1.
Pueblo Libre
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Pueblo Libre is a district of the Lima Province in Peru and one of the districts that comprise the city of Lima. The district was created by law 9162 on November 5,1940, the current mayor of Pueblo Libre is Jhonel Leguia and the districts postal code is 21. Pueblo Libre is a residential community and has the most parks in Lima, although it has several branches of banks, local private universities. With a Human Development Index HDI of 0.7667 in 2007, a high level, educational coverage is 98% and service coverage reaches 99. 7%. Pueblo Libre was founded in 1557 as Magdalena Vieja, before being renamed Free Town in 1821 by José de San Martín, the name was given because of the great patriotism and desire for freedom San Martin saw from the people. Simón Bolívar, a liberator from South America, lived in Pueblo Libre and his colonial mansion is known today as the Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia Peru which has collections of artefacts from Peruvian culture. Pueblo Libre has a rich history - museums, famous restaurants, one of Pueblo Libres oldest attractions is La Cruz del Viajero. The cross was a symbol of faith and protection the conquistadores brought from Spain, francisco Pizarro placed the cross in Pueblo Libre, soldiers would pray before going to war or when making a hard distant journey. Pueblo Libre is not short of places to eat great Creole food, situated not a long walk from Pueblo Libres pleasant plaza is the Museo Rafael Larco Hererra, which houses the largest collection of Moche artefacts in the country. But perhaps the most visited museum in Lima is the Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia Peru and this museum is known for having one of the best pre-Columbian exhibits in the world. It offers incredible Paracas textiles and a selection of pottery. In the history section of the museum, it documents of the brutality of the Spaniards in the country, the district has a total land area of 4.38 km². Its administrative center is located 90 meters above sea level.7 persons/km² and 19,792 households
2.
Lima
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Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
3.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
4.
Pre-Columbian art
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Pre-Columbian art thrived throughout the Americas from at least 13,000 BCE to the European conquests, and sometimes continued for a time afterwards. Many Pre-Columbian cultures did not have writing systems, so visual art expressed cosmologies, world views, religion, and philosophy of these cultures, as well as serving as mnenomic devices. Unfortunately, many of the surfaces, such as woven textiles, typically have not been preserved, but Precolumbian painting on ceramics, walls. The Mesoamerican cultures are divided into three periods, Pre-classic Classic Post-classic. The Pre-classic period was dominated by the highly developed Olmec civilization, the Olmecs produced jade figurines, and created heavy-featured, colossal heads, up to 2 meters high, that still stand mysteriously in the landscape. The Mesoamerican tradition of building large ceremonial centres appears to have begun under the Olmecs, during the Classic period the dominant Civilization was the Maya. Like the Mississippian peoples of North America such as the Choctaw and Natchez and they practised their own forms of hieroglyphic writing and even advanced astronomy. Mayan art consequently focuses on rain, agriculture, and fertility, expressing these images mainly in relief and surface decoration, glyphs and stylized figures were used to decorate architecture such as the pyramid temple of Chichén Itzá. Murals dating from about 750 CE were discovered when the city of Bonampak was excavated in 1946, the Post-classic period was dominated by the Toltecs who made colossal, block-like sculptures such as those employed as free-standing columns at Tula, Mexico. The Mixtecs developed a style of painting known as Mixtec-Puebla, as seen in their murals and codices, in the Andean region of South America, the Chavín civilization flourished from around 1000 BCE to 300 BCE. The Chavín produced small-scale pottery, often human in shape but with features such as bird feet, reptilian eyes. Representations of jaguar are a theme in Chavín art. The Chavin culture is noted for the spectacular murals and carvings found its main religious site of Chavin de Huantar, these works include the Raimondi Stela, the Lanzón. Contemporary with the Chavin was the Paracas culture of the southern coast of Peru and these amazing productions, some of which could measure ninety feet long, were primarily used for as burial wraps for Paracas mummy bundles. Paracas art was influenced by the Chavín cult, and the two styles share many common motifs. On the south coast, the Paracas were immediately succeeded by a flowering of artistic production around the Nazca river valley, the Nazca period is divided into eight ceramic phases, each one depicting increasingly abstract animal and human motifs. These period range from Phase 1, beginning around 200 CE, to Phase 8, the Nasca people are most famous for the Nazca lines, though they are usually regarded as making some of the most beautiful polychrome ceramics in the Andes. On the north coast, the Moche succeeded the Chavin, for the Moche, ceramics functioned as a primary way of disseminating information and cultural ideas
5.
Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
6.
Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal, eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. From September 2,1564 to November 26,1569 he was viceroy of Peru. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, in 1544, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V named Blasco Núñez Vela Perus first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco Álvarez de Toledo. Toledo made a tour of inspection of the colony. He improved the safety in the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, still, Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón sent out the third expedition to explore the Amazon River, under Cristóbal de Acuña. Many Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century and these included New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands and the Marquesas Islands by Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon, meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people, in fact as time passed they were used as a self funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low level war of territorial conquest. In 1617, Francisco de Borja y Aragón divided the government of Río de la Plata into two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Viceroy Borja y Aragón also established the Tribunal del Consulado, a special court, Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain. Fernández de Cabrera suppressed an insurrection of the Uru and Mapuche Indians, viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of Valdivia, Valparaíso, Arica and Callao and constructed city walls in Lima, nevertheless, the famous English privateer Henry Morgan took Chagres and captured and sacked the city of Panama in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by Edward David, Charles Wager, the Peace of Utrecht allowed the British to send ships and merchandise to the fair at Portobello. In this period, revolts were common, around 1656, Pedro Bohórquez crowned himself Inca of the Calchaquí Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against the colonial government, the clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy Diego Ladrón de Guevara had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the hacienda of Huachipa de Lima, there were terrible earthquakes and epidemics, too
7.
Pyramid
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A pyramid is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge to a single point at the top, making the shape roughly a pyramid in the geometric sense. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape, as such, a pyramid has at least three outer triangular surfaces. The square pyramid, with base and four triangular outer surfaces, is a common version. A pyramids design, with the majority of the closer to the ground. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures and it has been demonstrated that the common shape of the pyramids of antiquity, from Egypt to Central America, represents the dry-stone construction that requires minimum human work. Pyramids have been built by civilizations in many parts of the world, khufus Pyramid is built mainly of limestone, and is considered an architectural masterpiece. It contains over 2,000,000 blocks ranging in weight from 2.5 tonnes to 15 tonnes and is built on a base with sides measuring about 230 m. Its four sides face the four cardinal points precisely and it has an angle of 52 degrees and it is still the tallest pyramid. The largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, the Mesopotamians built the earliest pyramidal structures, called ziggurats. In ancient times, these were painted in gold/bronze. Since they were constructed of sun-dried mud-brick, little remains of them, ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a complex which included other buildings. The precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the fourth millennium BC, the earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period. The latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BC, built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside, the facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks, the number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, but there is no evidence for this. Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a ramp from base to summit
8.
Huaco (pottery)
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Huacos are not mere earthenware but notable pottery specimens linked to ceremonial, religious, artistic or aesthetic uses in central Andean, pre-Columbian civilizations. The Huari, along with the Nazca, the Moche and others, were among the creators of figurines who passed down through history their unique skills in ceramics. The Incas, who absorbed all the cultures in the time of its expansion, since the time of the Spanish conquest of Peru, these types of pieces have been found in pre-Columbian sites like temples, graves and burials, as well as other kinds of ruins. These sites, especially if they are of a meaning, are called generic huaca or waqa in native Quechua. In Peru, a huaquero is a person that digs in ancient pre-Columbian ruins illegally in order to get pieces of artwork. The bridge handles are characteristic of cultures, some used many colors, while others used black. Inca Empire adopted all sorts of shapes, styles and qualities, the term huaco was reserved for any copies not reserved for daily use but the luxury or ritual. Normally these ceramic pieces are associated with notable features, when the pieces are sculptural ceramics, huacos are characterized by pictorial richness. There are many kinds of pots and containers covered with gaudy polychrome motifs, usually anthropomorphic representations of animals or mythological, erotica, two-toned Moche pottery is characterized by complex painted scenes detailing a narrative level. Examples of erotic huacos, make the Moches 800-year period the longest unbroken erotic ceramics tradition in the world, in the 1570s during the Spanish conquest of Peru, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo and his clerical advisers worked to destroy many erotic huacos, though some extant artifacts have survived. In both cases the huaco is associated with complexity and not with regular use as a container on account of its physical dimensions. The slender Incan vessels known as aryballos, even opulently created examples, are not usually considered huacos since their utilitarian character is too pronounced, the National Museum of the Archaeology, Anthropology, and History of Peru in Lima, Peru houses a large number of ceramic artifacts. The nearby Larco Museum houses a collection of Moche ceramics and is well known for its collection of erotic pottery
9.
Rafael Larco Hoyle
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Rafael Larco Hoyle, raised at Chiclin, his familys estate, was sent to school in Maryland, United States, at the age of twelve. He later entered Cornell University to study engineering and by 1923 returned to Peru to work on the familys sugar cane plantation. After spending most of his youth abroad, Larco Hoyle arrived to Peru with the eyes of an outsider, with this foreigners curiosity he explored the country and discovered an ancient cultural patrimony in the north coast. Larco Hoyle recognized the need to house these objects in a safe place and it was at that point, Larco Hoyle dreamt of a museum, one like he had seen in the United States. In 1925, Larco Hoyles father, Rafael Larco Herrera acquired a collection of vases and other pieces from Alfredo Hoyle. There were approximately 600 ceramic pieces in all, the arrival of these objects ignited a collectors enthusiasm in Larco Hoyle. Soon after, Larco Herrera left his son in charge of the collection, during that same year, Larco Hoyle received some advice from his uncle, Victor Larco Herrera, a founder of the first museum in Lima. He urged Larco Hoyle to form a new museum in Lima, Larco Hoyle agreed with his uncle. He yearned to erect a monument in honor of his father whom he admired so much for his patriotism. He got to work creating a museum that would carry on his fathers legacy, Larco Hoyle purchased two large collections,8000 pieces from Roa and 6000 pieces from Carranza. He also purchased several small collections in Chicama Valley, Trujillo, Virú, within a year, the collection had grown significantly and display cases were installed in a small house on the Chiclín estate. On July 28,1926, Independence Day, the Rafael Larco Herrera Museum opened its doors to the public, with the museum up and running and a collection of approximately 30,000 pieces, Larco Hoyle began classifying the collection. Peruvian archaeology was in its infancy and Larco Hoyle realized many typologies were yet to be recognized and he set out to correct that and approached archaeological research academically. During the 1930s, he discovered many distinct Peruvian cultures such as Viru, Salinar, Cupisnique, the focus of his research became the Mochica culture. In 1946, Larco Hoyle, director of the Larco Museum, developed the first Peruvian chronology of ancient cultures, discovery of the archeological site of Cupisnique. Discovery of the Virú culture in the cemeteries of Pampa de los Cocos, discovery of Queneto and its ceramics. Discovery of the pre- Cupisnique ceramics, discovery of the cemeteries containing ceramics called Cupisnique de Santa Ana and the culture of the same name. Discovery of the cemeteries containing ceramics called Cupisnique de Santa Ana, discovery of tombs with hybrid ceramics Mochica - Virú
10.
Trujillo, Peru
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Trujillo is a city in coastal northwestern Peru and the capital of La Libertad Region. It is the third most populous city and center of the second most populous area of Peru. It is located on the banks of the Moche River, near its mouth at the Pacific Ocean and this was a site of the great prehistoric Moche and Chimu cultures before the Inca conquest and subsequent expansion. Trujillo is the birthplace of Perus judiciary, and it was designated as the capital of the country. It was the scene of the Revolution of Trujillo in 1932, Trujillo is considered the cradle of liberty and cradle of the judiciary in Peru. It has sponsored national and international cultural events, and has a lively arts community. Current festivals include the National Marinera Festival, the Trujillo Spring Festival and the International Book Festival, the city center contains many examples of colonial and religious architecture, often incorporating distinctive wrought ironwork. It includes residential areas, a business district, and industrial supply distribution to the various districts. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trujillo has its seat here, in 2012 Trujillo was selected by IBM to participate in a Smarter Cities Challenge project intended to improve public safety and transportation through technology. The North Group was formed here, with Eduardo González Viaña, the city presents important national festivals, such as Marinera Festival, Spring Festival, and competitions for the paso horse and caballito de totora. The coat of arms of the city was awarded on December 7,1537 by Royal Decree issued by the King of Spain, Charles V. The flag is the coat of arms on a white background, Also it is flown every December 29 to commemorate the proclamation of independence of Trujillo in 1820. The anthem was written by Ramiro Mendoza Sánchez with music composed by Ramiro Herrera Orbegoso and it is performed mainly for official civic ceremonies, by bands of musicians. The history of Trujillo has its beginning in ancient times, as the area at the mouth of the Moche River was long a center of successive pre-European cultures and they extended their domains along the northern coast of Peru. The archaeological history of this goes back to the early pre-ceramic period. For example, Huaca Prieta was occupied as early as 4700 BC, several ancient cultures developed in this area, the Cupisnique, the Moche and Chimu. Numerous archaeological sites and monumental remains attest to the degree of complexity of these civilizations. Among the Cupisnique culture sites are Caballo Muerto and Huaca Prieta, the Moche culture sites include huacas, the Temples of the Sun and Moon south of the city, the Huaca del Dragón and the Huaca Esmeralda to the north, and others
11.
Chimbote
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Chimbote is the largest city in the Ancash Region of Peru, and the capital of both Santa Province and Chimbote District. The city is located on the coast in Chimbote Bay,130 km south of Trujillo and 420 kilometers north of Lima on the North Pan-American highway and it is the start of a chain of important cities on the Peruvian north coast like Trujillo, Chiclayo and Piura. The advantages of this location made Chimbote into a transshipment junction for the Santa River valley. In 1835, when General Santa Cruz granted Chimbotes first official acknowledgement, in 1871, an agreement was made with Henry Meiggs to build a railroad towards the interior of the country. Chimbote was classified as a port, even though its population remained around 1,000, the opening of the Pan-American Highway created easy access to Lima in the 1930s. In 1881, there was an attempt to cede a naval base to the U. S. in Chimbote Bay by Peru. The deal was blocked by Chile who sent its marines to occupy Chimbote after learning of the deal to cede a naval base to the U. S. Navy. In 1940, Chimbote was still a fishing port, with only 2,400 inhabitants in an urbanized area of 80 hectares. In 1943, the government created the Corporación Peruana del Santa and this entity assumed ownership of the railroad, made improvements to the port, and began work on a hydroelectric power station on the Río Santa. The first stage of the station was inaugurated in 1958, also that year. By 1943, the first companies dedicated to the extraction of liver from the Pacific bonito fish arrived and this liver was sold for a high price abroad due to World War II. Chimbotes climate is comfortable, despite being located in the tropics, on average, the warmest month is February with temperatures a little over 26 °C. September is considered the average coolest month, at around 13 °C, the annual average temperature ranges between 13 to 28 °C. The city gets little to no precipitation, however, thick fog predominates through the months of May to November, a large number of people migrated to Chimbote in the early 1970s. By that time, less than 5 percent of the people from Chimbote would truly consider themselves native, in 1900, the population of the port was 1,400, after 1970, it was 170,000. As of 2005, its population was 324,398, together, these multiplied the commercial and productive activities of the port. At the beginning of 1996, as Peruvian public companies were privatized, the city of Chimbote, being a district itself, comprises 7 more districts, Santa, Coishco, Samanco, Nepeña, Macate, Moro, Cáceres del Perú, and Nuevo Chimbote. The neighborhoods of El Barrio de Acero, Barrio Bolivar, El Progreso, Miraflores Alto, during the 1970s, the El Niño climate pattern, an earthquake, and overfishing drastically affected the fishing industry, and restrictions were imposed to ensure its survival
12.
Museo de Arte Precolombino (Peru)
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The building where the museum is now housed was originally an Inca ceremonial courthouse. It then passed through many hands and had multiple functions, ultimately falling into a ruinous state, after a large-scale restoration, the Museo de Arte Precolombino opened in June 2003. Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo inaugurated the museum at the summit, saying we are showing the world our cultural wealth, the works of art displayed at the museum, encompass a period of time ranging between 1250 BC and AD1532. There are a total of ten galleries, Formative, Nasca, Mochica, Huari, Chancay – Chimu, Inca, Wood, Jewelry and Stone, Silver, the Formative Gallery houses pieces from many diverse cultures. Among these are Cupisnique, Salinar, Vicus, Viru and Paracas in its phase or “cavernas”. During this period there is an advance in ceramic art. The Inca culture conquered all the territory of pre-Columbian Peru where they restored with great political ability the Tahuantinsuyo empire, in the Inca Gallery magnificent ceramic objects are showcased like the emblematic aribalos or monumental vessels. These pieces have many elements that transmit a subtle message of organization. One of these aribalos is of size and is unique to the collection. The Museums Auditorium seats 120 people and often houses lectures and other local events, Museo de Arte Italiano Museo de Arte Precolombino, official website
13.
Cusco
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Cuzco, often spelled Cusco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cusco Province, in 2013, the city had a population of 435,114. Located on the end of the Knot of Cuzco, its elevation is around 3,400 m. The site was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983 Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and it has become a major tourist destination, hosting nearly 2 million visitors a year. The Constitution of Peru designates it as the Historical Capital of Peru, the indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language, the word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka, related to the citys foundation myth of the Ayar Siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city, there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu. Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol and he returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name, after this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement. he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco, Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women and it is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because. they came out of that cave. The Spanish conquistadors adopted the name, transliterating it into Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often. Cuzco was the spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been an approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time. As both Spanish and Quechuan pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of z is no longer close to the Quechuan pronunciation of the consonant represented by z in Cuzco. In 1976, the city signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new one, Cusco
14.
Moche culture
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The Moche civilization flourished in northern Peru with its capital near present-day Moche, Trujillo, Peru from about 100 to 800 during the Regional Development Epoch. While this issue is the subject of debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common culture, as seen in the rich iconography. Moche society was based, with a significant level of investment in the construction of a network of irrigation canals for the diversion of river water to supply their crops. Their culture was sophisticated, and their artifacts express their lives, with detailed scenes of hunting, fishing, fighting, sacrifice, sexual encounters, the Moche are particularly noted for their elaborately painted ceramics, gold work, monumental constructions and irrigation systems. The Salinar culture reigned on the north coast of Peru in 200 BC-200 AD, according to some scholars this was a short transition period between the Cupisnique and the Moche cultures. Theres considerable parallelism between Moche and Cupisnique iconography and ceramic designs, including the iconography of the Spider god, the nearby Huaca de la Luna is better preserved. Its interior walls contains many colorful murals with complex iconography, the site has been under professional archaeological excavation since the early 1990s. Other major Moche sites include Sipan, Loma Negra, Dos Cabezas, Pacatnamu, the El Brujo complex, Mocollope, Cerro Mayal, Galindo, Huanchaco and their adobe huacas have been mostly destroyed by looters and natural forces over the last 1300 years. The surviving ones show that the coloring of their murals was very vibrant, two distinct regions of the Moche civilization have been identified, Southern and Northern Moche, with each area probably corresponding to a different political entity. The Southern Moche region, believed to be the heartland of the culture, originally comprised the Chicama and Moche valleys, the Huaca del Sol-Huaca de la Luna site was probably the capital of this region. It appears that there was a lot of independent development among these various Moche centres and they all likely had ruling dynasties of their own, related to each other. Centralized control of the whole Moche area may have taken place from time to time, pampa Grande, in the Lambayeque Valley, on the shore of the Chancay River, became one of the largest Moche sites anywhere, and occupied the area of more than 400 ha. It was prominent in the Moche V period, and features an abundance of Moche V ceramics, the site was laid out and built in a short period of time, and has an enormous ceremonial complex. It includes Huaca Fortaleza, which is the tallest ceremonial platform in Peru, San Jose de Moro is another northern site in the Jequetepeque valley. It was prominent in the Middle and Late Moche Periods, numerous Moche tombs have been excavated here, including several burials containing high status female individuals. These women were depicted in Moche iconography as the Priestess, Moche pottery is some of the most varied in the world. The use of technology is evident
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Cupisnique
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Cupisnique was a pre-Columbian culture which flourished from ca.1500 to 500 BC along what is now Perus northern Pacific Coast. The culture had a style of adobe clay architecture but shared artistic styles. The relationship between Chavin and Cupisnique is not well understood, and the names are used interchangeably. For instance, the scholar Alana Cordy-Collins treats as Cupisnique a culture lasting from 1000 –200 BC, izumi Shimada calls Cupisnique a possible ancestor of Mochica culture with no mention of Chavin. Anna C. Roosevelt refers to the manifestation of the Chavin Horizon. dominated by the Cupisnique style. A Cupisnique adobe temple was discovered in 2008 in the Lambayeque valley in the area of the site of Ventarron. The newly discovered temple is close to the Ventarron temple. This temple sheds some light on the connection between the Cupisnique and the Chavin because of shared iconography, in fact, some other related temples have also been discovered in the area recently. The Chavin people who came after the Cupisnique built an adjacent to Collud about three hundred years later, this location is named Zarpan. All three temples are close together, and form a single archaeological site, there are also many shared elements between all three locations. For example, one element is that of the Spider Creator god with his net. This motif appears to persevere from the 4, 000-year-old temple of Ventarrón all the way to the Moche culture, the temple found in 2008 also includes imagery of the spider god, thought to be associated with rainfall, hunting and warfare. The spider god image combines a spiders neck and head, with the mouth of a large cat, the only decapitator creature that by nature decapitates its victims heads is the spider. The reason the Moche and the Cupisnique are sometimes referred to interchangeably is due to their similarities in ceramic designs. The Moche were the most “vibrant” in incorporating the cupisnique society of the cultures that had a base population of farming and fishing along with a middle. The main connection between the Cupisnique and the Moche is the incorporation of the theme where there exists a decapitator. Below are images of the main five decpitators from both the Cupisnique and the Moche culture, scholars believe that the parallelism between Moche and Cupisnique iconography is not just coincidental, rather the Moche were “the heirs to a belief that they subscribed to in practice”. The Cupisnique people are sometimes spoken of as a due to two main reasons
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Lima culture
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The Lima culture was an indigenous civilization which existed in modern-day Lima, Peru during the Early Intermediate Period, extending from roughly 100 to 650. This pre-Incan culture, which overlaps with surrounding Paracas, Moche and these factors all help contribute to the obscurity of the Lima culture, of which much information is still left to be learned. The Lima civilization was known in part for its artwork, consisting of styles such as Maranga and Interlocking patterns. Changes in this style during the Middle Horizon Period also indicate influence from the Wari Empire. Being surrounded by desert, Lima needed to channel water from surrounding rivers in order to cultivate their soil for agricultural purposes and this resulted in the construction and maintenance of an extensive irrigational system, redirecting canals, and method of terracing. The Lima civilization constructed many temples known as wakas, which are preserved throughout the city of Lima to this day. Major population centers of ancient Lima were located at Pukllana, Wallamarka, Cajamarquilla, the history of early Andean culture is essentially the story of a long process in which man learned to dominate nature, turning a desert into a green oasis. Within the Central Coast there is a pattern of architectural evidence that suggests organized communal and cultural activity during the Preceramic. This set the foundations for development of the Lima culture in the Early Intermediate, despite the desert conditions prevailing in the coastal region, two factors enabled to areas earliest inhabitants to live off the land. First, the proximity to the sea which provided these groups with a diet of fish and shellfish, the second was the varied climate, from May to October moisture trapped by the hills fed vegetation in the slopes, which early populations could use to supplement their seafood diet. Later populations were able to develop a limited and primitive agriculture in low lying areas, irrigated by nearby rivers, during the Early Horizon Period, groups began to have the advantage of regular rainfall, and they learned how to domesticate plants and animals. A population surplus also led movement towards the coast and this brings us to the Early Intermediate period, where the Lima culture began to flourish. These cultures learned how to control nature, creating expansive irrigation systems and these systems provide further evidence of the sophistication of the social organization of the Lima culture, which would have been needed to construct, run, and maintain these irrigation systems. In Coastal Peru, the group of rivers of Rimac, Chillon. Small, village scale pyramidal structures in the beginning of the Early Intermediate would slowly transform into the focus of the successive Lima culture. Evidence of the expansion of Lima culture in ceramics and textiles can be found in surrounding valleys, at the start of the Early Intermediate, population was focused in the upper portion of the Lurin valley, characterized by isolated free standing-houses and short irrigation canals. The population gradually expanded, moving down the valley, and utilizing longer irrigation canals to inter-connected dwellings, elite structures on hilltops also began to occur, which would ultimately become the important Huacas of Lima culture. Near the end of the Early Intermediate Period the Lima culture became entirely dominant, perhaps the most important center of the culture was the waka of Pacha Kamaq, which would continue to be important to many cultures for the next 1000 years
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Chancay culture
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Not much is known about the Chancay civilization, which developed in the later part of the Inca Empire. This culture emerged after the fall of the Wari civilization, parts of the southern Chancay area were conquered by the Chimú in the early fifteenth century and in about 1450 A. D. the Incas were occupying both areas. It is believed that the Chancay had a political structure. Thus the Chancay culture declined in the century to make way for the territorial expansion of the Inca Empire. The center of the Chancay culture was located 80 kilometers north of Lima and it is a desert region but has fertile valleys bathed by rivers and is rich in resources that allowed for, among other things, extensive agricultural development. The Chancay developed intense trade relations with regions, allowing them to interract with other cultures. The Chancay culture based its economy on agriculture, fishing and trade, water reservoirs and irrigation canals were built by engineers in order to develop agriculture. The Chancay also traded with other regions either by land towards the Peruvian highlands, the settlements in Lauri, Lumbra, Tambo Blanco, Handrail, Pisquillo Chico and Tronconal focused mainly on artisans producing large-scale ceramics and textiles. The Chancay culture is the first of the Peruvian cultures that had mass production of ceramics, textiles and metals such as gold and they were also noted for their wood carved items. The curacas, political leaders, regulated the production of artisans, the most well-known Chancay artefacts are the textiles which ranged from embroidered pieces, different types of fabrics decorated with paint. A variety of techniques, colours and themes were used in the making of textiles and they used an array of colours including yellows, browns, scarlet, white, blues and greens. In type of fabric used include llama wool, cotton, chiffon and their technique involved were decorated open weave, brocade, embroidery, and painting. Brushes were used to paint anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, geometric and other creative designs directly on the canvases, the Chancay are known for the quality of their painted tapestries. The typically geometric designs also included drawings of plants, animals such as fish, cats, birds, monkeys, birds and deities wearing crescent-like headdresses were one of the more common decorative features. They produced a variety of such as clothing, bags. Many Chancay textiles survive to date and it is believed that their production was quite extensive, due to the quantities that have been preserved. The quality of the material appears to be good as they were carefully made. Canvases or gauzes were used primarily for religious and magical purposes and they were made for covering the head of the dead in the form of a headdresses
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Paracas culture
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The Paracas culture was an Andean society between approximately 800 BCE and 100 BCE, with an extensive knowledge of irrigation and water management and significant contributions in the textile arts. It was located in today is the Ica Region of Peru. The Paracas Cavernas are shaft tombs set into the top of Cerro Colorado, there is evidence that these tombs were reused over centuries. In some cases, the heads of the deceased were taken out, apparently for rituals, the associated ceramics include incised polychrome, negative resist decoration and other wares of the Paracas tradition. The associated textiles include many complex weave structures as well as elaborate plaiting and knotting techniques, the necropolis of Wari Kayan consisted of two clusters of hundreds of burials set closely together inside and around abandoned buildings on the steep north slope of Cerro Colorado. The associated ceramics are very fine plain wares, some white and red slips and other with pattern-burnished decoration. Each body was bound with cord to hold it in a position, before being wrapped in many layers of intricate, ornate. The Paracas Necropolis embroideries are now known as some of the finest ever produced by Pre-Columbian Andean societies, burials at the necropolis of Wari Kayan continued until about 250 CE, and many of the mortuary bundles include textiles like those of early Nazca. While the Paracas culture developed in this region between about 1200 BCE and 100 BCE, the Topará culture is thought to have invaded from the north at approximately 150 BCE, sawyer, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Paracas culture
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Nazca culture
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They also built an impressive system of underground aqueducts, known as puquios, that still function today. The Nazca Province in the Ica Region was named for this people, Nazca society developed during the Early Intermediate Period and is generally divided into the Proto Nazca, the Early Nazca, Middle Nazca and Late Nazca cultures. From 500 AD, the civilization started to decline and by 750 AD the civilization had fallen completely and this is thought to have occurred when an El Niño triggered widespread and destructive flooding. Evidence also suggests that the Nazca people may have exacerbated the effects of floods by gradually cutting down Prosopis pallida trees to make room for maize. These trees play an important role as the ecological keystone of this landscape, in particular preventing river. Gradual removal of trees would have exposed the landscape to the effects of climate perturbations such as El Niño, leading to erosion and leaving irrigation systems high and dry. Early Nazca society was made up of local chiefdoms and regional centers of power centered around Cahuachi, scholars have developed theories resulting from various excavations at Cahuachi and suggest that the site was the center for rituals and feasting relating to agriculture, water, and fertility. This may have been as a result of deterioration, the eventual collapse of the center may have also been a result of that decline. Cahuachi lies in the portion of the Nazca Valley and was initially occupied during the late Paracas phase. It is unique among all other Nazca sites in the region, the people modified the natural huacas into pyramid mounds for ceremonial and religious purposes. Excavations at Cahuachi have given archaeologists key insights into the culture, the material remains found at the site included large amounts of polychrome pottery, plain and fancy textiles, trace amounts of gold and spondylus shell, and an array of ritual paraphernalia. The remains of pottery found at Cahuachi led archaeologists to believe that the site was specifically non-urban, the ratio of plain, utilitarian pottery to fine, polychrome pottery was 30% to 70%. If it was a center, the amount of utilitarian ceramics would have probably been higher. Among the foodstuffs found were the Three Sisters, maize, squash, and beans, as well as peanuts and it appears that the site was abandoned at the very end of Nazca 3/early Nazca 4. Although there are possible reasons for the collapse of Cahuachi. Later Nazca society was structured in a fashion as it had been before. Likely related to the arid and extreme nature of the environment, Nazca religious beliefs were based upon agriculture, much as in the contemporary Moche culture based in northwest Peru, shamans apparently used hallucinogenic drugs, such as extractions from the San Pedro cactus, to induce visions. The use of substances is also depicted in art found on pottery related to the Nazca
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Tiahuanaco
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Tiwanaku is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia. The site was first recorded in history by Spanish conquistador Pedro Cieza de León. He came upon the remains of Tiwanaku in 1549 while searching for the Inca capital in Qullasuyu, the name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants may have been lost as they had no written language. The ancient inhabitants of Tiwanaku are believed to have spoken the Puquina language, the area around Tiwanaku may have been inhabited as early as 1500 BC as a small agricultural village. During the time period between 300 BC and AD300, Tiwanaku is thought to have been a moral and cosmological center for the Tiwanaku empire, researchers believe it achieved this standing prior to Tiwanaku expanding its powerful empire. In 1945, Arthur Posnansky estimated that Tiwanaku dated to 15,000 BC, in the 21st century, experts concluded Posnanskys dates were invalid and a sorry example of misused archaeoastronomical evidence. These may be visited by the public, the Akapana is an approximately cross-shaped pyramidal structure that is 257 m wide,197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall. At its center appears to have been a sunken court and this was nearly destroyed by a deep looters excavation that extends from the center of this structure to its eastern side. Material from the excavation was dumped off the eastern side of the Akapana. A staircase with sculptures is present on its western side, possible residential complexes might have occupied both the northeast and southeast corners of this structure. Originally, the Akapana was thought to have developed from a modified hill. Twenty-first century studies have shown that it is an entirely manmade earthen mound, faced with a mixture of large, the dirt comprising Akapana appears to have been excavated from the moat that surrounds the site. The largest stone block within the Akapana, made of andesite, is estimated to weigh 65.70 metric tons, the structure was possibly for the shaman-puma relationship or transformation through shape shifting. Tenon puma and human heads stud the upper terraces, the Akapana East was built on the eastern side of early Tiwanaku. Later it was considered a boundary between the center and the urban area. It was made of a thick, prepared floor of sand and clay, yellow and red clay were used in different areas for what seems like aesthetic purposes. It was swept clean of all domestic refuse, signaling its great importance to the culture, the Pumapunku is a man-made platform built on an east–west axis like the Akapana. It is a rectangular, terraced earthen mound faced with megalithic blocks and it is 167.36 m wide along its north–south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east–west axis, and is 5 m tall
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Wari culture
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The Wari were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about AD500 to 1000. Wari, as the capital city was called, is located 11 km north-east of the modern city of Ayacucho. This city was the center of a civilization that covered much of the highlands, the best-preserved remnants, beside the Wari Ruins, are the recently discovered Northern Wari ruins near the city of Chiclayo, and Cerro Baul in Moquegua. Also well-known are the Wari ruins of Pikillaqta, a short distance south-east of Cuzco en route to Lake Titicaca, early on, the Wari expanded their territory to include the ancient oracle center of Pachacamac, though it seems to have remained largely autonomous. Later the Wari became dominant in much of the territory of the earlier Moche, the reason for this expansion has been debated, it is believed to have been driven by religious conversion, military conquest, or the spread of agricultural knowledge. Buildings in Wari and in other government centers had doorways that were blocked up, as if the Wari intended to return. But by the time this happened, the Wari had faded from history, in the meantime, the dwindling residents of the Wari cities ceased all major construction. Archaeological evidence shows significant levels of violence, suggesting that warfare. With the collapse of the Wari, the Late Intermediate Period is said to begin, little is known about the details of the Wari administrative structure, as they did not appear to use a form of written record. But, the emphasis on homogeneous administrative architecture and evidence for significant social stratification suggests a complex socio-political hierarchy, the discovery in early 2013 of an undisturbed royal tomb, El Castillo de Huarmey, offers new insight into the social and political influence of the Wari during this period. During its expansion period, the Wari state established architecturally distinctive administrative centers in many of its provinces and these centres are clearly different from the architecture of Tiwanaku, which is believed to have been a more federalized state by some scholars. Using these administrative centers, the Wari greatly influenced the surrounding countryside and they created new fields with terraced field technology and invested in construction of a major road network. Several centuries later, when the Inca began to expand their empire, Wari Empire Willkawayin Tiwanaku Tiwanaku empire Middle Horizon Pocra culture Chuqi Pukyu Collier, Simon et al. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean, bennett, Excavations at Wari, Ayachucho, Peru. Gordon F. McEwan, The Middle Horizon in the Valley of Cuzco, Peru, william H. Isbell and Gordon F. McEwan, eds. Huari Administrative Structure, Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, katharina J. Schreiber, Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru. Violence, Ritual, and the Wari Empire, A Social Bioarchaeology of Imperialism in the Ancient Andes, bergh, by Judith H. Dobrzynski, The Wall Street Journal, October 24,2012 Who Was Who in the Middle Horizon Andean Prehistory by Patricia J. Knobloch
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Inca society
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The Inca society was the society of the Inca civilization in South America. The Inca Empire, which was centred in what is now called Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and southern Colombia and lasted from 1438 to 1533 AD, the Inca state was known as the Kingdom of Cusco before 1438. Over the course of the Inca Empire, the rulers used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, the last Inca stronghold, the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. Population estimates for the Tawantinsuyu society range from as few as 4 million people to more than 37 million, most estimates are between 6 and 14 million people. The reason for these estimates is that, despite that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus. Almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish in the course of their conquest, Incan women were typically married at the age of sixteen, while men married at the age of 20. In Inca society, due to regulations, men of lower rank could only have one wife. The aristocracy, starting with the curaca, were allowed to engage in polygamy, trial marriages were typical within Inca culture. In this type of marriage, the man and woman would agree to try out being married to one another for a few years. At the end of time, the woman could go home to her parents if she wished. However, once the marriage was made final, they could only divorce if the woman was childless, women would almost always marry men in the same social class as themselves. However, while it was rare for them to marry a man with a higher social ranking. The only way for a woman to alter her social ranking would be if a man of higher ranking took notice of her. In the Inca society, a wedding was not a joyous celebration, instead, it was looked at more as a business-like agreement. Therefore, for the Inca, marriage was an agreement between two families. Once a woman was married, she was expected to collect food and cook, watch over the animals, a woman’s household obligations would not change after she became pregnant. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylised animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles, the motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were used with the exception of Huari
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Fellatio
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Fellatio is an oral sex act involving the use of the mouth or throat, which is performed by a person on the penis of another person or oneself. Oral stimulation of the scrotum may also be termed fellatio or tea bagging, Fellatio can be sexually arousing for both participants, and may lead to orgasm for the receptive partner. It may be performed by a partner as foreplay before other sexual activities, or as an erotic. Like most forms of activity, oral sex creates a risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections. However, the risk for oral sex, especially HIV transmission, is significantly lower than for vaginal or anal sex. Most countries do not have laws which ban the practice of oral sex, people may also have negative feelings or sexual inhibitions about giving or receiving oral sex, they may refuse to engage in it of their own volition. Commonly, people do not regard forms of sex as affecting the virginity of either partner. The English noun fellatio comes from fellātus, which in Latin is the past participle of the verb fellāre, in fellatio the -us is replaced by the -io, the declension stem ends in -ion-, which gives the suffix the form -ion. The -io ending is used in English to create nouns from Latin adjectives and it can indicate a state or action wherein the Latin verb is being, or has been, further English words have been created based on the same Latin root. A person who performs fellatio upon another may be termed a fellator, because of Latins gender based declension, the equivalent term for a female is fellatrix. A person who performs fellatio on someone might be referred to as the partner. Fellatio can be sexually arousing for participants, and males commonly experience orgasm, though a person who receives fellatio is male, his sex partner may be of either gender. When the penis is thrust into someones mouth, it may be called irrumatio, the man receiving fellatio can slow the rhythm of the stimulation by holding his partners head. The mans partner may also play with his penis by licking, sucking, kissing or otherwise playing with the tongue. Fellatio may also include the stimulation of the scrotum, whether licking, sucking or taking the entire scrotum into the mouth. It is difficult for people to perform fellatio, due to their sensitivities to the natural gag reflex. Different people have different sensitivities to the reflex, but some people learn to suppress the reflex, deep-throating is an act in which a mans partner takes the entire erect penis deep into their mouth, in such a way as to enter their throat. Nancy Fridays book, Men in Love - Mens Sexual Fantasies, The Triumph of Love over Rage, the man receiving fellatio receives direct sexual stimulation, while his partner may derive satisfaction from giving him pleasure
24.
Thames & Hudson
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Thames & Hudson is a publisher of illustrated books on art, architecture, design, and visual culture. With its headquarters in London, England, it has a company in New York and subsidiaries in Melbourne, Singapore. In Paris, it has a subsidiary company, Interart, which is engaged in the distribution of English-language books. It has been an independent, family-owned company since its founding in 1949, Thames & Hudsons World of Art series is especially well-known. Thames & Hudson was established by Walter Neurath who was born in Vienna in 1903 and he left that city, where he ran an art gallery and published illustrated books with an emphasis on education, arriving in London in 1938. He initially worked as director of Adprint, a business established by fellow Viennese émigré Wolfgang Foges. Neurath’s concept was the first sign of many innovations that through Thames & Hudson he would introduce to the world of publishing. Eva Neurath, who had arrived in London in 1939 from Berlin and worked alongside Neurath at Adprint, co-founded the company as partner. Among the ten titles that were published in Thames & Hudson’s first publication season in 1950, English Cathedrals, a testament to the company’s strong belief from the very start in the longevity of books, it remained in print until 1971. Also appearing in the first year of publication was Albert Einstein’s Out of my later years, the company remained at that address, eventually expanding to five houses, until 1999. In 1958, Thames & Hudson launched what is one of its series, the World of Art. Characterized by their size and black spines – little black artbooks – the series expanded in just seven years to include 49 titles. More than fifty years later, over 300 titles have appeared in the series, more than 100 titles were published in the series over a 34-year period. In 1964 the company’s production director introduced what are commonly known as ‘French folds’, dust jackets that are folded over on top. In 2004 a four-volume monograph on Pritzker Prize–winning architect Zaha Hadid was published, having built one of the most important publishing houses in Europe in fewer than two decades, Walter Neurath died in 1967 at the age of 63. Sculptor Henry Moore wrote, His death is a loss to our cultural life, walter’s son, Thomas, who with his sister Constance had joined the company in 1961, became managing director, Constance later served as art director for several decades. In the United States, the New York company, which had closed in 1953, was re-established in 1976 and it was initially led by Paul Gottlieb, who later became president of Harry Abrams publishers in New York. In 1979 he was succeeded by Peter Warner, who served the company for thirty years, will Balliett has been president of Thames & Hudson Inc. since 2009
25.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
26.
Puruchuco
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Puruchuco is an archaeological site in Peru that was an administrative center of the Inca period, located in the Ate District, in Lima. The construction of this architectural complex comes from the Inca culture, Puruchuco is located in the sector Huaquerones, a land of pyramids with ramps that contains one of the largest cemeteries in the Inca culture, have recently been studied by archeology. There are also complex areas as Puruchuca, San Juan de Pariachi, of these Puruchuco is the smallest. Therefore, while this monument was the palace of a curaca where he lived and managed, should be subject to other curacas with greater responsibility and it was excavated by Arturo Jiménez Borja between 1959 and 1961. Today it has a museum, which was the first tourist model of this type in South America. The site is located on the Central Highway km 4.5 Ate District, the various structures on and around Puruchuco have fallen into disrepair. Most of the locations have been severely vandalized, the sites near Monumental Stadium have been graffitied, while construction companies continue to destroy neumerous other sites in ATE-Vitarte and Túpac Amaru neighborhoods
27.
Balconies of Lima
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The Balconies of Lima are cultural heritage built during the Spanish colonial regime as well as in the republic era in Peru. Most of them were built in the late 17th and 18th centuries and they were adapted for ceremonial purposes and have influenced the lives of many Peruvian scholars such as the 19th century writer Ricardo Palma. Nowadays they number up to 1,600, in order to retain its conservation, the Municipality of Lima has invited individuals and companies to adopt a balcony in order to maintain them as if they were new. The abundance of these adds to the particular harmony and originality to this part of the city. Bay window Osambela House Torre Tagle Palace The City of Balconies is the setting to Jim Craces novel Six, published by Viking in 2003
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Casa de Osambela
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Osambela House is one of the biggest houses built in Lima during the colonial Viceroyalty of Peru period. It is located at Conde de Superunda Street 298, in the centre of Lima. It is also called Casa de Oquendo and this mansion was built between 1803 and 1805, but was officially finished in 1807. It has five balconies and a mirador from which the first owner of the place, Don Martín de Osambela and it was renovated in 2003 and serves as a venue for art exhibitions and cultural events. Media related to Casa de Osambela at Wikimedia Commons
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Plaza de toros de Acho
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The Plaza de Toros de Acho is the premier bullring in Lima, Peru. Located beside the center of the Rímac District, the plaza is classified as a national historic monument. It is the oldest bullring in the Americas and the second-oldest in the world after La Maestranza in Spain and it opened on 30 January 1766. Of the 56 official bullrings in Peru, the Plaza de Acho ranks most prominently and it has a seating capacity of 13,700 and was constructed of adobe and wood, both traditional materials. In 1765, Agustín Hipólito de Landaburu sought permission to construct what he called a plaza for the corridas de toros that would take place in Lima during the citys celebration of Carnival. The plaza would be constructed in the Rímac district on a site that had used for several temporary bullrings since 1754. The site was called “el Hacho, ” a Quechua word meaning “elevated place with view of the sea. ”Construction on the plaza officially began on 30 January 1766. The inaugural run took place on 30 January 1766, and showcased the bullfighters Pisí, Maestro de España, the first bull to be killed in the plaza was a white animal called El Albañil, meaning The Mason. Throughout its existence, revenues from the Plaza de Acho have been designated for the organizers of different corridas, an exception to this was during the war for independence from Spain, between the years of 1821 and 1826 all proceeds from the plaza were directed to the liberating army. The plaza was remodeled once, in 1944, due to deteriorated conditions, the bullfighting fair held in honor of the annual Señor de los Milagros festival takes place at the plaza on Sundays through October and November. During the fair, Lima brings in some of the worlds most lauded talent The best bullfighter of the year is awarded the Escapulario de Oro, torosperu. com Puiggrós, Bartolomé, ¿Y la Plaza de Hacho
