1.
Land reclamation
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Land reclamation, usually known as reclamation, and also known as land fill, is the process of creating new land from ocean, riverbeds, or lake beds. The land reclaimed is known as ground or land fill. In a number of jurisdictions, including parts of the United States. In Alberta, Canada, for example, reclamation is defined by the government as The process of reconverting disturbed land to its former or other productive uses. In Oceania it is referred to as land rehabilitation. Land reclamation can be achieved with a number of different methods, the most simple method involves simply filling the area with large amounts of heavy rock and/or cement, then filling with clay and dirt until the desired height is reached. The process is called infilling and the used to fill the space is generically called infill. Draining of submerged wetlands is often used to land for agricultural use. Deep cement mixing is used typically in situations in which the material displaced by either dredging or draining may be contaminated, the creation of new land was for the need of human activities. Notable examples include, Much of the coastlines of Mumbai, India and it took over 150 years to join the original seven islands of Mumbai. Much of the coastlines of Mainland China, Hong Kong, North Korea and it is estimated that nearly 65% of tidal flats around the Yellow Sea have been reclaimed. Inland lowlands in the Yangtze valley, China, including the areas of important cities like Shanghai, Much of the coastline of Karachi, Pakistan. A part of the Hamad International Airport in Qatar, around 36 square kilometres, the entire island of The Pearl-Qatar situated in West Bay, Qatar. The city-state of Singapore, where land is in supply, is also famous for its efforts on land reclamation. The Palm Islands, The World and hotel Burj al-Arab off Dubai in the United Arab Emirates The Yas Island in Abu Dhabi and it is one of the six divisions of Malé City. The Eko Atlantic in Lagos, Nigeria, mexico City, the chinampas are a famous example. Parts of Panama City urban and street development are based on reclaimed land, aeroparque Jorge Newbery, in Buenos Aires, Argentina One of the earliest large scale projects was the Beemster Polder in the Netherlands, realized in 1612 adding 70 square kilometres of land. In Hong Kong the Praya Reclamation Scheme added 20 to 24 hectares of land in 1890 during the phase of construction
2.
Waste
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Waste and wastes are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded after use, or it is worthless, defective. Examples include municipal solid waste, hazardous waste, wastewater, radioactive waste, according to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal of 1989, Art. 2, Wastes are substance or objects, which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded. Under the Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC, Art,3, the European Union defines waste as an object the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard. For a more structural description of the Waste Directive, see the European Commissions summary and it is most commonly measured by size or weight, and there is a stark difference between the two. For example, organic waste is much heavier when it is wet, on a global scale it is difficult to report waste because countries have different definitions of waste and what falls into waste categories, as well as different ways of reporting. Based on incomplete reports from its parties, the Basel Convention estimated 338 million tonnes of waste was generated in 2001, for the same year, OECD estimated 4 billion tonnes from its member countries. Toxic waste materials can contaminate surface water, groundwater, soil, and air which causes problems for humans, other species. Waste treatment and disposal produces significant green house gas emissions, notably methane, Waste management is a significant environmental justice issue. Many of the environmental burdens cited above are often borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities, women. NIMBY is the opposition of residents to a proposal for a new development because it is close to them, however, the need for expansion and siting of waste treatment and disposal facilities is increasing worldwide. Environmental policies such as pay as you throw can reduce the cost of management, Waste recovery can curb economic costs because it avoids extracting raw materials and often cuts transportation costs. Economic assessment of municipal waste management systems – case studies using a combination of life-cycle assessment, the location of waste treatment and disposal facilities often reduces property values due to noise, dust, pollution, unsightliness, and negative stigma. The informal waste sector consists mostly of waste pickers who scavenge for metals, glass, plastic, textiles, and other materials and then trade them for a profit. This sector can significantly alter or reduce waste in a system, but other negative economic effects come with the disease, poverty, exploitation. Resource recovery is the retrieval of recyclable waste, which was intended for disposal and it is the processing of recyclables to extract or recover materials and resources, or convert to energy
3.
Waste management
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Waste management or Waste disposal is all the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes amongst other things, collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste together with monitoring and it also encompasses the legal and regulatory framework that relates to waste management encompassing guidance on recycling etc. Waste management is intended to reduce effects of waste on health. Waste management practices are not uniform among countries, regions, there are a number of concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between countries or regions. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste minimisation strategies, the aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste, see, resource recovery. The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the premise is for policy to take action first. The next step or preferred action is to reduce the generation of waste i. e. by re-use, the next is recycling which would include composting. Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy, energy can be recovered from processes i. e. landfill and combustion, at this level of the hierarchy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery and this last step is the final resort for waste which has not been prevented, diverted or recovered. The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product, the life-cycle begins with design, then proceeds through manufacture, distribution, use and then follows through the waste hierarchys stages of reduce, reuse and recycle. Each of the stages of the life-cycle offers opportunities for policy intervention, to rethink the need for the product, to redesign to minimize waste potential. The key behind the life-cycle of a product is to optimize the use of the limited resources by avoiding the unnecessary generation of waste. Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that current, global, economic growth, globally, we are extracting more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to last use. This process of resource efficiency can address sustainability, the Polluter pays principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact caused to the environment. With respect to management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material. Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low population density, common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum environmental impact
4.
Soil liquefaction
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In soil mechanics the term liquefied was first used by Allen Hazen in reference to the 1918 failure of the Calaveras Dam in California. The phenomenon is most often observed in saturated, loose, sandy soils and this is because a loose sand has a tendency to compress when a load is applied, dense sands by contrast tend to expand in volume or dilate. If the soil is saturated by water, a condition that exists when the soil is below the ground water table or sea level. In response to the soil compressing, this increases in pressure. These contacts between grains are the means by which the weight from buildings and overlying soil layers are transferred from the surface to layers of soil or rock at greater depths. This loss of soil structure causes it to all of its strength. Although the effects of liquefaction have been understood, it was more thoroughly brought to the attention of engineers after the 1964 Niigata earthquake and 1964 Alaska earthquake. It was also a factor in the destruction in San Franciscos Marina District during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. A state of soil liquefaction occurs when the stress of soil is reduced to essentially zero. This may be initiated by either monotonic loading or cyclic loading, in both cases a soil in a saturated loose state, and one which may generate significant pore water pressure on a change in load are the most likely to liquefy. As pore water pressure rises a progressive loss of strength of the soil occurs as effective stress is reduced and it is more likely to occur in sandy or non-plastic silty soils, but may in rare cases occur in gravels and clays. A flow failure may initiate if the strength of the soil is reduced below the required to maintain equilibrium of a slope or footing of a building for instance. This can occur due to loading or cyclic loading, and can be sudden. A historical example is the Aberfan disaster, casagrande referred to this type of phenomena as flow liquefaction although a state of zero effective stress is not required for this to occur. The term cyclic refers to the occurrence of a state of soil when large shear strains have accumulated in response to cyclic loading. A typical reference strain for the occurrence of zero effective stress is 5% double amplitude shear strain. This is a soil test based definition, usually performed via cyclic triaxial, cyclic direct simple shear and these tests are performed to determine a soils resistance to liquefaction by observing the number of cycles of loading at a particular shear stress amplitude before it fails. Failure here is defined by the shear strain criteria
5.
Compactor
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A compactor is a machine or mechanism used to reduce the size of material such as waste material or bio mass through compaction. A trash compactor is used by a home or business to reduce the amount of trash. A baler-wrapper compactor is used for making compact and wrapped bales in order to improve logistics. Normally powered by hydraulics, compactors take many shapes and sizes, in landfill sites for example, a large tractor with spiked steel wheels called a landfill compactor is used to drive over waste deposited by waste collection vehicles. WCVs themselves incorporate a mechanism which is used to increase the payload of the vehicle. This usually takes the form of hydraulically powered sliding plates which sweep out the collection hopper, different compactors are used in scrap metal processing, the most familiar being the car crusher. Many retail and service businesses, such as fast food, restaurants, in the hospitality industry tolerance for such nuisances is particularly low. These compactors typically come in electric and hydraulic operation, with quite a few loading configurations, most popular loading configurations fall under the following, Ground-access, Walk-on, Secured indoor chute. As a means to preserve and store forage, baler-wrapper compactors are used to exclude oxygen from the forage, without access to air the forage is preserved fresh for longer periods of time. There are also trash compactors, hydraulic or manual, designed for residential use, likewise, they reduce the volume of garbage. For example, some compactors reduce the volume of polystyrene to 1/30, in addition to the waste vehicle and landfill use, there are solar-powered trash compactors that can hold the equivalent of 200 gallons of trash before they need to be emptied. Baler-wrapper compactors are used for efficient storage and transport of materials like RDF and bin waste, as well as compost and saw dust, in construction, there are three main types of compactor, the plate, the jumping jack and the road roller. The roller type compactors are used for compacting crushed rock as the layer underneath concrete or stone foundations or slabs. The plate compactor has a large vibrating baseplate and is suited for creating a level grade, the jumping jack type is mainly used to compact the backfill in narrow trenches for water or gas supply pipes etc. Road rollers may also have vibrating rollers, in England the name wacker plate or just wacker is commonly used to refer to plate compactors, derived from the name of Wacker Neuson, a well-known manufacturer of such devices. The name is pronounced in the English style as whacker as opposed to the correct German vacker, patent 2,234,098 — Can crusher and baler —1941 U. S. S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
6.
Landfill gas utilization
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Landfill gas utilization is a process of gathering, processing, and treating the methane gas emitted from decomposing garbage to produce electricity, heat, fuels, and various chemical compounds. The number of landfill gas projects, which convert the gas power, went from 399 in 2005 to 519 in 2009 in the United Kingdom. These projects are popular because they control energy costs and reduce gas emissions. These projects collect the gas and treat it, so it can be used for electricity or upgraded to pipeline-grade gas. These projects power homes, buildings, and vehicles, Landfill gas is generated through the degradation of municipal solid waste by microorganisms. The quality of the gas is highly dependent on the composition of the waste, presence of oxygen, temperature, physical geometry, aerobic conditions, presence of oxygen, leads to predominately CO2 emissions. In anaerobic conditions, as is typical of landfills, methane, Methane is the important component of landfill gas as it has a calorific value of 33.95 MJ/Nm^3 which gives rise to energy generation benefits. The amount of methane that is produced varies based on composition of the waste. The rate of gas production varies with the age of the landfill. There are 4 common phases that a section of a MSW landfill undergoes after placement, typically, in a large landfill, different areas of the site will be at different stages simultaneously. The landfill gas production rate will reach a maximum at around 5 years, Landfill gas follows first-order kinetic decay after decline begins with a k-value ranging 0.02 yr-1 for arid conditions and 0.065 yr-1 for wet conditions. Landfill Methane Outreach Program provides first order decay model to aid in the determination of gas production named LandGEM. Typically, gas extraction rates from a solid waste landfill range from 25 to 10000 m³/h where Landfill sites typically range from 100,000 m³ to 10 million m³. MSW landfill gas typically has roughly 45 to 60% methane and 40 to 60% carbon dioxide, all of the aforementioned agents are harmful to human health at high doses. Landfill gas collection is typically accomplished through the installation of wells installed vertically and/or horizontally in the waste mass, design heuristics for vertical wells call for about one well per acre of landfill surface, whereas horizontal wells are normally spaced about 50 to 200 feet apart on center. On average, closed landfills have gas collection systems that capture about 84% of produced gas, Landfill gas can also be extracted through horizontal trenches instead of vertical wells. Both systems are effective at collecting, Landfill gas is extracted and piped to a main collection header, where it is sent to be treated or flared. The main collection header can be connected to the collection system to collect condensate forming in the pipes
7.
Leachate
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A leachate is any liquid that, in the course of passing through matter, extracts soluble or suspended solids, or any other component of the material through which it has passed. It is most commonly used in the context of land-filling of putrescible or industrial waste, leachate from a landfill varies widely in composition depending on the age of the landfill and the type of waste that it contains. It usually contains both dissolved and suspended material, the generation of leachate is caused principally by precipitation percolating through waste deposited in a landfill. Once in contact with decomposing solid waste, the water becomes contaminated. The use of linings is now mandatory within the United States, Australia, in addition, most toxic and difficult materials are now specifically excluded from landfilling. When water percolates through waste, it promotes and assists the process of decomposition by bacteria and these processes in turn release by-products of decomposition and rapidly use up any available oxygen, creating an anoxic environment. The decomposition processes themselves release more water, which adds to the volume of leachate, leachate also reacts with materials that are not prone to decomposition themselves, such as fire ash, cement-based building materials and gypsum-based materials changing the chemical composition. The physical appearance of leachate when it emerges from a landfill site is a strongly odoured black-. The smell is acidic and offensive and may be very pervasive because of hydrogen-, nitrogen-, in older landfills and those with no membrane between the waste and the underlying geology, leachate is free to leave the waste and flow directly into the groundwater. In such cases, high concentrations of leachate are often found in nearby springs, as leachate first emerges it can be black in colour, anoxic, and possibly effervescent, with dissolved and entrained gases. As it becomes oxygenated it tends to brown or yellow because of the presence of iron salts in solution. It also quickly develops a bacterial flora often comprising substantial growths of Sphaerotilus natans, in the UK, in the late 1960s, central Government policy was to ensure new landfill sites were being chosen with permeable underlying geological strata to avoid the build-up of leachate. This policy was dubbed dilute and disperse, proposed landfill locations also had to be justified not only by geography but also scientifically. Many European countries decided to select sites in groundwater-free clay geological conditions or to require that the site have an engineered lining. In the wake of European advancements, the United States increased its development of leachate retaining and this quickly led from lining in principle to the use of multiple lining layers in all landfills. There are many components to a system including pumps, manholes, discharge lines. However, there are four main components which govern the overall efficiency of the system and these four elements are liners, filters, pumps and sumps. Natural and synthetic liners may be utilized as both a collection device and as a means for isolating leachate within the fill to protect the soil, the chief concern is the ability of a liner to maintain integrity and impermeability over the life of the landfill
8.
Pollution
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Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution, Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times when man created the first fires, metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of horses in concentrated areas made the cities the cesspools of pollution. The Industrial Revolution brought an infusion of untreated chemicals and wastes into local streams that served as the water supply, king Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow and it was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded view ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem, reformers began to demand sewer systems, and clean water. In 1870, the conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. There were no toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called, in the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive. As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881, as historian Martin Melosi notes, The generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as miracles of cleanliness. By the 1940s, however, automobile-caused smog was an issue in Los Angeles. Other cities followed around the country early in the 20th century. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of fallout from atomic warfare. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London and this prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956
9.
Natural environment
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The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some part of Earth and this environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a system in the desert. Though many animals build things to provide an environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams. People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a continuum, more precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, in a field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil. Natural environment is used as a synonym for habitat. For instance, when we say that the environment of giraffes is the savanna. Earth science generally recognizes 4 spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air, and life respectively. Some scientists include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, Earth science, is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology, the Earths crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools, beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection and this convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics, volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes. An ocean is a body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earths surface is covered by ocean, a body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans. More than half of area is over 3,000 meters deep
10.
Groundwater
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Groundwater is the water present beneath Earths surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or a deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the naturally, natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps. Groundwater is also withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of Earths subsurface contains some water, Groundwater may not be confined only to Earth. The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiters moon Europa. Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water, therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of water storage in the United States. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater. Polluted groundwater is less visible, but more difficult to clean up, than pollution in rivers, Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. An aquifer is a layer of substrate that contains and transmits groundwater. When water can flow directly between the surface and the zone of an aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined. The deeper parts of unconfined aquifers are more saturated since gravity causes water to flow downward. The upper level of this layer of an unconfined aquifer is called the water table or phreatic surface. Below the water table, where in general all pore spaces are saturated with water, is the phreatic zone, substrate with low porosity that permits limited transmission of groundwater is known as an aquitard
11.
Climate change
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Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time. Climate change may refer to a change in weather conditions. Climate change is caused by such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics. Certain human activities have also identified as significant causes of recent climate change. Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations, more recent data are provided by the instrumental record. The most general definition of change is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered over long periods of time. Accordingly, fluctuations over periods shorter than a few decades, such as El Niño, the term climate change is often used to refer specifically to anthropogenic climate change. Anthropogenic climate change is caused by activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of Earths natural processes. In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy, within scientific journals, global warming refers to surface temperature increases while climate change includes global warming and everything else that increasing greenhouse gas levels affect. A related term is climatic change, in 1966, the World Meteorological Organization proposed the term climatic change to encompass all forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than 10 years, regardless of cause. Change was a given and climatic was used as an adjective to describe this kind of change, when it was realized that human activities had a potential to drastically alter the climate, the term climate change replaced climatic change as the dominant term to reflect an anthropogenic cause. Climate change was incorporated in the title of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change, used as a noun, became an issue rather than the technical description of changing weather. On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the Sun and this energy is distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions. Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or forcing mechanisms, there are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings. There are also key factors which when exceeded can produce rapid change. Forcing mechanisms can be internal or external. Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within the system itself
12.
Gas flare
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In industrial plants, flare stacks are primarily used for burning off flammable gas released by pressure relief valves during unplanned over-pressuring of plant equipment. During plant or partial plant startups and shutdowns, flare stacks are often used for the planned combustion of gases over relatively short periods. Gas flaring at many oil and gas production sites protects against the dangers of over-pressuring industrial plant equipment, when petroleum crude oil is extracted and produced from onshore or offshore oil wells, raw natural gas associated with the oil is brought to the surface as well. Especially in areas of the world lacking pipelines and other gas transportation infrastructure, the flaring of associated gas may occur at the top of a vertical flare stack or it may occur in a ground-level flare in an earthen pit. Preferably, associated gas is reinjected into the reservoir, which saves it for use while maintaining higher well pressure. When industrial plant equipment items are over-pressured, the relief valve is an essential safety device that automatically release gases and sometimes liquids. Those pressure relief valves are required by industrial design codes and standards as well as by law, the released gases and liquids are routed through large piping systems called flare headers to a vertical elevated flare. The released gases are burned as they exit the flare stacks, the size and brightness of the resulting flame depends upon the flammable materials flow rate in joules per hour. Most industrial plant flares have a vapor-liquid separator upstream of the flare to remove any large amounts of liquid that may accompany the relieved gases, steam is very often injected into the flame to reduce the formation of black smoke. When too much steam is added, a known as over steaming can occur resulting in reduced combustion efficiency. To keep the system functional, a small amount of gas is continuously burned, like a pilot light. The adjacent flow diagram depicts the typical components of an overall industrial flare stack system, a water seal drum to prevent any flashback of the flame from the top of the flare stack. An alternative gas recovery system for use during partial plant startups, the recovered gas is routed into the fuel gas system of the overall industrial plant. A steam injection system to provide an external momentum force used for efficient mixing of air with the relieved gas, a pilot flame that burns all the time so that it is available to ignite relieved gases when needed. The flare stack, including a flashback prevention section at the part of the stack. Other emissions from improperly operated flares may include, aromatic hydrocarbons and benzapyrene, flaring can affect wildlife by attracting birds and insects to the flame. Approximately 7,500 migrating songbirds were attracted to and killed by the flare at the natural gas terminal in Saint John, New Brunswick. Similar incidents have occurred at flares on offshore oil and gas installations, moths are known to be attracted to lights
