Image of
Rishabha, first
tīrthaṅkara of the present Avsarpini era (Photo - Kundalpur, Madhya Pradesh)
Jainism
–
Siddhas (the liberated beings), although they are formless, this is how they are depicted in Jain temples
19.
Buddhism
–
Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
Buddhism
–
Standing Buddha statue at the
Tokyo National Museum. One of the earliest known representations of the
Buddha, 1st–2nd century CE.
Buddhism
–
The Dharmachakra
Buddhism
–
Relic depicting Gautama leaving home. The Great Departure, c.1–2nd century. (
Musée Guimet)
Buddhism
–
Ascetic
Gautama with his five companions, who later comprised the first
Sangha. (Painting in
Laotian temple)
20.
Nepal
–
Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
Nepal
–
Lumbini, listed as the birthplace of
Gautama Buddha by the
UNESCO World Heritage Convention
Nepal
–
Flag
Nepal
–
Former royal palace at
Basantapur, Kathmandu
Nepal
–
Hindu temples in
Patan, capital of one of the three medieval
Newar kingdoms
21.
Vasudhara
–
Vasudhārā, whose name means stream of gems in Sanskrit, is the Buddhist bodhisattva of wealth, prosperity, and abundance. She is popular in many Buddhist countries and is a subject in Buddhist legends, originally an Indian bodhisattva, her popularity has spread to southern Buddhist countries. Her popularity, however, peaks in Nepal where she has a following among the Buddhist Newars of the Kathmandu Valley and is thus a central figure in Newar Buddhism. She is named Shiskar Apa in Lahul and Spiti and she is related to Hindu great goddess Lakshmi, and her Sanskrit name Vasundhara indicates she is the source of the eight bountiful Vasus. Therefore, according to the epic Mahabharat, she is the bounty that is the waters of the river Ganges—the goddess and her short mantra is oṃ Vasudhāre svāhā. This ceremonial libation is done to share the accrued merit with all living beings in all 31 planes of existence. While the water is poured, a confession of faith, called the hsu taung imaya dhammanu, is recited and led by the monks. Then, the merit is distributed by the donors, called ahmya wei by saying Ahmya ahmya ahmya yu daw mu gya ba gon law three times, with the audience responding thadu, Pali for well done, the earth goddess Vasudhara is invoked to witness these meritorious deeds. Afterward, the water is poured on soil outside, to return the water to Vasudhara. It also believed her practise leads to Enlightenment, the origin of Vasudhārā in Buddhism appears in the Buddhist text The Vasudhara Dharani. Upon commencing the rituals and teaching them to others, Sucandra begins to prosper, noticing his success, the monk Ananda asked Shakyamuni how he had obtained this fortune so quickly. Shakyamuni instructs Ananda to also practice the Vasudhara Dharani and “impart it to others ‘for the good of many’. ”, several other legends describing Vasudhara’s generosity are found in the writings of Taranatha, a prominent Tibetan monk and scholar. According to his history, the bodhisattva Vasudhara granted the monk Buddhajnana three hundred pearl necklaces every day, Buddhajnana was also blessed with a steady stream of buyers to purchase these necklaces. Because he did not use the money amassed for his own personal gain, another legend in Taranatha’s history echoes the legend of “The Inquiry of the Layman Sucundra. ”According to the legend, a poor philosopher was struggling to support his family. He encounters a monk devoted to the practice of meditation who teaches him the rites and he began the rituals and quickly prospered, receiving a large amount of land and a prestigious teaching post at a monastery. As a result, he, like the monk who had helped him in his time of need, also shared the rites. Like the legend of the Inquiry of the Layman Sucandra” these legends are significant because they encourage both the lay and monastic worship of Vasudhara, in addition, they stress the importance of charity, teaching worshippers to share in their good fortune rather than amassing it for themselves. In Buddhist art, Vasudhara has a consistent iconography and she can easily be identified as a bodhisattva by the elaborate headdress and the extensive amount of jewelry she wears
Vasudhara
–
Vasudhara, Nepal
Vasudhara
–
Legend of Vasudhara, 1744 painting from
Nepal
Vasudhara
–
Nepalese painting of the
Mandala of Vasudhara, 1495
Vasudhara
–
Vasudhara Mandala, by Jasaraja Jirili,
Nepal, 1365
22.
Samudra manthan
–
Samudra manthan is one of the best known episodes in Hindu mythology. The story appears in the Bhagavata Purana, the Mahabharata and the Vishnu Purana, and explains the origin of amrita, Sāgara manthana - Sāgara is another word for Samudra, both meaning an ocean or large water body. Kshirasāgara manthana - Kshirasāgara means the ocean of milk, Indra, the King of heaven, while riding on the elephant Airavata, came across Sage Durvasa who offered him a special garland given to him by the God Shiva. Indra accepted the garland and placed it on the trunk of the elephant as a test to prove that he was not an egoistic god, the elephant, knowing that Indra had no control over his own ego, threw the garland to the ground. This enraged the sage as the garland was a dwelling of Sri and was to be treated as a prasada or religious offering, Durvasa cursed Indra and all devas to be bereft of all strength, energy, and fortune. In battles following the incident, the Devas were defeated and Asuras led by Bali, Devas sought help from the Supreme God Vishnu who advised them to treat asuras in a diplomatic manner. Devas formed an alliance with asuras to jointly churn the ocean for the nectar of immortality, however, Vishnu told the Devas that he would arrange for them alone to obtain the nectar. The churning of the Ocean of Milk was an elaborate process, mount Mandara was used as the churning rod, and Vasuki, the king of serpents, who abides on Shivas neck, became the churning rope. The demons demanded to hold the head of the snake, while the gods, taking advice from Vishnu, as a result, the demons were poisoned by fumes emitted by Vasuki. Despite this, the gods and demons pulled back and forth on the body alternately, causing the mountain to rotate. When the mountain was placed on the ocean, it began to sink, Vishnu, in the form of a turtle Kurma, came to their rescue and supported the mountain on his back. The Samudra Manthan process released a number of things from the Ocean of Milk, one was the lethal poison known as Halahala, which in some versions of the story, escaped from the mouth of the serpent king as the demons and gods churned. This terrified the gods and demons because the poison was so powerful that it could all of creation. Then the gods approached Shiva for protection, as a result, Shivas throat turned blue. For this reason, Lord Shiva is also called Neelakantha, all kinds of herbs were cast into the ocean and fourteen Ratnas were produced from the ocean and were divided between asuras and gods. Though usually the Ratnas are enumerated as 14, the list in the ranges from 9 to 14 Ratnas. Most lists include, According to the quality of the treasures produced, they were accepted by Vishnu, the devas, there were three categories of Goddesses which emerged from the ocean, Lakshmi = the Goddess of Fortune and Wealth - who accepted Vishnu as Her eternal consort. Apsaras = various divine nymphs like Rambha, Menaka, Punjisthala etc. - chose the demigods as their companions Varuni - taken - somewhat reluctantly - accepted the demons, Airavata, and several other elephants, taken by Indra, leader of the Deva
Samudra manthan
–
Angkor Wat
Samudra manthan
–
Suvarnabhumi Airport
Samudra manthan
–
Sagar Manthan
Samudra manthan
–
Various scenes from the samudra manthan episode
23.
Avatar
–
An avatar is a concept in Hinduism and it means descent, and refers to the appearance or incarnation of a deity on earth. The term also refers to alight, to make ones appearance. The word avatar does not appear in the Vedic literature, but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, the Rigveda describes Indra as endowed with a mysterious power of assuming any form at will. The Bhagavad Gita expounds the doctrine of Avatara but with other than avatar. Theologically, the term is most often associated with the Hindu god Vishnu, the avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, avatars of the Devi in different appearances such as Tripura Sundari, Durga, while avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional. The incarnation doctrine is one of the important differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism, Incarnation concepts similar to avatar are also found in Buddhism, Christianity and others. The Sanskrit noun is derived from the Sanskrit roots ava and tṛī and these roots trace back, states Monier-Williams, to -taritum, -tarati, -rītum. Avatar literally means descent, alight, to ones appearance. The word also implies to overcome, to remove, to bring down, an avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is a saguna embodiment of the nirguna Brahman or Atman. Neither the Vedas nor the Principal Upanishads ever mention the word avatar as a noun, the verb roots and form, such as avatarana, do appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as action of descending, but not as an incarnated person. The related verb avatarana is, states Paul Hacker, used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, the term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu god Vishnu. It is in medieval era texts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the version of avatar appears. The idea proliferates thereafter, in the Puranic stories for many deities, the term avatar, in colloquial use, is also an epithet or a word of reverence for any extraordinary human being who is revered for his or her ideas. In some contexts, the term avatara just means a place, site of sacred pilgrimage, or just achieve ones goals after effort. The term avatar is not unique to Hinduism and it is found in the Trikaya doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism, in descriptions for the Dalai Lama in Tibetan Buddhism, and many ancient cultures. The manifest embodiment is sometimes referred to as an incarnation, the translation of avatar as incarnation has been questioned by Christian theologists, who state that an incarnation is in flesh and imperfect, while avatar is mythical and perfect. The theological concept of Christ as an incarnation, as found in Christology, according to Oduyoye and Vroom, this is different from the Hindu concept of avatar because avatars in Hinduism are unreal and is similar to Docetism
Avatar
–
Ten avatars of
Vishnu (
Matsya,
Kurma,
Varaha,
Vamana,
Krishna,
Kalki,
Buddha,
Parshurama,
Rama &
Narasimha). Painting from
Jaipur, now at the
Victoria and Albert Museum
Avatar
–
Matsya, fish avatar of Vishnu
Avatar
–
Varaha, the boar avatar of Vishnu (18th-century painting, probably of
Pahari provenance)
Avatar
–
Mohini, the only female avatar of Vishnu (statue in a
Belur temple, Karnataka.)
24.
Krishna
–
Krishna is a major Hindu deity. He is one of the most widely revered and popular Indian divinities, worshipped as the incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Krishnas birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar, Krishna is also known by numerous names, such as Govinda, Mukunda, Madhusudhana, Vasudeva and Makhan chor in affection. The anecdotes and narratives of Krishnas life are generally titled as Krishna Leela and he is a central character in the Bhagavata Purana, the Bhagavad Gita, and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological and mythological texts. They portray him in various perspectives, a god-child, a prankster, a lover, a divine hero. The synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st millennium BCE literature, worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, sometimes referred to as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. Krishna-related literature has inspired performance arts such as Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Odissi. Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world, the name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning black, dark or dark blue. The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning darkening, the name is also interpreted sometimes as all attractive. As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama, based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by other names, epithets and titles. Among the most common names are Mohan enchanter, Govinda meaning chief herdsman, Gopala, some of the distinct names may be regionally important—for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India. Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, with common features. His iconography typically depicts him as black or dark reflecting his name, however ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material he is made from, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is described as the color of Jambul. Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock feather wreathe or crown, in this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other in the Tribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, symbolism for the divine herdsman Govinda, alternatively, he is shown as an amorous man with the gopis, often making music or playing pranks. In other icons, he is a part of the scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata
Krishna
–
Statue of Lord Krishna
Krishna
Krishna
–
14th-century fresco of Krishna on the interior wall of City Palace,
Udaipur
Krishna
–
Krishna with cows, herdsmen and
Gopis, Pahari painting [Himalayan] from
Smithsonian Institution
25.
Hindu wedding
–
A Hindu wedding is Vivaha and the wedding ceremony is called vivaah sanskar in North India and kalyanam in South India. Hindus attach a great deal of importance to marriages, the ceremonies are very colourful, and celebrations may extend for several days. The brides and grooms home - entrance, doors, wall, floor, roof - are sometimes decorated with colors, balloons, the rituals and process in a Hindu wedding vary widely. The Hindu wedding ceremony at its core is essentially a Vedic yajna ritual, the primary witness of a Hindu marriage is the fire-deity Agni, in the presence of family and friends. The ceremony is conducted entirely, or at least partially in Sanskrit. The local language of the bride and groom is also used and these rituals are prescribed in the Gruhya sutra composed by various rishis such as Baudhayana and Ashvalayana. The pre-wedding and post-wedding rituals and celebrations vary by region, preferences or the resources of the groom, bride and they can range from one day to multi-day events. Pre-wedding ceremonies include engagement, and arrival of the party at the brides residence, often in the form of a formal procession with dancing. The post-wedding ceremonies may include Abhishek, Anna Prashashan, Aashirvadah, the wedding marks the start of Grihastha stage of life for the new couple. In India, by law and tradition, no Hindu marriage is binding and complete unless the ritual of seven steps and vows in presence of fire is completed by the bride, a Hindu wedding is regionally called Thirumanam or kalyaanam, Vivaham or kalyaanam, vivaha. Ancient Hindu literature, such as Asvalayana Grhyasutra and Atharvaveda, identify eight forms of marriages and these are, Brahma marriage – considered the religiously most appropriate marriage, where the father finds an educated man, proposes the marriage of his daughter to him. The groom, bride and families willingly concur with the proposal, the two families and relatives meet, the girl is ceremoniously decorated, the father gifts away his daughter in betrothal, and a vedic marriage ceremony is conducted. This type of wedding is now most prevalent among Hindus in modern India, daiva marriage – in this type of marriage, the father gives away his daughter along with ornaments to a priest as a sacrificial fee. This form of marriage occurred in ancient times when yajna sacrifices were prevalent, arsha marriage – in this type of marriage, the groom gives a cow and a bull to the father of the bride and the father exchanges his daughter in marriage. The groom took a vow to fulfill his obligations to the bride, prajapatya marriage – in this type of marriage, a couple agree to get married by exchanging some Sanskrit mantras. This form of marriage was akin to a civil ceremony, the other four were considered aprashasta, since they do not follow any Vedic rituals and vows. This marriage is entered into without religious ceremonies, and was akin to the Western concept of Common-law marriage, Kama Sutra, as well as Rishi Kanva – the foster-father of Shakuntala – in the Mahabharata, claimed this kind of marriage to be an ideal one. Asura marriage – in this type of marriage, the groom offered a dowry to the father of the bride and this was akin to marrying off a daughter for money
Hindu wedding
–
A Hindu bride from
Gujarat
Hindu wedding
–
The bride is ceremoniously decorated, in Hindu weddings, by her friends and family in regional dress, jewelry, and body art called
Mehndi. The body art is produced from a mixture of henna and turmeric, and it symbolizes 'awakening of inner light'.
Hindu wedding
–
A Hindu Marriage Ceremony
Hindu wedding
–
Kanyadaan - a key ritual where the father gifts away the daughter to the groom. In this picture, the father's hand is on the left, the bride and groom are on the right.
26.
Shaktism
–
Shaktism is a major tradition of Hinduism, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered feminine and the Devi is supreme. It includes a variety of goddesses, all considered aspects of the supreme goddess. Shaktism has different sub-traditions, ranging from those focussed on gracious Lakshmi to fierce Kali, the Sruti and Smriti texts of Hinduism are an important historical framework of the Shaktism tradition. In addition, it reveres the texts Devi Mahatmya, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, the Devi Mahatmya in particular, is considered in Shaktism to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita. Shaktism is known for its various sub-traditions of Tantra, as well as a galaxy of goddesses with respective systems and it consists of the Vidyapitha and Kulamārga. The pantheon of goddesses in Shaktism grew after the decline of Buddhism in India, wherein Hindu and Buddhist goddesses were combined to form the Mahavidya, the most common aspects of Devi found in Shaktism include Durga, Kali, Amba, Lakshmi, Parvati and Tripurasundari. The goddess-focussed tradition is popular in West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Nepal and the neighboring regions. Yet, they are declared equivalent aspects of gender neutral Brahman, of Prajapati, the goddesses often mentioned in the Vedic layers of text include the Ushas, Vac, Sarasvati, Prithivi, Nirriti, Shraddha. Goddesses such as Uma appear in the Upanishads as another aspect of Brahman, hymns to goddesses are in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata, particularly in the later added Harivamsa section of it. The archaeological and textual evidence implies, states Thomas Coburn, that the Goddess had become as much a part of the Hindu tradition, as God, by about the third or fourth century. The literature on Shakti theology grew in ancient India, climaxing in one of the most important texts of Shaktism called the Devi Mahatmya, the Devi-Mahatmya is not the earliest literary fragment attesting to the existence of devotion to a goddess figure, states Thomas B. Coburn – a professor of Religious Studies, but it is surely the earliest in which the object of worship is conceptualized as Goddess, with a capital G. Other important texts of Shaktism include the Shakta Upanishads, as well as Shakta-oriented Upa Puranic literature such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana, the Lalita Sahasranama. The Tripura Upanishad is historically the most complete introduction to Shakta Tantrism, along with the Tripura Upanishad, the Tripuratapini Upanishad has attracted scholarly bhasya in the second half of 2nd-millennium, such as by Bhaskararaya, and by Ramanand. These texts link the Shakti Tantra tradition as a Vedic attribute, Shaktas conceive the Goddess as the supreme, ultimate, eternal reality of all existence, or same as the Brahman concept of Hinduism. She is considered to be simultaneously the source of all creation, its embodiment and the energy that animates and governs it, according to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar – a professor of Indian history, in Shaktism theology Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman. Shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence and substance of everything in creation and its texts such as the Devi-Bhagavata Purana states, I am Manifest Divinity, Unmanifest Divinity, and Transcendent Divinity. I am Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, as well as Saraswati, Lakshmi, I am the Sun and I am the Stars, and I am also the Moon
Shaktism
–
Shiva and
Shakti in the half-male, half-female form of
Ardhanari (
Elephanta caves, 5th century CE,
Mumbai, India)
Shaktism
–
Sri Amritananda Natha Saraswathi, a Shakta adept and guru, performing the Navavarana
Puja, a central ritual in
Srividya Tantric Shaktism, at the Sahasrakshi Meru Temple at
Devipuram,
Andhra Pradesh,
India, 2005.
Shaktism
–
Devi Shakthi at
Parashakthi Temple, Pontiac, USA adorned as Goddesses Lakshmi, Durga and Saraswathi during
Navaratri
Shaktism
–
Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth.
27.
Dharma
–
Dharma is a key concept with multiple meanings in the Indian religions — Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. There is no single word translation for dharma in western languages, in Buddhism dharma means cosmic law and order, but is also applied to the teachings of the Buddha. In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for phenomena, Dharma in Jainism refers to the teachings of tirthankara and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of human beings. For Sikhs, the word means the path of righteousness. The Classical Sanskrit noun dharma is a derivation from the root dhṛ, the word dharma was already in use in the historical Vedic religion, and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia. The antonym of dharma is adharma, the Classical Sanskrit noun dharma is a derivation from the root dhṛ, which means to hold, maintain, keep, and takes a meaning of what is established or firm, and hence law. It is derived from an older Vedic Sanskrit n-stem dharman-, with a meaning of bearer, supporter. In the Rigveda, the word appears as an n-stem, dhárman-, figuratively, it means sustainer and supporter. It is semantically similar to the Greek Ethos, in Classical Sanskrit, the noun becomes thematic, dharma-. The word dharma derives from Proto-Indo-European root *dʰer-, which in Sanskrit is reflected as class-1 root √dhṛ, etymologically it is related to Avestan √dar-, Latin firmus, Lithuanian derė́ti, Lithuanian dermė and darna and Old Church Slavonic drъžati. Classical Sanskrit word dharmas would formally match with Latin o-stem firmus from Proto-Indo-European *dʰer-mo-s holding, were it not for its development from earlier Rigvedic n-stem. In Classical Sanskrit, and in the Vedic Sanskrit of the Atharvaveda, in Pāli, it is rendered dhamma. In some contemporary Indian languages and dialects it occurs as dharm. Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion and it has multiple meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It is difficult to provide a concise definition for dharma, as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings. There is no equivalent single word translation for dharma in western languages, there have been numerous, conflicting attempts to translate ancient Sanskrit literature with the word dharma into German, English and French. The concept, claims Paul Horsch, has caused difficulties for modern commentators and translators. Dharma root is dhri, which means ‘to support, hold and it is the thing that regulates the course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains constant
Dharma
–
Rituals and rites of passage
Dharma
–
Sannyasa and
stages of life
Dharma
–
Above rock inscription is from Indian
Emperor Asoka, from 258 BC, and found in
Afghanistan. The inscription renders the word Dharma in Sanskrit as
Eusebeia in Greek, suggesting Dharma in ancient India meant spiritual maturity, devotion, piety, duty towards and reverence for human community.
Dharma
–
Sikhism
28.
Artha
–
Artha is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy. The word artha literally translates as meaning, sense, goal, Artha is also a broader concept in the scriptures of Hinduism. As a concept, it has multiple meanings, all of which means of life. Artha applies to both an individual and a government, in an individuals context, artha includes wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of life in Hinduism. At government level, artha includes social, legal, economic, proper Arthashastra is considered an important and necessary objective of government. In Hindu traditions, Artha is connected to the three aspects and goals of human life - Dharma, Kama and Moksha. Together, these mutually non-exclusive four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha, Artha as a concept includes multiple meanings. It is difficult to capture the meaning of artha, or related terms of dharma, kama and moksha, john Lochtefeld describes artha as the means of life, and includes material prosperity. Karl Potter explains it as an attitude and capability that enables one to make a living, to remain alive and it includes economic prosperity, security and health of oneself and those one feels responsible for. Artha includes everything in ones environment that allows one to live and it is neither an end state nor an endless goal of aimlessly amassing money, claims Karl Potter, rather it is an attitude and necessary requirement of human life. John Koller takes a different viewpoint than Karl Potters interpretation, john Koller suggests artha is not an attitude, rather it is one of the necessities of human life. Artha, then, is best described as pursuit of activities and means necessary for a joyous, daya Krishna argues that artha, as well as the concept of Puruṣārthas, is a myth. The various schools and ancient Sanskrit texts provide no consensus opinion, notes Krishna, rather they present a debate, inconsistencies and conflicting verses are even present within the same script, such as the Manusmriti. Some of this, suggests Krishna, reflects differences in human needs, perhaps, conjectures Krishna, artha is just a subset of kama and karma. Vatsyayana in Kama Sutra defines artha as the acquisition of arts, land, cattle, wealth, equipages and he explains, artha is also protection of what is already acquired, and the increase of what is protected. Gavin Flood explains artha as worldly success without violating dharma, kama, Flood clarifies that artha in ancient Hindu literature, as well as purushartha, is better understood as a goal of Man. In other words, it is one of the four purposes of human life, the survival and the thriving of humans requires artha - that is, economic activity, wealth and its creation, worldly success, profit, political success and all that is necessary for human existence
Artha
–
Career, job
29.
Moksha
–
Moksha, also called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti, is a term in Hinduism and Hindu philosophy which refers to various forms of emancipation, liberation, and release. In its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, in its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha refers to freedom from ignorance, self-realization and self-knowledge. In Hindu traditions, moksha is a concept and included as one of the four aspects and goals of human life. Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism, the concept of moksha is found in Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. In some schools of Indian religions, moksha is considered equivalent to and used interchangeably with terms such as vimoksha, vimukti, kaivalya, apavarga, mukti, nihsreyasa. However, terms such as moksha and nirvana differ and mean different states between various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, the term nirvana is more common in Buddhism, while moksha is more prevalent in Hinduism. Moksha is derived from the root Sanskrit, मुच्, muc, in Vedas and early Upanishads, the word Sanskrit, मुच्यते, mucyate appears, which means to be set free or release - such as of a horse from its harness. The definition and meaning of moksha varies between schools of Indian religions. Moksha means freedom, liberation, from what and how is where the schools differ, Moksha is also a concept that means liberation from rebirth or saṃsāra. This liberation can be attained while one is on earth, or eschatologically, some Indian traditions have emphasized liberation on concrete, ethical action within the world. This liberation is a transformation that permits one to see the truth. For example, Vivekachudamani - an ancient book on moksha, explains one of many steps on the path to moksha, as. Samsara originated with religious movements in the first millennium BCE and these movements such as Buddhism, Jainism and new schools within Hinduism, saw human life as bondage to a repeated process of rebirth. This bondage to repeated rebirth and life, each subject to injury, disease. By release from this cycle, the involved in this cycle also ended. This release was called moksha, nirvana, kaivalya, mukti, in earliest Vedic literature, heaven and hell sufficed soteriological curiosities. The rebirth idea ultimately flowered into the ideas of saṃsāra, or transmigration - where one’s balance sheet of karma determined one’s rebirth, along with this idea of saṃsāra, the ancient scholars developed the concept of moksha, as a state that released a person from the saṃsāra cycle. Moksha release in eschatological sense in these ancient literature of Hinduism, suggests van Buitenen, comes from self-knowledge, the meaning of moksha in epistemological and psychological sense has been variously explained by scholars
Moksha
–
Two
Hindu sadhus near
Pashupatinath Temple in
Kathmandu,
Nepal. Usually sadhus live by themselves, on the fringes of society, and spend their days in their pursuit of moksha.
Moksha
–
Gajendra Moksha (pictured) is a symbolic tale in
Vaishnavism. The elephant Gajendra enters a lake where a crocodile Huhu clutches his leg and becomes his suffering. Despite his pain, he constantly remembers God Vishnu. God liberates him. Gajendra symbolically represents man, Huhu represents sins and the lake is saṃsāra.
Moksha
–
In myths and temples of India and
Bali Indonesia,
Sarasvati appears with swan. Sarasvati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning and creative arts, while swan is a symbol of spiritual perfection, liberation and moksa. The symbolism of Sarasvati and the swan is that knowledge and moksa go together.
Moksha
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