1.
Pueblo Libre
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Pueblo Libre is a district of the Lima Province in Peru and one of the districts that comprise the city of Lima. The district was created by law 9162 on November 5,1940, the current mayor of Pueblo Libre is Jhonel Leguia and the districts postal code is 21. Pueblo Libre is a residential community and has the most parks in Lima, although it has several branches of banks, local private universities. With a Human Development Index HDI of 0.7667 in 2007, a high level, educational coverage is 98% and service coverage reaches 99. 7%. Pueblo Libre was founded in 1557 as Magdalena Vieja, before being renamed Free Town in 1821 by José de San Martín, the name was given because of the great patriotism and desire for freedom San Martin saw from the people. Simón Bolívar, a liberator from South America, lived in Pueblo Libre and his colonial mansion is known today as the Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia Peru which has collections of artefacts from Peruvian culture. Pueblo Libre has a rich history - museums, famous restaurants, one of Pueblo Libres oldest attractions is La Cruz del Viajero. The cross was a symbol of faith and protection the conquistadores brought from Spain, francisco Pizarro placed the cross in Pueblo Libre, soldiers would pray before going to war or when making a hard distant journey. Pueblo Libre is not short of places to eat great Creole food, situated not a long walk from Pueblo Libres pleasant plaza is the Museo Rafael Larco Hererra, which houses the largest collection of Moche artefacts in the country. But perhaps the most visited museum in Lima is the Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia Peru and this museum is known for having one of the best pre-Columbian exhibits in the world. It offers incredible Paracas textiles and a selection of pottery. In the history section of the museum, it documents of the brutality of the Spaniards in the country, the district has a total land area of 4.38 km². Its administrative center is located 90 meters above sea level.7 persons/km² and 19,792 households
2.
Lima
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Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
3.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
4.
Pre-Columbian art
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Pre-Columbian art thrived throughout the Americas from at least 13,000 BCE to the European conquests, and sometimes continued for a time afterwards. Many Pre-Columbian cultures did not have writing systems, so visual art expressed cosmologies, world views, religion, and philosophy of these cultures, as well as serving as mnenomic devices. Unfortunately, many of the surfaces, such as woven textiles, typically have not been preserved, but Precolumbian painting on ceramics, walls. The Mesoamerican cultures are divided into three periods, Pre-classic Classic Post-classic. The Pre-classic period was dominated by the highly developed Olmec civilization, the Olmecs produced jade figurines, and created heavy-featured, colossal heads, up to 2 meters high, that still stand mysteriously in the landscape. The Mesoamerican tradition of building large ceremonial centres appears to have begun under the Olmecs, during the Classic period the dominant Civilization was the Maya. Like the Mississippian peoples of North America such as the Choctaw and Natchez and they practised their own forms of hieroglyphic writing and even advanced astronomy. Mayan art consequently focuses on rain, agriculture, and fertility, expressing these images mainly in relief and surface decoration, glyphs and stylized figures were used to decorate architecture such as the pyramid temple of Chichén Itzá. Murals dating from about 750 CE were discovered when the city of Bonampak was excavated in 1946, the Post-classic period was dominated by the Toltecs who made colossal, block-like sculptures such as those employed as free-standing columns at Tula, Mexico. The Mixtecs developed a style of painting known as Mixtec-Puebla, as seen in their murals and codices, in the Andean region of South America, the Chavín civilization flourished from around 1000 BCE to 300 BCE. The Chavín produced small-scale pottery, often human in shape but with features such as bird feet, reptilian eyes. Representations of jaguar are a theme in Chavín art. The Chavin culture is noted for the spectacular murals and carvings found its main religious site of Chavin de Huantar, these works include the Raimondi Stela, the Lanzón. Contemporary with the Chavin was the Paracas culture of the southern coast of Peru and these amazing productions, some of which could measure ninety feet long, were primarily used for as burial wraps for Paracas mummy bundles. Paracas art was influenced by the Chavín cult, and the two styles share many common motifs. On the south coast, the Paracas were immediately succeeded by a flowering of artistic production around the Nazca river valley, the Nazca period is divided into eight ceramic phases, each one depicting increasingly abstract animal and human motifs. These period range from Phase 1, beginning around 200 CE, to Phase 8, the Nasca people are most famous for the Nazca lines, though they are usually regarded as making some of the most beautiful polychrome ceramics in the Andes. On the north coast, the Moche succeeded the Chavin, for the Moche, ceramics functioned as a primary way of disseminating information and cultural ideas
5.
Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
6.
Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal, eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. From September 2,1564 to November 26,1569 he was viceroy of Peru. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, in 1544, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V named Blasco Núñez Vela Perus first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco Álvarez de Toledo. Toledo made a tour of inspection of the colony. He improved the safety in the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, still, Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón sent out the third expedition to explore the Amazon River, under Cristóbal de Acuña. Many Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century and these included New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands and the Marquesas Islands by Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon, meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people, in fact as time passed they were used as a self funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low level war of territorial conquest. In 1617, Francisco de Borja y Aragón divided the government of Río de la Plata into two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Viceroy Borja y Aragón also established the Tribunal del Consulado, a special court, Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain. Fernández de Cabrera suppressed an insurrection of the Uru and Mapuche Indians, viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of Valdivia, Valparaíso, Arica and Callao and constructed city walls in Lima, nevertheless, the famous English privateer Henry Morgan took Chagres and captured and sacked the city of Panama in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by Edward David, Charles Wager, the Peace of Utrecht allowed the British to send ships and merchandise to the fair at Portobello. In this period, revolts were common, around 1656, Pedro Bohórquez crowned himself Inca of the Calchaquí Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against the colonial government, the clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy Diego Ladrón de Guevara had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the hacienda of Huachipa de Lima, there were terrible earthquakes and epidemics, too
7.
Pyramid
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A pyramid is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge to a single point at the top, making the shape roughly a pyramid in the geometric sense. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape, as such, a pyramid has at least three outer triangular surfaces. The square pyramid, with base and four triangular outer surfaces, is a common version. A pyramids design, with the majority of the closer to the ground. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures and it has been demonstrated that the common shape of the pyramids of antiquity, from Egypt to Central America, represents the dry-stone construction that requires minimum human work. Pyramids have been built by civilizations in many parts of the world, khufus Pyramid is built mainly of limestone, and is considered an architectural masterpiece. It contains over 2,000,000 blocks ranging in weight from 2.5 tonnes to 15 tonnes and is built on a base with sides measuring about 230 m. Its four sides face the four cardinal points precisely and it has an angle of 52 degrees and it is still the tallest pyramid. The largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, the Mesopotamians built the earliest pyramidal structures, called ziggurats. In ancient times, these were painted in gold/bronze. Since they were constructed of sun-dried mud-brick, little remains of them, ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a complex which included other buildings. The precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the fourth millennium BC, the earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period. The latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BC, built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside, the facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks, the number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, but there is no evidence for this. Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a ramp from base to summit
8.
Huaco (pottery)
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Huacos are not mere earthenware but notable pottery specimens linked to ceremonial, religious, artistic or aesthetic uses in central Andean, pre-Columbian civilizations. The Huari, along with the Nazca, the Moche and others, were among the creators of figurines who passed down through history their unique skills in ceramics. The Incas, who absorbed all the cultures in the time of its expansion, since the time of the Spanish conquest of Peru, these types of pieces have been found in pre-Columbian sites like temples, graves and burials, as well as other kinds of ruins. These sites, especially if they are of a meaning, are called generic huaca or waqa in native Quechua. In Peru, a huaquero is a person that digs in ancient pre-Columbian ruins illegally in order to get pieces of artwork. The bridge handles are characteristic of cultures, some used many colors, while others used black. Inca Empire adopted all sorts of shapes, styles and qualities, the term huaco was reserved for any copies not reserved for daily use but the luxury or ritual. Normally these ceramic pieces are associated with notable features, when the pieces are sculptural ceramics, huacos are characterized by pictorial richness. There are many kinds of pots and containers covered with gaudy polychrome motifs, usually anthropomorphic representations of animals or mythological, erotica, two-toned Moche pottery is characterized by complex painted scenes detailing a narrative level. Examples of erotic huacos, make the Moches 800-year period the longest unbroken erotic ceramics tradition in the world, in the 1570s during the Spanish conquest of Peru, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo and his clerical advisers worked to destroy many erotic huacos, though some extant artifacts have survived. In both cases the huaco is associated with complexity and not with regular use as a container on account of its physical dimensions. The slender Incan vessels known as aryballos, even opulently created examples, are not usually considered huacos since their utilitarian character is too pronounced, the National Museum of the Archaeology, Anthropology, and History of Peru in Lima, Peru houses a large number of ceramic artifacts. The nearby Larco Museum houses a collection of Moche ceramics and is well known for its collection of erotic pottery
9.
Rafael Larco Hoyle
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Rafael Larco Hoyle, raised at Chiclin, his familys estate, was sent to school in Maryland, United States, at the age of twelve. He later entered Cornell University to study engineering and by 1923 returned to Peru to work on the familys sugar cane plantation. After spending most of his youth abroad, Larco Hoyle arrived to Peru with the eyes of an outsider, with this foreigners curiosity he explored the country and discovered an ancient cultural patrimony in the north coast. Larco Hoyle recognized the need to house these objects in a safe place and it was at that point, Larco Hoyle dreamt of a museum, one like he had seen in the United States. In 1925, Larco Hoyles father, Rafael Larco Herrera acquired a collection of vases and other pieces from Alfredo Hoyle. There were approximately 600 ceramic pieces in all, the arrival of these objects ignited a collectors enthusiasm in Larco Hoyle. Soon after, Larco Herrera left his son in charge of the collection, during that same year, Larco Hoyle received some advice from his uncle, Victor Larco Herrera, a founder of the first museum in Lima. He urged Larco Hoyle to form a new museum in Lima, Larco Hoyle agreed with his uncle. He yearned to erect a monument in honor of his father whom he admired so much for his patriotism. He got to work creating a museum that would carry on his fathers legacy, Larco Hoyle purchased two large collections,8000 pieces from Roa and 6000 pieces from Carranza. He also purchased several small collections in Chicama Valley, Trujillo, Virú, within a year, the collection had grown significantly and display cases were installed in a small house on the Chiclín estate. On July 28,1926, Independence Day, the Rafael Larco Herrera Museum opened its doors to the public, with the museum up and running and a collection of approximately 30,000 pieces, Larco Hoyle began classifying the collection. Peruvian archaeology was in its infancy and Larco Hoyle realized many typologies were yet to be recognized and he set out to correct that and approached archaeological research academically. During the 1930s, he discovered many distinct Peruvian cultures such as Viru, Salinar, Cupisnique, the focus of his research became the Mochica culture. In 1946, Larco Hoyle, director of the Larco Museum, developed the first Peruvian chronology of ancient cultures, discovery of the archeological site of Cupisnique. Discovery of the Virú culture in the cemeteries of Pampa de los Cocos, discovery of Queneto and its ceramics. Discovery of the pre- Cupisnique ceramics, discovery of the cemeteries containing ceramics called Cupisnique de Santa Ana and the culture of the same name. Discovery of the cemeteries containing ceramics called Cupisnique de Santa Ana, discovery of tombs with hybrid ceramics Mochica - Virú
10.
Trujillo, Peru
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Trujillo is a city in coastal northwestern Peru and the capital of La Libertad Region. It is the third most populous city and center of the second most populous area of Peru. It is located on the banks of the Moche River, near its mouth at the Pacific Ocean and this was a site of the great prehistoric Moche and Chimu cultures before the Inca conquest and subsequent expansion. Trujillo is the birthplace of Perus judiciary, and it was designated as the capital of the country. It was the scene of the Revolution of Trujillo in 1932, Trujillo is considered the cradle of liberty and cradle of the judiciary in Peru. It has sponsored national and international cultural events, and has a lively arts community. Current festivals include the National Marinera Festival, the Trujillo Spring Festival and the International Book Festival, the city center contains many examples of colonial and religious architecture, often incorporating distinctive wrought ironwork. It includes residential areas, a business district, and industrial supply distribution to the various districts. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trujillo has its seat here, in 2012 Trujillo was selected by IBM to participate in a Smarter Cities Challenge project intended to improve public safety and transportation through technology. The North Group was formed here, with Eduardo González Viaña, the city presents important national festivals, such as Marinera Festival, Spring Festival, and competitions for the paso horse and caballito de totora. The coat of arms of the city was awarded on December 7,1537 by Royal Decree issued by the King of Spain, Charles V. The flag is the coat of arms on a white background, Also it is flown every December 29 to commemorate the proclamation of independence of Trujillo in 1820. The anthem was written by Ramiro Mendoza Sánchez with music composed by Ramiro Herrera Orbegoso and it is performed mainly for official civic ceremonies, by bands of musicians. The history of Trujillo has its beginning in ancient times, as the area at the mouth of the Moche River was long a center of successive pre-European cultures and they extended their domains along the northern coast of Peru. The archaeological history of this goes back to the early pre-ceramic period. For example, Huaca Prieta was occupied as early as 4700 BC, several ancient cultures developed in this area, the Cupisnique, the Moche and Chimu. Numerous archaeological sites and monumental remains attest to the degree of complexity of these civilizations. Among the Cupisnique culture sites are Caballo Muerto and Huaca Prieta, the Moche culture sites include huacas, the Temples of the Sun and Moon south of the city, the Huaca del Dragón and the Huaca Esmeralda to the north, and others
