1.
St. Martin's Church, Landshut
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The Church of St. Martin in Landshut is a medieval church in the German city located in the state of Bavaria. St. Martins Church, along with Trausnitz Castle and the celebration of the Landshuter Hochzeit, are the most important landmarks and this Brick Gothic landmark is the tallest church in Bavaria, and the tallest brick building as well as church in the world. It is also the 2nd tallest brick structure in the world, St. Martins church has a height of 130.6 metres.1 In the year 1204, the town of Landshut was founded by Duke Louis I, Duke of Bavaria the Kelheimer. He established Castle Trausnitz and built a church on the site of the present-day St. Martins Church. That structure was superseded by building the church, which began in 1389.1 It took about 110 years to finish the church. During this period, five architects managed the building site and it took 55 years just to build the tower. The church was dedicated in 1500.1 The choir elbow cross of 1495 has an overall length of 8 m. The crucifix is one of the largest of the late Gothic period, the body was carved from a lime tree trunk and has a length of 5.80 m and an arm width of 5.40 m. Made by Michael Erhard, it was installed in 1495, construction of the church began around 1389, under the architect Hans von Burghausen. The exact date for the beginning of construction of the church is not well known, the building was completed in 1500. The church was built from brick and mortar, five thousand wooden stakes were used for the foundation. The stakes are located completely in the groundwater, in order to delay rot caused by bacteria. With a height of 130.6 m, the tower is considered to be the tallest brick building in the world, surpassing the Church of Our Lady, Bruges. In the year 2001, St. Martins Church received the title of basilica minor from the Pope in Rome, the church is built in Gothic style, demonstrated by the pointed shape of its windows and arches. ^ The SkyscraperPages source showed that St. Martins Church is 133.0 m tall, St. Martins Church, Landshut at Structurae SkyscraperPage - St. Martins Church Gonbad-e Qabus
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
4.
States of Germany
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Germany is a federal republic consisting of sixteen federal states. Since todays Germany was formed from a collection of several states, it has a federal constitution. The remaining 13 states are called Flächenländer, the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 was through the unification of the western states created in the aftermath of World War II. West Berlin, while not part of the Federal Republic, was largely integrated and considered as a de facto state. In 1952, following a referendum, Baden, Württemberg-Baden, in 1957, the Saar Protectorate rejoined the Federal Republic as the Saarland. Federalism is one of the constitutional principles of Germany. After 1945, new states were constituted in all four zones of occupation, in 1949, the states in the three western zones formed the Federal Republic of Germany. This is in contrast to the development in Austria, where the Bund was constituted first. The use of the term Länder dates back to the Weimar Constitution of 1919, before this time, the constituent states of the German Empire were called Staaten. Today, it is common to use the term Bundesland. However, this term is not used officially, neither by the constitution of 1919 nor by the Basic Law of 1949, three Länder call themselves Freistaaten, Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia. He summarizes the arguments for boundary reform in Germany. The German system of dual federalism requires strong Länder that have the administrative and fiscal capacity to implement legislation, too many Länder also make coordination among them and with the federation more complicated. But several proposals have failed so far, territorial reform remains a topic in German politics. Federalism has a tradition in German history. The Holy Roman Empire comprised many petty states numbering more than 300 around 1796, the number of territories was greatly reduced during the Napoleonic Wars. After the Congress of Vienna,39 states formed the German Confederation, the new German Empire included 25 states and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The empire was dominated by Prussia, which controlled 65% of the territory, after the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles, the remaining states continued as republics of a new German federation
5.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
6.
Regierungsbezirk
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Regierungsbezirk is an administrative region at federal state level in Germany. The regional authority is called a Regierungspräsidium or Bezirksregierung and is headed by a Regierungspräsident, the Regierungsbezirke do not pass any legislation. Within the federal authority, they act as a mid-level agency. Regierungsbezirk is variously translated as district, administrative district or province. By German unification in 1871, the concept of Regierungsbezirke had been adopted by most States of the German Empire, the Regierungsbezirke of North Rhine-Westphalia are in direct continuation of those created in the Prussian Rhine and Westphalia provinces in 1816. Similar entities in other states were initially named Kreishauptmannschaft or Kreis or province in Hesse, in Nazi Germany the naming was unified to Regierungsbezirk. Currently, only four large-area states out of 16 in total are divided into Regierungsbezirke, on 1 January 2004, Saxony-Anhalt disbanded its three Regierungsbezirke, Dessau, Halle and Magdeburg. The responsibilities are now covered by a Landesverwaltungsamt with three offices at the seats of the Bezirksregierungen. On 1 January 2005, Lower Saxony disbanded its remaining four Regierungsbezirke, Brunswick, Hanover, Lüneburg, on 1 August 2008, Saxony restructured its districts and changed the name of its Regierungsbezirke to Direktionsbezirke. This was necessary because one of the new districts did not fit with the borders of the old Regierungsbezirke, the Direktionsbezirke are still named Chemnitz, Dresden and Leipzig. As of 1 March 2012, the Direktionsbezirke were merged into one Landesdirektion, four of the new federal states re-established in 1990, Berlin, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Thuringia, decided not to implement Regierungsbezirke. In Bremen, Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein and Saarland they never existed, stettin, dissolved in 1945, Province of Pomerania Media related to Regierungsbezirk at Wikimedia Commons
7.
Lower Bavaria
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Lower Bavaria is one of the seven administrative regions of Bavaria, Germany, located in the east of the state. Lower Bavaria is subdivided into two regions - Landshut and Donau-Wald, recent election results mark it as the most conservative part of Germany, generally giving huge margins to the CSU. This part of Bavaria includes the Bavarian Forest, a well-known tourist destination in Germany, to the scenic attractions belong the River Danube and the Bavarian Forest with Mount Großer Arber. The duchy of Lower Bavaria was created for the first time with the First Bavarian partition in 1255 under duke Henry, after the reunification in 1340 Bavaria was divided again in 1349, in 1353 Bavaria-Straubing and Bavaria-Landshut were created in Lower Bavaria. In 1505 Bavaria was irrevocably reunited, after the founding of the Kingdom of Bavaria the state was totally reorganised and, in 1808, divided into 15 administrative government regions, in Bavaria called Kreise. They were created in the fashion of the French departements, quite even in size and population, in the following years, due to territorial changes, the number of Kreise was reduced to 8. One of these was the Unterdonaukreis, in 1837 king Ludwig I of Bavaria renamed the Kreise after historical territorial names and tribes of the area. This also involved some border changes or territorial swaps, thus the name Unterdonaukreis changed to Lower Bavaria. The district capital was moved from Passau to Landshut, in 1971 Lower Bavaria again was reshaped when the districts covered were reshaped, too. Official website of government Official website of region
8.
Districts of Germany
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A German district is an administrative subdivision known as Landkreis, except in the states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein where it is known simply as Kreis. Most major cities in Germany are not part of a rural district, in this context, those cities are referred to as Kreisfreie Stadt or Stadtkreis. Rural districts are at a level of administration between the German states and the municipal governments. They correspond to level 3 administrative units of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, previously, the similar title Reichskreis was given to groups of states in the Holy Roman Empire. The related term Landeskommissariat was used for administrative divisions in some German territories until the 19th century. The majority of German districts are rural districts of which there are 295, cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants do not usually belong to a district, but take over district responsibilities themselves, similar to the concept of independent cities. These are known as urban districts —cities which constitute a district in their own there are currently 107 of them. As of 2011, approximately 25 million people live in these 107 urban districts, in North Rhine-Westphalia, there are some cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants which are not urban districts, for example Recklinghausen, Siegen, Paderborn, Bergisch Gladbach, Neuss and Moers. Nevertheless, these cities take over many district responsibilities themselves, although they are part of a larger rural district. Midsize towns can perform particular administrative functions of the district as well, the classification as midsize town is usually based on a towns registered population, but varies from state to state. Aachen, Hanover and Göttingen retain certain rights of an urban district, urban districts have these responsibilities and also those of the municipalities. The district council is the highest institution of a district and is responsible for all fundamental guidelines of regional self-administration. This council is elected every five years, except in Bavaria where it is elected every six years. Usually the administrative seat of a district is located in one of its largest towns. However, district council and administrative seat of rural districts are not situated within the district proper. Most of those districts are named after this central city as well. Moers is the biggest city in Germany that is neither an urban district, in parts of northern Germany, Landrat is also the name of the entire district administration, which in southern Germany is known as Kreisverwaltung or Landratsamt. In urban districts similar administrative functions are performed by a mayor, rural districts in some German states have an additional administrative commission called Kreisausschuss
9.
Burgomaster
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The name in English was derived from the Dutch burgemeester. In some cases, Burgomaster was the title of the head of state and head of government of a sovereign city-state, contemporary titles are commonly translated into English as mayor. Bürgermeister, in German, in Germany, Austria, and formerly in Switzerland, in Switzerland, the title was abolished mid-19th century, various current titles for roughly equivalent offices include Gemeindepräsident, Stadtpräsident, Gemeindeamtmann, and Stadtamtmann. Oberbürgermeister is the most common version for a mayor in a big city in Germany, the Ober- prefix is used in many ranking systems for the next level up including military designations. The mayors of cities, which comprise one of Germanys 112 urban districts usually bear this title. Urban districts are comparable to independent cities in the English-speaking world, however, also the mayors of some cities, which do not comprise an urban district, but often used to comprise one until the territorial reforms in the 1970s, bear the title Oberbürgermeister. In the Netherlands nominated by the council but appointed by the crown. In theory above the parties, in practice a high-profile party-political post, bourgmestre in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Democratic Republic of the Congo Bürgermeister Burmistras, derived from German. Burmistrz, a title, derived from German. The German form Oberbürgermeister is often translated as Nadburmistrz, the German-derived terminology reflects the involvement of German settlers in the early history of many Polish towns. Borgmästare, kommunalborgmästare, the title is not used in Sweden in present times, boargemaster Pormestari In history in many free imperial cities the function of burgomaster was usually held simultaneously by three persons, serving as an executive college. One of the three being burgomaster in chief for a year, the second being the prior burgomaster in chief, präsidierender Bürgermeister is now an obsolete formulation sometimes found in historic texts
10.
Free Democratic Party (Germany)
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The Free Democratic Party is a liberal and classical liberal political party in Germany. The FDP is led by Christian Lindner, the FDP was founded in 1948 by members of the former liberal political parties existing in Germany before World War II, the German Democratic Party and the German Peoples Party. For most of the Federal Republics history, it has held the balance of power in the Bundestag and it was a junior coalition partner to either the CDU/CSU or the Social Democratic Party of Germany. However, in the 2013 federal election the FDP failed to win any directly elected seats in the Bundestag, the FDP was therefore left without representation in the Bundestag for the first time in its history. The FDP strongly supports human rights, civil liberties, and internationalism, the party is traditionally considered centre-right, but it has shifted to the centre according to polls in recent years. Since the 1980s, the party has firmly pushed economic liberalism and it is a member of the Liberal International and Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe. Currently the FDP is represented in eight state parliaments and in the European Parliament, soon after World War II, the Soviet Union forced the creation of political parties. In September 1945, citizens in Hamburg established the Party of Free Democrats as a bourgeois Left Party, in the first state elections in Hamburg in October 1946 the party won 18.2 percent of the vote. The FDP secured between 7.8 and 29.9 percent of the 1946 vote in Greater Berlin and Saxony, the only states in Soviet-occupied territories that held free parliamentary elections. The FDP won Hesses 1950 state election with 31.8 percent, the Democratic Party of Germany was established in Rothenburg ob der Tauber on 17 March 1947 as a pan-German Party. Its leaders were Theodor Heuss and Wilhelm Külz, however, the project failed as a result of disputes over Külzs political direction. The Free Democratic Party was established on 11–12 December 1948 in Heppenheim, in Hesse, the proposed name, Liberal Democratic Party, was rejected by the delegates, who voted 64 to 25 in favour of the name Free Democratic Party. The partys first chairman was Theodor Heuss, his deputy was Franz Blücher, the place for the partys foundation was chosen deliberately, it was at the Heppenheim Assembly that the moderate liberals had met in October 1847 before the March Revolution. Some regard the Heppenheim Assembly, which was held at the Halber Mond Hotel on 10 October 1847, the FDPs first Chairman, Theodor Heuss, was formerly a member of the DDP and after the war of the Democratic Peoples Party. In the first elections to the Bundestag on 14 August 1949, the FDP won a share of 11.9 percent. In September of the year the FDP chairman Theodor Heuss was elected the first President of the Federal Republic of Germany. In his 1954 re-election, he received the best election result to date of a President with 871 of 1018 votes of the Federal Assembly, Adenauer was also elected on the proposal of the new German President with an extremely narrow majority as the first Chancellor. The FDP participated with the CDU/CSU and the DP in Adenauers coalition cabinet, on the most important economic, social and German national issues, the FDP agreed with their coalition partners, the CDU/CSU
11.
Central European Summer Time
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It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
12.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
13.
Austro-Bavarian language
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Bavarian, is a major group of Upper German varieties spoken in the southeast of the German language area, largely covered by Bavaria and Austria. It forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants, the Bavarians as a group formed in the early medieval period, as the population of the Duchy of Bavaria, forming the south-eastern part of the kingdom of Germany. The Old High German documents from the area of Bavaria are identified as Altbairisch, the dialectal separation of Upper German into East Upper German and West Upper German becomes more tangible in the Middle High German period, from about the 12th century. Three main dialect groups in Bavarian are, Northern Bavarian, mainly spoken in Upper Palatinate, southern Bavarian in Tyrol, South Tyrol, Carinthia, Styria, and the southern parts of Salzburg and Burgenland. Differences are clearly noticeable within those three subgroups, which in Austria often coincide with the borders of the particular states, for example, each of the accents of Carinthia, Styria, and Tyrol can be easily recognised. Also, there is a difference between eastern and western central Bavarian, roughly coinciding with the border between Austria and Bavaria. In addition, the Viennese dialect has some characteristics distinguishing it from all other dialects, in Vienna, minor, but recognizable, variations are characteristic for distinct districts of the city. In contrast to other varieties of German, Bavarian differs sufficiently from Standard German to make it difficult for native speakers to adopt standard pronunciation. All educated Bavarians and Austrians, however, can read, write and understand Standard German, in those regions, Standard German is restricted to use as the language of writing and the media. It is therefore referred to as Schriftdeutsch rather than the usual term Hochdeutsch. Bavaria and Austria officially use Standard German as the medium of education. This accent usually only exists in families where Bavarian is spoken regularly, families that do not use Bavarian at home usually use Standard German instead. In Austria, some parts of grammar and spelling are taught in Standard German lessons, as reading and writing in Bavarian is generally not taught at schools, almost all literate speakers of the language prefer to use Standard German for writing. Regional authors and literature may play a role in education as well, although there exist grammars, vocabularies, and a translation of the Bible in Bavarian, there is no common orthographic standard. Poetry is written in various Bavarian dialects, and many pop songs use the language as well, although Bavarian as a spoken language is in daily use in its region, Standard German, often with strong regional influence, is preferred in the mass media. On the use of Bavarian and standard German in Austria see Austrian German, ludwig Thoma is a noted author who wrote works such as Lausbubengeschichten in Bavarian. There is a Bavarian Wikipedia, completely in Bavarian, notes, The phoneme /h/ is frequently realised as or word-internally, while it is realised as word-initially. Intervocalic /s/ can be voiced to, Bavarian has an extensive vowel inventory, as is common for Germanic languages
14.
Isar
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The Isar is a river in Tyrol, Austria and Bavaria, Germany. Its source is in the Karwendel range of the Alps in Tyrol, it enters Germany near Mittenwald, and flows through Bad Tölz, Munich, at 295 km in length, it is the fourth largest river in Bavaria, after the Danube, Inn, and Main. It is Germanys second most important tributary of the Danube after the Inn, one theory is that the name Isar comes from the hypothetical Indo-European root *es or *is, which meant flowing water and later turned into a word for frozen water in Proto-Germanic. An older theory is that it comes from Celtic words and the name Isar is a construction of the Celtic stems ys fast, torrential, according to another interpretation ys may mean high as well as low, referring to the rapidly changing water level in the river Isar. Newer interpretations relate it to the Proto-Basque particle *its-, water, also seen in similar but otherwise unexplained river names, such as Vézère, Vizela, Weser and Vistula. The Isar drains a part of the Alps and parts of the Karwendel mountains northeast towards the Danube river. The drainage basin contains some 9,000 square kilometers, during the winter most of the precipitation in the Alps falls as snow. This results in a water flow during the spring meltdown. It has a discharge of 175 cubic meters per second. This makes it comparable to other medium-sized rivers in Germany, like the Moselle, Lech or Main. Apart from the larger tributaries Amper and Loisach many smaller rivers empty into the Isar, such as the Leutasch, the Jachen, the Dürrach, the Dorfen, the Sempt, the Pfettrach and the Gleirschbach. The official head of the Isar is located in the Hinterau valley east of the village Scharnitz in the Karwendel mountains in Tyrol, in 2003 the Isar spring was “developed”, however, this move has been discussed due to environmental reasons. The Lavatsch, which is the Isar’s longest headstream, has its source farther to the southeast near a cabin named Hallangerhaus. It is also called the Isar’s head. Further on the young Isar is supplied water by the Birkkarbach, which has its source at the foot of the highest mountain of the Karwendel, the Birkkarspitze, between Mittenwald and Krün the Isar is dammed for the first time. Its waters are led into the lake Walchensee where electricity is generated, to make more energy generation possible and also to avoid flooding farther down the river a large reservoir called Sylvensteinsee was created between 1954 and 1959. It is located some 12 km south of Lenggries and it has prevented some bad floods in Munich, for example in 1979,1999 and most important, in 2005. In that year for the first time ever water had to be released from the lake because its capacity was exhausted, flooding was barely avoided in Munich
15.
Administrative division
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Administrative divisions are granted a certain degree of autonomy and are usually required to manage themselves through their own local governments. Countries are divided up into smaller units to make managing their land. For example, a country may be divided into provinces, which, in turn, are divided into counties, which, in turn, may be divided in whole or in part into municipalities, and so on. Administrative divisions are separate from dependent territories, with the former being an integral part of the state. However, the administrative division can include dependent territories as well as accepted administrative divisions. For clarity and convenience the standard reference for the largest administrative subdivision of a country is called the first-level administrative division or first administrative level. Next smaller is called second-level administrative division or second administrative level, there is no fixed rule, for all politics is local as is perhaps well demonstrated by their relative lack of systemic order. In the realm of self-government, any of these can and does occur along a stretch of road—which for the most part is passing through rural unsettled countryside. In British cultural legacy, most territorial entities begin with fairly expansive counties which encompass a large area. Within those entities are the large and small cities or towns, many sister cities share a water boundary which quite often serves as a border of both cities and counties. For example, Cambridge and Boston, Massachusetts appear to the traveler as one large city, while locally they each are quite culturally different. Sovereign state, a national or supra-national division, country, a national or sub-national division. Administrative division codes of the Peoples Republic of China GADM, a database of country administrative areas. ISO 3166-2, specifically Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions — Part 2
16.
Free state (government)
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Free state is a term occasionally used in the official titles of some states. Sometimes it asserts autonomy within a larger nation-state, sometimes it is used as a synonym for republic but not all free states have been republics. While the historical German free states and the Orange Free State were republican in form, the republican sense derives from libera res publica, a term used by Roman historians for the period of the Roman republic. The Commonwealth had a republican constitution, in Germany the term free state comes from the 19th century as a German word for republic. After the German Revolution of November 1918, when Imperial Germany became the Weimar Republic, others used expressions like Republik or Volksstaat – though unpopular, as that term was associated with the enemy France. After the Nazis came to power they abolished the concept of a republic and all the states. The states were re-established after World War II, however, from 1952 only Bavaria still called itself a Free State, after the reunification, the reestablished Saxony used the name again in 1992 and Thuringia began to use it for the first time in 1993. Historically, Germany had Imperial Free Cities, who were only to the Emperor. In 1871 Germany knew three Free Cities, Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck, the last lost its status in 1937, since 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany has Hamburg and Bremen, and Berlin as a city which is also a state. Like the Free States these three cities have no rights in the federation. In contrast, the Congo Free State came into being between 1877 and 1884 as a kingdom or dictatorship of King Leopold II of Belgium. In this case, the term free emphasised the new freedom from major colonial powers. The Irish Free State of 1922-1937 was a form of monarchy under the British monarch. The Irish state was a case because the term free state was deliberately chosen as a literal translation of the Irish word saorstát. At the time in which Irish nationalists were negotiating the secession of most of Ireland from the United Kingdom the word saorstát was a commonly used Irish word for republic. The British did not wish to permit the creation of an Irish republic and so insisted that the literal translation of saorstát be used in the new states English title instead. However, according to the United States Supreme Court, Puerto Rico is not free or associated, it is only a state in the general sense, not as a state of the Union in the U. S. constitutional sense. According to consistent U. S. Supreme Court jurisprudence, Puerto Rico belongs to but is not a part of the United States
17.
Passau
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Passau is a town in Lower Bavaria, Germany. It is also known as the Dreiflüssestadt or City of Three Rivers, because the Danube is joined at Passau by the Inn from the south, passaus population is 50,000 of whom about 12,000 are students at the local University of Passau. It is renowned in Germany for its institutes of economics, law, theology, computer science, in the 2nd century BC, many of the Boii tribe were pushed north across the Alps out of northern Italy by the Romans. They established a new capital called Boiodurum by the Romans, now within the Innstadt district of Passau, Passau was an ancient Roman colony of ancient Noricum called Batavis, Latin for for the Batavi. The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe often mentioned by authors, and they were regularly associated with the Suebian marauders. During the second half of the 5th century, St. Severinus established a monastery here, from the 10th century the bishops of Passau also exercised secular authority as Prince-Bishops in the immediate area around Passau. In the Treaty of Passau, Archduke Ferdinand I, representing Emperor Charles V and this led to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. During the Renaissance and early period, Passau was one of the most prolific centres of sword. Passau smiths stamped their blades with the Passau wolf, usually a rather simplified rendering of the wolf on the citys coat-of-arms, superstitious warriors believed that the Passau wolf conferred invulnerability on the blades bearer, and thus Passau swords acquired a great premium. According to the Donau-Zeitung, aside from the wolf, some signs and inscriptions were added. As a result, the practice of placing magical charms on swords to protect the wearers came to be known for a time as Passau art. Other cities smiths, including those of Solingen, recognized the value of the Passau wolf. By the 17th century, Solingen was producing more wolf-stamped blades than Passau was, in 1662, a devastating fire consumed most of the city. Passau was subsequently rebuilt in the Baroque style, Passau was secularised and divided between the Electorate of Bavaria and the Electorate of Salzburg in 1803. The portion belonging to Salzburg became part of Bavaria in 1805, from 1892 until 1894, Adolf Hitler and his family lived in Passau. The city archives mention Hitler being in Passau on four different occasions in the 1920s for speeches, on November 3,1902 Heinrich Himmler and his family arrived from Munich. They lived at Theresienstraße 394 until September 2,1904, Himmler maintained contact with locals until May 1945. In November 1933, the building of Nibelungenhalle was announced, intended to hold 8,000 to 10,000 guests, and another 30,000 in front of it, in 1935 the hall also became quarters for a unit of the Austrian Legion
18.
Straubing
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Straubing is an independent city in Lower Bavaria, southern Germany. It is seat of the district of Straubing-Bogen, annually in August the Gäubodenvolksfest, the second largest fair in Bavaria, is held. The city is located on the Danube forming the centre of the Gäuboden, the area of Straubing has been continuously settled since the Neolithic. The conquest by the Romans in 16–14 BC had a impact on the whole region. Even today many traces of the 400-year Roman occupation can be found, for example, sorviodurum, as the Romans called it, was an important military support base. After the fall of the Roman Empire Straubing became a centre of settlement of the Bavarii, according to the customs of the Bavarii the settlement was named after their leader Strupinga, which later evolved into the name Straubing. In 1218 a new part of the city was founded by Duke Ludwig I Wittelsbach of Bavaria, Straubing became the capital of the Duchy of Bavaria-Straubing under Duke Wilhelm I when Bavaria was divided among the sons of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor in 1349. In 1429 Straubing passed to Ernest, Duke of Bavaria-Munich, who ordered the murder of Agnes Bernauer in Straubing, the grave of Agnes Bernauer cannot be found. But in the graveyard of St. Peters Church is a built by Duke Ernest. In 1633, during the Thirty Years War, the Swedish army successfully besieged the city, nowadays, this new town is the centre of Straubing with many shops, offices, restaurants and a pedestrian area. Most buildings there still have medieval style, the nightlife of Straubing, with many pubs and discothèques, is concentrated in this area. Between 1933 and 1945 most of the members of the then small Jewish community of Straubing were murdered or forced to emigrate, in 2006, Straubing had a lively Jewish community with around 950 members. During a rally in June 1940, when Straubing and Bogen held its Kriegskreistag, among the speakers were Gauleiter Wächtler and Gauamtsleiter Erbersdobler. In July 1940, the Donau-Zeitung reported that the Straubing Kreisleiter, Anton Putz, had flown toward France, in 1944 and 1945, Straubing suffered from several American air raids. The local military hospital was destroyed to the extent of 80 percent with a loss of 45 patients, in November 2016 a fire destroyed a greater part of the medieval town hall. Straubing has many areas and a port at the river Danube with access to the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal. It is the centre of the Bavarian high tech offensive in biotechnology, as one of five ducal residences of medieval Bavaria the old town of Straubing especially features many Gothic buildings. The Romanesque Church of St. Peter The Gothic City tower The Gothic town hall The medieval ducal castle or Herzogsschloss, Duke Albert I began the construction in 1356
19.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
20.
Landshut Wedding
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The Landshut Wedding is one of the largest historical pageants in Europe. Countless visitors from all over the world have taken part, or have been spectators of the Landshuter Hochzeit 1475, more than 2,000 participants in medieval costumes bring the festival to life to recreate the Late Middle Ages. It commemorates the wedding between Hedwig, the Polish Kings daughter, and George, the son of the Duke of Bavaria at Landshut. The original medieval wedding is re-enacted every four years, and everyone gets carried away with medieval jousting, pageantry, feasting and wedding processions for a short period in the summer. The festival is held in memory of the wedding between George of Bavaria, the son of the Bavarian duke, and Hedwig Jagiellon, daughter of King Casimir IV Jagiellon of Poland, the wedding was negotiated in 1474 in Kraków through legations. The marriage was important because it was seen as an alliance against the Ottoman Turks. At the time, most royal marriages were not entered into because of love and it took the bride two months to travel to Landshut, where she was received by princes and bishops. The bridal pair were married in St. Martins Church, afterwards the bridal procession proceeded through the Old Town to the Town Hall. Ten thousand people are said to have attended the affair and they were provided food, the exact recordings can be explained from the historical context with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 which led into to a longer period of growth of the Ottoman Empire. The marriage of the Polish princess with George the Rich was very profitable for the Polish king - the 32,000 Guilder bride wealth he received is worth about 6.5 million Euro in modern currency. The original motivation for the dates back to the foundation of the German Reich in 1871 which furthered German national pride. From these images the idea arose among citizens to recreate the event and finally the restaurant owner Georg Trippel and the factory owner Joseph Linnbrunner founded a society Die Förderer in 1902. The first Landshut Wedding recreation took place in 1903, only one year after the creation of the society, the Landshut Wedding play was subsequently presented annually from 1903 to 1914 and 1922 to 1938. During this time the number of actors involved increased to 2000, the Landshut Wedding became a triennial event from 1950 to 1968 and from 1975 to 1981. Since 1985 the Landshut Wedding has taken every four years. The number of members of Die Förderer society rose from 855 to 5000 during the years 1973 to 2004, the renewed interest in medieval history made the event a major success in terms of tourism. Today the 60,000 or so inhabitants of Landshut welcome 600,000 to 700,000 visitors during the three weeks of the festivities, with some 120,000 visitors watching the bridal procession. The sponsors are able to collect money in the range of 3.5 million Euro to allow for the event to take place, however, the real heroes of the Landshuter Hochzeit are the local citizens who act variously as bishops, aristocrats, bride and bridegroom
21.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
22.
Munich Airport
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Munich Airport, German, Flughafen München, is a major international airport near Munich, the capital of Bavaria. It is the second busiest airport in Germany in terms of traffic behind Frankfurt Airport. It is the worlds 15th busiest airport in terms of passenger traffic. As of February 2017, the airport features flights to 248 destinations, Munich Airport serves as the secondary hub for Lufthansa including Lufthansa Regional and its Star Alliance partners besides Frankfurt. The airport is located 28.5 km northeast of Munich near the old city of Freising and is named in memory of the former Bavarian Prime Minister Franz Josef Strauss, from 1939 to 1992, Munich was served by Munich-Riem Airport. First plans to expand or build a new airport were made in 1954 owing to the traffic flow-rate, the decision for building the new airport at Erdinger Moos was made on 5 August 1969 by the Bavarian government. When construction started on 3 November 1980, a village named Franzheim was demolished, the airport is located on the territory of four different municipalities, Oberding, Hallbergmoos, Freising, and Marzling in the district of Freising. The airport is named after Franz Josef Strauß, who played a prominent, albeit sometimes controversial, amongst other positions, Strauß was a long-time Minister-President of the state of Bavaria, where the airport is located and was initiated under his government. Strauß, having been a pilot himself, had a particular interest in the aviation industry. He is regarded one of the fathers of Airbus and served as chairman of its supervisory board. Naming the airport by its full name Flughafen München Franz Josef Strauß is fairly uncommon, the company that owns and operates the airport is named Flughafen München GmbH and brands itself as M – Flughafen München or M – Munich Airport. In the Munich area, most people use the term Flughafen München, sometimes Flughafen München II in order to distinguish from the earlier airport, or simply MUC for its IATA-code. The new Munich Airport commenced operation on 17 May 1992, when moved from the former site at Munich-Riem Airport. While Lufthansa serves more European destinations from Munich Airport than from Frankfurt Airport, Frankfurt has many more intercontinental routes, between 1995 and 2006 passenger numbers doubled from under 15 million per annum to over 30 million, despite the impact of the 11 September attacks in 2001 and 2002. In 1996 the airport overtook Düsseldorf as Germanys second busiest airport, in June 2003 construction of Terminal 2 was completed and it was inaugurated as an exclusive facility for Lufthansa and its Star Alliance partners. In November 2013, the airport introduced its first new design since its inauguration. The large letter M remains in a new font type, There are also animated color-changing versions of the M-sign placed throughout the airport area, for example on the main entrance road and on the new Terminal 2 satellite. In May 2015, Munich Airport became the first airport outside Asia to be ranked as a 5-Star Airport by Skytrax and it also won Best Airport in Europe for the eighth time
23.
River Isar
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The Isar is a river in Tyrol, Austria and Bavaria, Germany. Its source is in the Karwendel range of the Alps in Tyrol, it enters Germany near Mittenwald, and flows through Bad Tölz, Munich, at 295 km in length, it is the fourth largest river in Bavaria, after the Danube, Inn, and Main. It is Germanys second most important tributary of the Danube after the Inn, one theory is that the name Isar comes from the hypothetical Indo-European root *es or *is, which meant flowing water and later turned into a word for frozen water in Proto-Germanic. An older theory is that it comes from Celtic words and the name Isar is a construction of the Celtic stems ys fast, torrential, according to another interpretation ys may mean high as well as low, referring to the rapidly changing water level in the river Isar. Newer interpretations relate it to the Proto-Basque particle *its-, water, also seen in similar but otherwise unexplained river names, such as Vézère, Vizela, Weser and Vistula. The Isar drains a part of the Alps and parts of the Karwendel mountains northeast towards the Danube river. The drainage basin contains some 9,000 square kilometers, during the winter most of the precipitation in the Alps falls as snow. This results in a water flow during the spring meltdown. It has a discharge of 175 cubic meters per second. This makes it comparable to other medium-sized rivers in Germany, like the Moselle, Lech or Main. Apart from the larger tributaries Amper and Loisach many smaller rivers empty into the Isar, such as the Leutasch, the Jachen, the Dürrach, the Dorfen, the Sempt, the Pfettrach and the Gleirschbach. The official head of the Isar is located in the Hinterau valley east of the village Scharnitz in the Karwendel mountains in Tyrol, in 2003 the Isar spring was “developed”, however, this move has been discussed due to environmental reasons. The Lavatsch, which is the Isar’s longest headstream, has its source farther to the southeast near a cabin named Hallangerhaus. It is also called the Isar’s head. Further on the young Isar is supplied water by the Birkkarbach, which has its source at the foot of the highest mountain of the Karwendel, the Birkkarspitze, between Mittenwald and Krün the Isar is dammed for the first time. Its waters are led into the lake Walchensee where electricity is generated, to make more energy generation possible and also to avoid flooding farther down the river a large reservoir called Sylvensteinsee was created between 1954 and 1959. It is located some 12 km south of Lenggries and it has prevented some bad floods in Munich, for example in 1979,1999 and most important, in 2005. In that year for the first time ever water had to be released from the lake because its capacity was exhausted, flooding was barely avoided in Munich
24.
Louis I, Duke of Bavaria
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Ludwig I, called the Kelheimer or of Kelheim, since he was born and died at Kelheim, was the Duke of Bavaria from 1183 and Count Palatine of the Rhine from 1214. He was a son of Otto I and his wife Agnes of Loon, Ludwig was married to Ludmilla, a daughter of Duke Frederick of Bohemia. Soon after his fathers death in 1183, Ludwig was appointed under the guardianship of his uncle Conrad of Wittelsbach and his mother, Agnes, an energetic and enterprising leader, had taken over the regency of Bavaria in the mean time, securing her sons inheritance. This allowed Barbarossa to expand his domains within the Empire to include Regensburg and Sulzbach. Using that justification, Albert had designs to seize the Sulzbach domains from Emperor Henrys royal territory, Ludwig immediately attempted to mediate and called for a Hoftag in Laufen, which caught the attention of many great men within the Empire, to settle the dispute. Yet he could not stop the Count of Bogen and the Sulzbach land was taken, when Duke Ludwig turned against that, it came to war. Ludwigs forces were pushed back by the combined might of Count Albert, even when the vicious counter-attack of Leopold V, Duke of Austria and Berthold, Duke of Merania were not able to change the situation. And Ludwig had vowed to never stop until Count Albert was without Sulzbach. It was in the summer of 1192 at Worms where he received the German tradition of knighting, in exchange for this service, Ludwig was to remain, for the next decade and a half, on the side of the Staufen. In the struggle for the throne after the death of Henry VI and his continued support, however, had a price. When the Landgrave of Stefling died without an heir in 1196, instead of including the region over to his royal domain, Henry enfeoffed it to Ludwig instead. Suddenly, Eberhard, Archbishop of Salzburg and Conrad, Bishop of Regensburg, falling at variance, declared war on Duke Ludwig and it was only through Ludwigs character that peace was restored. The following year, in 1197, Ludwig went with the Emperor to Sicily to prepare for their departure for the German Crusade of 1197, but Henry had died of an illness, possibly Malaria, suddenly. Henrys death thus began a most difficult epoch in German history, while it was true that Emperor Henry was still alive when young Frederick was elected king at two years of age, he had no way of knowing his son would become challenged by such a force. Because of that, in 1198, it came to the double-election and this same year, Ludwigs old nemesis, Albert of Bogen, had died. Thus leaving him with one problem and one great opportunity. Ludwig took to wife the widowed Ludmilla of Bohemia in 1204 and this also gave him claim to the house of Bogens lands, if at least not directly. An old story goes that the Duke made her acquaintance with affection and she fearing he did it to delude her and this done, she begged of him to see her no more unless he promised to marry her before witnesses
25.
House of Wittelsbach
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The Wittelsbach family is a European royal family and a German dynasty from Bavaria. The family also provided two Holy Roman Emperors, one King of the Romans, two Anti-Kings of Bohemia, one King of Hungary, one King of Denmark and Norway, the familys head, since 1996, is Franz, Duke of Bavaria. Berthold, Margrave in Bavaria, was the ancestor of Otto I, Count of Scheyern, whose third son Otto II, the Counts of Scheyern left Scheyern Castle in 1119 for Wittelsbach Castle and the former was given to monks to establish Scheyern Abbey. Duke Ottos son Louis I, Duke of Bavaria acquired also the Electorate of the Palatinate in 1214. On Duke Otto IIs death in 1253, his sons divided the Wittelsbach possessions between them, Henry became Duke of Lower Bavaria, and Louis II Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine. When Henrys branch died out in 1340 the Emperor Louis IV, the Bavarian branch kept the duchy of Bavaria until its extinction in 1777. His six sons succeeded him as Duke of Bavaria and Count of Holland, the Wittelsbachs lost the Tyrol with the death of duke Meinhard and the following Peace of Schärding - the Tyrol was finally renounced to the Habsburgs in 1369. In 1373 Otto, the last Wittelsbach regent of Brandenburg, released the country to the House of Luxembourg, on Duke Alberts death in 1404, he was succeeded in the Netherlands by his eldest son, William. A younger son, John III, became Bishop of Liège, however, on Williams death in 1417, a war of succession broke out between John and Williams daughter Jacqueline of Hainaut. This last episode of the Hook and Cod wars finally left the counties in Burgundian hands in 1432, with the Landshut War of Succession Bavaria was reunited in 1505 against the claim of the Palatinate branch under the Bavarian branch Bavaria-Munich. From 1549 to 1567 the Wittelsbach owned the County of Kladsko in Bohemia, strictly Catholic by upbringing, the Bavarian dukes became leaders of the German Counter-Reformation. From 1583 to 1761, the Bavarian branch of the dynasty provided the Prince-electors and Archbishops of Cologne and many other Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, namely Liège. Wittelsbach princes served for example as Bishops of Regensburg, Freising, Liège, Münster, Hildesheim, Paderborn and Osnabrück, in 1623 under Maximilian I the Bavarian dukes were invested with the electoral dignity and the duchy became the Electorate of Bavaria. His grandson Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria served also as Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands and his son Emperor Charles VII was also king of Bohemia. With the death of Charles son Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria the Bavarian branch died out in 1777, the Palatinate branch kept the Palatinate until 1918 and succeeded also in Bavaria in 1777. With the Golden Bull of 1356 the Counts Palatine were invested with the electoral dignity, princes of the Palatinate branch served as Bishops of the Empire and also as Elector-Archbishops of Mainz and Elector-Archbishops of Trier. Jülich and Berg fell to the Wittelsbach Count Palatine Wolfgang William of Neuburg, in 1619, the Protestant Frederick V, Elector Palatine became King of Bohemia but was defeated by the Catholic Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, a member of the Bavarian branch. As a result, the Upper Palatinate had to be ceded to the Bavarian branch in 1623, when the Thirty Years War concluded with the Treaty of Münster in 1648, a new additional electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine
26.
Henry XVI, Duke of Bavaria
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Henry XVI of Bavaria, since 1393 Duke of Bavaria-Landshut. He was a son of duke Frederick and his wife Maddalena Visconti, Duke Henry XVI was the first of the three famous rich dukes, who reigned Bavaria-Landshut in the 15th century. Their residence was Trausnitz Castle in Landshut, a fortification which attained enormous dimensions and he united Louis’ enemies in the Parakeet Society of 1414 and the League of Constance of 1415. The pest killed Henry in 1450, he was succeeded by his son Louis IX the Rich, Henry banished his wife to Burghausen Castle to extend his freedom. His son and grandson took over this tradition and he was married in Landshut 25 November 1412 to Margarete of Austria, daughter of Duke Albert IV of Austria and Johanna Sophia of Bavaria. Johanna, married in Burghausen in 1430 to Count Palatine Otto I of Mosbach, Elisabeth, married in Stuttgart 1445 to Ulrich V, Count of Württemberg. He also had children, including Georg von Zangberg, Elisabeth
27.
Bavaria-Landshut
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Bavaria-Landshut was a duchy in the Holy Roman Empire from 1353 to 1503. The creation of the duchy was the result of the death of Emperor Louis IV the Bavarian, in the Treaty of Landsberg 1349, which divided up Louiss empire, his sons Stephen, William, and Albert were to receive jointly Lower Bavaria and the Netherlands. Four years later the inheritance was divided again in the Treaty of Regensburg 1353, in 1363 Stephen became also Duke of Upper Bavaria which was then re-united with Bavaria-Landshut. After Stephens death his three sons ruled the duchy jointly, but in 1392 Bavaria-Landshut was divided for the three dukes and so Bavaria-Munich and Bavaria-Ingolstadt were split off. In 1429 parts of Bavaria-Straubing were united with Bavaria-Landshut, as was the duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt in 1447. Bavaria-Landshut was then the richest part of Bavaria, also due to the mining in Rattenberg and Kitzbühel, the seat of the dukes was the Trausnitz Castle in Landshut until 1475, when they moved to the second residence at Burghausen Castle. The duchy lasted overall 150 years until the death of Georg the Rich triggered the Landshut War of Succession, at the wars end in 1505, the land was divided between the newly created duchy of Palatinate-Neuburg and Bavaria-Munich. Kufstein and Kitzbühel were ceded to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor as compensation for his support to Bavaria-Munich, 1500AD Map of Bavaria-Landshut at http, //www. euratlas. net/history/europe/1500/entity_5685. html
28.
George, Duke of Bavaria
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George of Bavaria referred to as the Rich, was the last Duke of Bavaria-Landshut. He was a son of Louis IX the Rich and Amalia of Saxony, George later became a strong ally of Emperor Maximilian I and supported his campaigns in Swabia, Switzerland, Geldern and Hungary. His wedding with the princess Hedwig Jagiellon, a daughter of King Casimir IV of Poland, the couple had five children, three sons and two daughters. However, none of their sons survived until Georges death, and per the restrictions of the Salic law practiced in medieval Germany, however, George tried to bequeath the duchy to his daughter Elizabeth and her husband Ruprecht of the Palatinate, third son of Philip, Elector Palatine. This led to a war of succession after Georges death in 1503/1504. Finally he was succeeded by Albert IV of Bavaria-Munich, only the new duchy of Palatinate-Neuburg passed to Ruprechts sons Otto-Henry, Elector Palatine and Philip. The most southern districts of Bavaria-Landshut Kufstein, Kitzbühel and Rattenberg passed to Emperor Maximilian and were united with Tyrol. George and Hedwig had the children, Ludwig of Bavaria Rupert of Bavaria Elisabeth of Bavaria, married Ruprecht of the Palatinate and was mother of Otto Henry. Margaret of Bavaria Wolfgang of Bavaria
29.
Hedwig Jagiellon, Duchess of Bavaria
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Hedwig Jagiellon, baptized as Hedwigis, was a Polish princess member of the Jagiellonian dynasty and by marriage Duchess of Bavaria. Born in Kraków, she was the eldest daughter of King Casimir IV of Poland of Poland, the efforts of Matthias Corvinus for Hedwigs hand are supported by both the Emperor and Pope Paul II. However, since 1462 Casimir IV had an alliance with George of Poděbrady, and Pope Pius II was suspicious about this after the Thirteen Years War, where Poland fights against the Teutonic Order. Despite this, Bishop Protas was chosen godfather in the baptism of the new son of King Casimir IV, born on 27 April 1467, in 1469 the Catholic party in the Kingdom of Bohemia formally offered the crown to Matthias Corvinus. George of Poděbrady sought the support of Poland, promising the succession of the eldest son of Casimir IV, Corvinus, feared of this Polish-Bohemian alliance, again requested the hand of Hedwig, who was refused. On 20 October 1470 Casimir IV and Frederick signed a treaty in the city of Graz, Matthias Corvinus asked the hand of Hedwig again in July 1471 and September 1473. At the end, the refusal was made by Queen Elizabeth. Casimir IV, in order to protect his borders with the Bohemian Kingdom. In 1473 the Polish deputies Stanisław Kurozwęcki and Paweł Jasieński, where sent to the Landshut court to begin talks for a marriage between Hedwig and George. As a result, in 7 or 10 September 1474, Duke Louis IX of Bavaria-Landshut sent a message asking Hedwigs hand for his son. Negotiations took place in the cities of Łęczyca and Radom, where on 30 December Hedwig agreed to marry George, the next day, the marriage contract was signed. Hedwig received as a dowry the amount of 32,000 Hungarian złoty, the cost of the trip of the Polish princess to her new home reached 100,000 złoty. Hedwig arrived with her family to Poznań, where on 10 October 1475 she said goodbye to them, with a numerous retinue she arrived to Wittenberg on 23 October. She accompanied, among others, by Anna, widow of Bolesław II, on 14 November 1475 Hedwig and her retinue finally entered in Landshut, an event which started the tradition of the famous medieval pageant Landshut Wedding. The wedding ceremony took place that day at St. Martins Church, with the service being officiated by Bernhard von Rohr, the proper wedding feast was held the next day, in which participated 9,000 people. In 1479 Hedwig became in Duchess consort of Bavaria-Landshut after the death of her father-in-law and her marriage was unsuccessful, her husband was known as an alcoholic and womanizer. Its unknown if she was accompanied by her children in this exile, Hedwig, who signed her letters as geborene Königin von Polen didnt maintain a close contact with her family. On 31 January 1503 her brother, King Alexander of Poland, Hedwig, Duchess of Bavaria-Landshut, died unexpectedly on 18 February 1502 at Burghausen Castle
30.
War of the Succession of Landshut
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The War of the Succession of Landshut resulted from a dispute between the duchies of Bavaria-Munich and Bavaria-Landshut. This agreement disregarded imperial law, which stipulated that the Holy Roman Emperor should inherit should a line fail, because of the agreement, Duke Albert of the Munich line did not accept this, leading to war in 1503. Over the course of this war, many villages surrounding Landshut were reduced to ashes. The two grandsons of George, Otto Henry and Philip, retained Palatinate-Neuburg, a region from the upper Danube over Franconia to the northern part of the Upper Palatinate. Neuburg an der Donau was chosen as the capital of the new state, because the two heirs had not yet reached their majority, Frederick II, Count Palatine of the Rhine, served as regent in a caretaker regime. The rest of the went to the Munich line of the House of Wittelsbach. As Count Palatine, Otto-Heinrich spent huge sums of money to build a palace at Neuburg an der Donau, through inheritance, he later became Elector Palatine, where his additions Ottheinrichsbau to Heidelberg Castle made him one of the most important builders of the German Renaissance
31.
Bavaria-Munich
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Bavaria-Munich was a duchy which was part of the Holy Roman Empire from 1392 to 1505. After the death of Stephen II in 1375, his sons Stephen III, Frederick, after seventeen years, the brothers decided to formally divide their inheritance. John received Bavaria-Munich, Stephen received Bavaria-Ingolstadt, while Frederick kept what remained of Bavaria-Landshut, in 1429 portions of Bavaria-Straubing including the city of Straubing were united with Bavaria-Munich. The duchy existed for a more than a hundred years before Bavaria was reunited under Albert IV
32.
Louis X, Duke of Bavaria
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Louis X, was Duke of Bavaria, together with his older brother William IV, Duke of Bavaria. His parents were Albert IV and Kunigunde of Austria, a daughter of Emperor Frederick III, though his father had determined the everlasting succession of the firstborn prince in 1506 Louis refused a spiritual career with the argument that he was born before the edict became valid. With support of his mother and the States-General, Louis forced his brother to him as co-regent in 1516. Louis then ruled the districts of Landshut and Straubing, in general in concord with his brother, like his brother he first showed sympathy for the Protestant Reformation but decided to take action against its expansion in Bavaria already in 1522. Both dukes also suppressed the uprising of farmers in South Germany in their duchies in 1525, since Louis claimed the Bohemian crown Bavaria was in opposition to the Habsburgs until 1534 when both dukes reached an agreement with Ferdinand I in Linz. After his visit in Italy Louis built the first Renaissance palace constructed north of the Alps, having no son Louis was succeeded by his brother William. This was finally the end of the divisions of the duchy of Bavaria and his illegitimate daughter was Anna von Leonsberg who married Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter. Media related to Louis X, Duke of Bavaria at Wikimedia Commons
33.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
34.
Palazzo del Te
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Palazzo del Te or Palazzo Te is a palace in the suburbs of Mantua, Italy. It is an example of the mannerist style of architecture. In Italian this now suggests use for tea-drinking, which may account for the divergence in usage, Palazzo del Te was constructed 1524–34 for Federico II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua. He decided in 1524 to build a palace, or Villa Suburbana. The site chosen was that of the stables at Isola Del Te on the fringe of the marshes just outside Mantuas city walls. The architect commissioned was Giulio Romano, a pupil of Raphael, the shell of the palazzo was erected within 18 months. It is basically a house built around a cloistered courtyard. A formal garden complemented the house and this was enclosed by colonnaded outbuildings terminated by a semi-circular colonnade known as the Esedra. Like the Villa Farnesina in Rome, the location allowed for a mixing of both Palace and Villa architecture. The four exterior façades have flat pilasters against rusticated walls, the fenestration indicating that the piano nobile is on the floor with a secondary floor above. The East façade differs from the three by having Palladian motifs on its pilaster and an open loggia at its centre rather than an arch to the courtyard. The facades are not as symmetrical as they appear, and the spans between the columns are irregular, the centre of the North and South facades are pierced by two-storey arches without portico or pediment, simply a covered way leading to the interior courtyard. Once the shell of the building was completed, for ten years a team of plasterers, carvers and fresco painters laboured, under Giulio Romanos direction, local decorative painters such as Benedetto Pagni and Rinaldo Mantovano worked extensively on the frescos. These frescoes remain today and are the most remarkable feature of the Palazzo, in July 1630, during the War of the Mantuan Succession, Mantua and the palace were sacked over three days by an Imperial army of 36,000 Landsknecht mercenaries. The remaining populace fell victim to one of the worst plagues in history that the invaders had brought with them, the Palazzo was looted from top to bottom and remained an empty shell, nymphs, god, goddesses and giants remain on the walls of the empty echoing rooms. Part of the Palazzo today houses the Museo Civico del Palazzo Te and it contains a collection of Mesopotamian art. Official website Mantua tourist guide Mantua tourist guide Summerson, John, The Classical Language of Architecture,1980 edition, Thames and Hudson World of Art series, ISBN0500201773
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Mantua
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Mantua is a city and commune in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua became Italian Capital of Culture, as chosen by the Italian Government on 27 October 2015, in 2017, Mantua will also be European Capital of Gastronomy, included in the Eastern Lombardy District. In 2007, Mantuas centro storico and Sabbioneta were declared by UNESCO to be a World Heritage Site. Mantuas historic power and influence under the Gonzaga family has made it one of the artistic, cultural, and especially musical hubs of Northern Italy. Mantua is noted for its significant role in the history of opera, the city is known for its architectural treasures and artifacts, elegant palaces. It is the place where the composer Monteverdi premiered his opera LOrfeo and it is the nearest town to the birthplace of the Roman poet Virgil, who was commemorated by a statue at the lakeside park Piazza Virgiliana. Mantua is surrounded on three sides by artificial lakes, created during the 12th century, as the defence system. These lakes receive water from the Mincio River, a tributary of the Po River which descends from Lake Garda, the three lakes are called Lago Superiore, Lago di Mezzo, and Lago Inferiore. A fourth lake, Lake Pajolo, which served as a defensive water ring around the city. These dated, without interruption, from Neolithic times to the Bronze Age and the Gallic phases, and ended with Roman residential settlements, which could be traced to the 3rd century AD. Mantua was a settlement which was first established about the year 2000 BC on the banks of River Mincio. In the 6th century BC, Mantua was an Etruscan village which, the name may derive from the Etruscan god Mantus. This new Roman territory was populated by soldiers of Augustus. Mantuas most famous ancient citizen is the poet Virgil, or Publius Vergilius Maro, after the fall of the western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Mantua was invaded in turn by Goths, Byzantines, Longobards, and Franks. In the 11th century, Mantua became a possession of Boniface of Canossa, the last ruler of that family was the countess Matilda of Canossa, who, according to legend, ordered the construction of the precious Rotonda di San Lorenzo in 1082. The Rotonda still exists today and was renovated in 2013, free Imperial City of Mantua After the death of Matilda of Canossa, Mantua became a free commune and strenuously defended itself from the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1198, Alberto Pitentino altered the course of River Mincio, three of these lakes still remains today and the fourth one, which ran through the centre of town, was reclaimed in the 18th century. Podesteria Rule From 1215, the city was ruled under the podesteria of the Gallic-Guelph Rambertino Buvalelli, during the struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, Pinamonte Bonacolsi took advantage of the chaotic situation to seize power of the podesteria in 1273
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William V, Duke of Bavaria
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It can also refer to William II of Provence. William V, Duke of Bavaria, called the Pious, was Duke of Bavaria from 1579 to 1597, William was born in Landshut, the son of Albert V and Anna of Austria. He received a Jesuit education and showed keen attachment to the Jesuit Counter Reformation tenets and his title the Pious was given to him because he devoted his daily routine to masses, prayer, contemplation, and devotional reading. He took part in public devotions, processions, and pilgrimages and his residence as crown prince was the ancient fortified Wittelsbach seat Trausnitz Castle in Landshut. Like his Wittelsbach father and grandfather, William was a supporter of the counter-reformation. This dignity remained in the possession of the family for nearly 200 years, two of his sons also followed ecclesiastical careers, Philipp Wilhelm became the Bishop of Regensburg and eventually a Cardinal, and Ferdinand succeeded his uncle, to become Archbishop of Cologne. In 1591, Wilhelm also expelled Salzburg from the Berchtesgaden Provostry, William is responsible for numerous executions due to Witch-hunt in his duchy. The Jesuit St. Michaels Church and college of the Jesuits were built in Munich between 1583 and 1597 as spiritual centers for the counter-reformation, williams spending on Church-related projects, including funding missionaries outside Bavaria—as far away as Asia and the Americas—put tremendous strain on the Bavarian treasury. The Italian confidence man Marco Bragadino who was promising to make copious amounts of gold to erase the Dukess debts was called upon by William V in 1590, and executed after he had failed. William abdicated on 15 October 1597 in favour of his son, Maximilian I and retired into a monastery where he spent the remainder of his life in contemplation and he died in 1626 in Schleissheim Palace. He is buried in St. Michaels Church, Munich, already as crown prince in Landshut William patronised the arts. Michaels Church, of the college and of the palace Wilhelminische Veste in Munich. The sculptors Hans Krumpper and Hubert Gerhard along with painters Peter Candid, the history of Schleissheim Palace started with a renaissance country house and hermitage founded by William. In 1589 William initialized the Hofbräu Brewery, married Renata of Lorraine in Munich on 22 February 1568. Albert VI, in 1612 married Mechthilde v. Leuchtenberg Magdalene of Bavaria and her tomb is in Hofkirche Neuburg a. d. Donau), in 1613 married Wolfgang Wilhelm, Pfalzgraf von Neuburg Encyclopædia Britannica,1910 edition genealogy
37.
Trausnitz Castle
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Trausnitz Castle is a medieval castle situated in Landshut, Bavaria in Germany. It was the home of the Wittelsbach dynasty, and it served as their residence for Lower Bavaria from 1255–1503. The castle was founded in 1204 by Duke Ludwig I, the Knights Hall of Castle Trausnitz belongs to the main buildings of the 13th century and there were already around 1260/70. The room is 245 m² and is separated in two naves, to four Jochen a nave, the constructions that were used belong to the time period of the so-called Zisterziensergotik. Today the Knights Hall is used for banquets or for short exhibitions. The Loggia, already called so since 1493, was finished in the 16th century, the Tower Terrace sports a great view of the city through the round arcs. On the east side there is a stair tower, the wooden ceiling with shaped rosettes is descended from the time of Wilhelm V. There is a stone walled music platform on the side of the room. The Söller is today used for different functions, and it holds a maximum of 99 people. The White Hall is on the first floor of the Dürnitz tract and is directly above the Knights Hall, the White Hall has probably existed since the 15th century and was probably planned as a big ballroom. It appears that the hall was never finished, because there are no traces of paintings as usual for the castle at this time, the about 240 m² tall room, which is two floors large, is today used for banquets, greetings, concerts and lectures. The visitors can enjoy the view over the ancient city of Landshut. Popular, visual and encyclopedic in their approach, these cabinets, or Wunderkammern and these collections of curious objects that are seemingly not human in nature require the idea or application of human characteristics and traits to describe their inhuman state. It was reopened in September 2004 as one part of the Bavarian National Museum, the chamber is divided into four different themes. ARTIFICIALA—wondrous legerdemains—contains sumptuous bronze and painting but also midget carving of plum stones, nATURALIA—the wonder of nature—gets shown stuffed animals, extraordinary horns, mussels and minerals. Trausnitz Castle is situated atop a hill above Landshut, before the 16th century, it had the same name as the town, Landshut, which translates into protector of the land. Previously, the castle guarded over the city and the surrounding land, the size of the castle has remained almost the same since Louis I of Bavaria in 1204. The castle was completed by the time of Emperor Frederick IIs visit in 1235, during the first half of the 13th century, Trausnitz represented not only the centre of imperial politics but also of Staufer culture
38.
University of Ingolstadt
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The University of Ingolstadt was founded in 1472 by Louis the Rich, the Duke of Bavaria at the time, and its first Chancellor was the Bishop of Eichstätt. It consisted of five faculties, humanities, sciences, theology, law and medicine, the university was modeled after the University of Vienna. Its chief goal was the propagation of the Christian faith, the university closed in May 1800, by order of the Prince-elector Maximilian IV. Among its most famous instructors in the late 15th century were the poet Conrad Celtes, the Hebrew scholar Johannes Reuchlin, and the Bavarian historian Johannes Thurmair. The Illuminati movement was founded on May 1,1776, in Ingolstadt, by Jesuit-taught Adam Weishaupt, the movement was made up of freethinkers, as an offshoot of the Enlightenment. Writers at the time, such as Seth Payson, believed the movement represented a conspiracy to infiltrate, the groups adherents were given the name Illuminati, although they called themselves Perfectibilists. The group has also called the Illuminati Order and the Bavarian Illuminati. In 1777, Karl Theodor became ruler of Bavaria and he was a proponent of Enlightened Despotism and, in 1784, his government banned all secret societies, including the Illuminati. The Illuminatis members pledged obedience to their superiors, and were divided into three classes, each with several degrees. The order had its branches in most countries of the European continent, the organization had its attraction for literary men, such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Gottfried Herder, and even for the reigning dukes of Gotha and Weimar. Weishaupt had modeled his group to some extent on Freemasonry, internal rupture and panic over succession preceded its downfall, which was effected by the Secular Edict made by the Bavarian government in 1785. In Ecks wake, many Jesuits were appointed to key positions in the school, noted scholars of this period include the theologian Gregory of Valentia, the astronomer Christopher Scheiner, Johann Baptist Cysat, and the poet Jacob Balde. The Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II received his education at the university, the 18th century gave rise to the Enlightenment, a movement that in some quarters was opposed to the church-run universities of which Ingolstadt was a prime example. On November 25,1799, the elector Maximilian IV announced that the depleted finances had become too great a weight for him to bear. In 1826 King Ludwig I moved the university to the capital Munich, the modern successor of Bavarias oldest university is the WFI - Ingolstadt School of Management, one of Germanys foremost business schools. Victor Frankenstein from Mary Shelleys novel Frankenstein was a student at the University of Ingolstadt. In the 1931 film adaptation, the school is called Goldstadt Medical College
39.
Thirty Years' War
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The Thirty Years War was a series of wars in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. It was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as the deadliest European religious war, resulting in eight million casualties. Initially a war between various Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmented Holy Roman Empire, it developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers. These states employed relatively large mercenary armies, and the war became less about religion, in the 17th century, religious beliefs and practices were a much larger influence on an average European than they are today. The war began when the newly elected Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II, tried to impose uniformity on his domains. The northern Protestant states, angered by the violation of their rights to choose that had granted in the Peace of Augsburg. Ferdinand II was a devout Roman Catholic and relatively intolerant when compared to his predecessor and his policies were considered strongly pro-Catholic. They ousted the Habsburgs and elected Frederick V, Elector of the Rhenish Palatinate as their monarch, Frederick took the offer without the support of the union. The southern states, mainly Roman Catholic, were angered by this, led by Bavaria, these states formed the Catholic League to expel Frederick in support of the Emperor. The Empire soon crushed this rebellion in the Battle of White Mountain. After the atrocities committed in Bohemia, Saxony finally gave its support to the union, Spain, wishing to finally crush the Dutch rebels in the Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, intervened under the pretext of helping its dynastic Habsburg ally, Austria. No longer able to tolerate the encirclement of two major Habsburg powers on its borders, Catholic France entered the coalition on the side of the Protestants in order to counter the Habsburgs. Both mercenaries and soldiers in fighting armies traditionally looted or extorted tribute to get operating funds, the war also bankrupted most of the combatant powers. The Thirty Years War ended with the treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, the war altered the previous political order of European powers. Lutherans living in a prince-bishopric could continue to practice their faith, Lutherans could keep the territory they had taken from the Catholic Church since the Peace of Passau in 1552. Those prince-bishops who had converted to Lutheranism were required to give up their territories and this added a third major faith to the region, but its position was not recognized in any way by the Augsburg terms, to which only Catholicism and Lutheranism were parties. The Dutch revolted against Spanish domination during the 1560s, leading to a war of independence that led to a truce only in 1609. This dynastic concern overtook religious ones and led to Catholic Frances participation on the otherwise Protestant side of the war, Sweden and Denmark-Norway were interested in gaining control over northern German states bordering the Baltic Sea
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Bernard of Saxe-Weimar
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Bernard of Saxe-Weimar was a German prince and general in the Thirty Years War. Born in Weimar within the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, Bernard was the son of Johann, Duke of Saxe-Weimar. Bernard received a good education and studied at the University of Jena. When King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden landed in Germany Bernard quickly joined him, in this year he was granted the former Bishoprics of Würzburg and Bamberg, being granted the title of Duke of Franconia. He installed one of his brothers as Statthalter, and returned to the wars. A stern Protestant, he exacted heavy contributions from the Catholic cities which he took, but in 1634 Bernard suffered a great defeat at Nördlingen, losing the best of the Swedish army. In 1635 Bernard entered the service of France, which had by then intervened in the war and he was at the same time general-in-chief of the forces maintained by the Heilbronn League of Protestant princes, and a general officer in the pay of France. From a military point of view his most notable achievements were on the ground of the upper Rhine. He died at Neuenburg am Rhein at the beginning of the campaign, the governor of Breisach was bribed to transfer the fortress to France. Bernard was buried at Breisach, his remains being removed to Weimar. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Hellfeld, Geschichte Bernhards des Grossen, Herzogs v. Saxe-Weimar B, grosse von Saxe-Weimar Droysen, Bernhard v. Weimar
41.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
42.
Dachau concentration camp
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Dachau concentration camp was the first of the Nazi concentration camps opened in Germany, intended to hold political prisoners. It is located on the grounds of a munitions factory northeast of the medieval town of Dachau, about 16 km northwest of Munich in the state of Bavaria. The Dachau camp system grew to include nearly 100 sub-camps, which were work camps or Arbeitskommandos. The camps were liberated by U. S. forces on 29 April 1945, There were 32,000 documented deaths at the camp, and thousands that are undocumented. Approximately 10,000 of the 30,000 prisoners were sick at the time of liberation, in the postwar years the Dachau facility served to hold SS soldiers awaiting trial. After 1948, it held ethnic Germans who had expelled from eastern Europe and were awaiting resettlement. It was finally closed in 1960, There are several religious memorials within the Memorial Site, which is open to the public. After the takeover of Bavaria on 9 March 1933, Heinrich Himmler, then Chief of Police in Munich, began to speak with the administration of an unused gunpowder and he toured the site to see if it could be used for quartering protective-custody prisoners. The Concentration Camp at Dachau was opened 22 March 1933, with the arrival of about 200 prisoners from Stadelheim Prison in Munich and it became the first regular concentration camp established by the coalition government of the National Socialist German Workers Party and the German National Peoples Party. Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, and emigrants were sent to Dachau after the 1935 passage of the Nuremberg Laws which institutionalized racial discrimination, in early 1937, the SS, using prisoner labor, initiated construction of a large complex capable of holding 6,000 prisoners. The construction was completed in mid-August 1938. More political opponents, and over 11,000 German and Austrian Jews were sent to the camp after the annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland in 1938. Sinti and Roma in the hundreds were sent to the camp in 1939, the prisoners of Dachau concentration camp originally were to serve as forced labor for a munition factory, and to expand the camp. It was used as a center for SS guards and was a model for other concentration camps. The camp was about 300 m ×600 m in rectangular shape, the prisoners entrance was secured by an iron gate with the motto “Arbeit macht frei”. This reflected Nazi propaganda, which trivialized concentration camps as labor and re-education camps, as of 1938, the procedure for new arrivals occurred at the Schubraum, where prisoners were to hand over their clothing and possessions. One former Luxembourgian prisoner, Albert Theis, reflected about the room, everything had to be handed over, money, rings, watches. The camp included a building that contained offices for the Gestapo trial commissioner, SS authorities
43.
Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
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Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
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Landshut travel guide from Wikivoyage
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Landshut". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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