1.
Saturated fat
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A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of molecules, monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of chains of carbon atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by bonds and others are linked by double bonds. Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds and they are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to a hydrogen atom. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated, various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil, many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage. The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial, many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet, while nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in tropical oils, the saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids. Sources of lower saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, the effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption, the consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal, meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with a risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol, in a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels, a meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer. However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk, one review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer
2.
Palmitic acid
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Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature, is the most common saturated fatty acid found in animals, plants and microorganisms. As its name indicates, it is a component of the oil from the fruit of oil palms. Palmitic acid can also be found in meats, cheeses, butter, palmitate is a term for the salts and esters of palmitic acid. The palmitate anion is the form of palmitic acid at physiologic pH. Aluminium salts of palmitic acid and naphthenic acid were combined during World War II to produce napalm, the word napalm is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid. Palmitic acid was discovered by Edmond Frémy in 1840, in saponified palm oil, Palmitic acid is naturally produced by a wide range of other plants and organisms, typically at low levels. It is naturally present in butter, cheese, milk, and meat, as well as butter, soybean oil. The cetyl ester of palmitic acid occurs in spermaceti, excess carbohydrates in the body are converted to palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis and is the precursor to longer fatty acids, as a consequence, palmitic acid is a major body component of animals. In humans, one found it to make up 21–30% of human depot fat, and it is a major. In biology, some proteins are modified by the addition of a group in a process known as palmitoylation. Palmitoylation is important for membrane localisation of many proteins, Palmitic acid is used to produce soaps, cosmetics, and industrial mold release agents. These applications use sodium palmitate, which is obtained by saponification of palm oil. To this end, palm oil, rendered from palm tree, is treated with sodium hydroxide and this procedure affords glycerol and sodium palmitate. Because it is inexpensive and adds texture and mouth feel to processed foods, palmitic acid, sodium palmitate is permitted as a natural additive in organic products. The aluminium salt is used as an agent of napalm used in military actions. Hydrogenation of palmitic acid yields cetyl alcohol, which is used to produce detergents, the underlying method of drug delivery is similar to that used with decanoic acid to deliver long-acting depot medication, in particular, neuroleptics such as haloperidol decanoate. Retinyl palmitate is an antioxidant and a source of vitamin A added to low fat milk to replace the vitamin content lost through the removal of milk fat, palmitate is attached to the alcohol form of vitamin A, retinol, to make vitamin A stable in milk
3.
Stearic acid
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Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid with an 18-carbon chain and has the IUPAC name octadecanoic acid. It is a solid and its chemical formula is C17H35CO2H. Its name comes from the Greek word στέαρ stéar, which means tallow, the salts and esters of stearic acid are called stearates. As its ester, stearic acid is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in nature following palmitic acid, the triglyceride derived from three molecules of stearic acid is called stearin. Stearic acid is obtained from fats and oils by the saponification of the triglycerides using hot water, the resulting mixture is then distilled. Commercial stearic acid is often a mixture of stearic and palmitic acids, fats and oils rich in stearic acid are more abundant in animal fat than in vegetable fat. The important exceptions are cocoa butter and shea butter, where the acid content is 28–45%. In terms of its biosynthesis, stearic acid is produced from carbohydrates via the fatty acid synthesis machinery wherein acetyl-CoA contributes two-carbon building blocks, the combination leads to uses as a surfactant and softening agent. Stearic acid undergoes the reactions of saturated carboxylic acids, a notable one being reduction to stearyl alcohol. This is used in a range of manufactures, from simple to complex electronic devices. Stearic acid is used in the production of detergents, soaps. Soaps are not made directly from stearic acid, but indirectly by saponification of triglycerides consisting of stearic acid esters, esters of stearic acid with ethylene glycol, glycol stearate, and glycol distearate are used to produce a pearly effect in shampoos, soaps, and other cosmetic products. They are added to the product in molten form and allowed to crystallize under controlled conditions, detergents are obtained from amides and quaternary alkylammonium derivatives of stearic acid. In view of the texture of the sodium salt, which is the main component of soap. Lithium stearate is an important component of grease, the stearate salts of zinc, calcium, cadmium, and lead are used to soften PVC. Stearic acid is used along with oil for preparing softeners in textile sizing. They are heated and mixed with caustic potash or caustic soda, related salts are also commonly used as release agents, e. g. in the production of automobile tires. In this use, powdered stearic acid is mixed in water and this reacts with the calcium in the plaster to form a thin layer of calcium stearate, which functions as a release agent
4.
Myristic acid
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Myristic acid, also called tetradecanoic acid, is a common saturated fatty acid with the molecular formula CH312COOH. A myristate is a salt or ester of myristic acid, myristic acid is named after the nutmeg Myristica fragrans. Nutmeg butter has 75% trimyristin, the triglyceride of myristic acid, besides nutmeg, myristic acid is also found in palm kernel oil, coconut oil, butter fat and is a minor component of many other animal fats. It is also found in spermaceti, the fraction of oil from the sperm whale. It is also found in the rhizomes of the Iris, including Orris root, myristic acid is commonly added co-translationally to the penultimate, nitrogen-terminus, glycine in receptor-associated kinases to confer the membrane localisation of the enzyme. The myristic acid has a sufficiently high hydrophobicity to become incorporated into the fatty acyl core of the bilayer of the plasma membrane of the eukaryotic cell. In this way, myristic acid acts as an anchor in biomembranes. The ester isopropyl myristate is used in cosmetic and topical medicinal preparations where good absorption through the skin is desired, reduction of myristic acid yields myristyl aldehyde and myristyl alcohol
5.
Unsaturated fat
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An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain. A fatty acid chain is monounsaturated if it contains one double bond, where double bonds are formed, hydrogen atoms are subtracted from the carbon chain. Thus, a saturated fat has no double bonds, has the number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons. In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat molecules contain less energy than an equivalent amount of saturated fat. The greater the degree of unsaturation in a fatty acid the more vulnerable it is to lipid peroxidation, antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat from lipid peroxidation. Double bonds may be in either a cis or a trans isomer, in the cis isomer, hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond, whereas in the trans isomer, they are on opposite sides of the double bond. Saturated fats are useful in processed foods because saturated fats are less vulnerable to rancidity, unsaturated chains have a lower melting point, hence these molecules increase the fluidity of cell membranes. Although both monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats can replace saturated fat in the diet, trans unsaturated fats should not, replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats helps to lower levels of total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in the blood. Trans unsaturated fats are an exception because the double bond stereochemistry predisposes the carbon chains to assume a linear conformation, the geometry of the cis double bond induces a bend in the molecule, thereby precluding rigid formations. Natural sources of fatty acids are rich in the cis isomer and this probably is an indication of the greater vulnerability of polyunsaturated fats to lipid peroxidation, against which vitamin E has been shown to be protective. Examples of unsaturated fatty acids are palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, myristoleic acid, linoleic acid, foods containing unsaturated fats include avocado, nuts, and vegetable oils such as canola and olive oils. Meat products contain both saturated and unsaturated fats, most foods contain both unsaturated and saturated fats. Marketers advertise only one or the other, depending on which one makes up the majority, thus, various unsaturated fat vegetable oils, such as olive oils, also contain saturated fat. In chemical analysis, fatty acids are separated by gas chromatography of methyl esters, additionally, incidence of Insulin resistance is lowered with diets higher in monounsaturated fats, while the opposite is true for diets high in polyunsaturated fats as well as saturated fats. These ratios can be indexed in the phospholipids of human skeletal muscle, but this is contrary to the suggestion of more recent studies, in which polyunsaturated fats are shown as protective against insulin resistance. This fatty acid results in a more fluid cell membrane but also one that is permeable to various ions. This maintenance cost has been argued to be one of the key causes for the metabolic rates and concomitant warm-bloodedness of mammals. However polyunsaturation of cell membranes may also occur in response to cold temperatures as well
6.
Monounsaturated fat
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In biochemistry and nutrition, monounsaturated fatty acids are fatty acids that have one double bond in the fatty acid chain with all of the remainder carbon atoms being single-bonded. By contrast, polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one double bond, Fatty acids are long-chained molecules having an alkyl group at one end and a carboxylic acid group at the other end. Monounsaturated fatty acids are liquids at room temperature and semisolid or solid when refrigerated, common monounsaturated fatty acids are palmitoleic acid, cis-vaccenic acid and oleic acid. Palmitoleic acid has 16 carbon atoms with the first double bond occurring 7 carbon atoms away from the methyl group and it can be lengthened to the 18-carbon cis-vaccenic acid. Oleic acid has 18 carbon atoms with the first double bond occurring 9 carbon atoms away from the acid group. The illustrations below show a molecule of acid in Lewis formula. Polyunsaturated fats protect against cardiovascular disease by providing more membrane fluidity than monounsaturated fats, the large scale KANWU study found that increasing monounsaturated fat and decreasing saturated fat intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low. However, some monounsaturated fatty acids may promote resistance, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids may be protective against insulin resistance. Studies have shown that substituting dietary monounsaturated fat for saturated fat is associated with increased physical activity. More physical activity was associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a palmitic acid diet, from the study, it is shown that more monounsaturated fats lead to less anger and irritability. Foods containing monounsaturated fats reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, while possibly increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, however, their true ability to raise HDL is still in debate. Levels of oleic along with other monounsaturated fatty acids in red cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk. The saturation index of the same membranes was inversely associated with breast cancer risk, monounsaturated fats and low SI in erythrocyte membranes are predictors of postmenopausal breast cancer. Both of these depend on the activity of the enzyme delta-9 desaturase. In children, consumption of monounsaturated oils is associated with healthier serum lipid profiles, the Mediterranean Diet is one heavily influenced by monounsaturated fats. The diet in Crete is fairly high in total fat yet affords a protection from coronary heart disease. Monounsaturated fats are found in foods such as red meat, whole milk products, nuts and high fat fruits such as olives. Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat, the high oleic variety sunflower oil contains as much as 85% monounsaturated fat
7.
Oleic acid
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Oleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish, in chemical terms, oleic acid is classified as a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid, abbreviated with a lipid number of 18,1 cis-9. The term oleic means related to, or derived from, olive oil which is composed of oleic acid. The corresponding stereoisomer trans-9-Octadecenoic acid is called Elaidic acid and these isomers have distinct physical properties and biochemical properties. Elaidic acid, the most abundant trans fatty acid in diet, fatty acids do not often occur as such in biological systems. Instead fatty acids oleic acid occur as their esters, commonly triglycerides. Fatty acids can be obtained via the process of saponification, triglycerides of oleic acid compose the majority of olive oil, although there may be less than 2. 0% as free acid in virgin olive oil, with higher concentrations making the olive oil inedible. It is abundantly present in animal fats, constituting 37 to 56% of chicken. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in adipose tissue. Oleic acid is emitted by the corpses of a number of insects, including bees and Pogonomyrmex ants. If a live bee or ant is daubed with oleic acid, the oleic acid smell also may indicate danger to living insects, prompting them to avoid others who have succumbed to disease or places where predators lurk. The biosynthesis of oleic acid involves the action of the enzyme stearoyl-CoA 9-desaturase acting on stearoyl-CoA, in effect, stearic acid is dehydrogenated to give the monounsaturated derivative oleic acid. Oleic acid undergoes the reactions of acids and alkenes. It is soluble in aqueous base to give soaps called oleates, iodine adds across the double bond. Hydrogenation of the double bond yields the saturated derivative stearic acid, oxidation at the double bond occurs slowly in air, and is known as rancidification in foodstuffs or drying in coatings. Reduction of the acid group yields oleyl alcohol. Ozonolysis of oleic acid is an important route to azelaic acid, the coproduct is nonanoic acid, H17C8CH=CHC7H14CO2H + 4O → H17C8CO2H + HO2CC7H14CO2H Esters of azelaic acid find applications in lubrication and plasticizers. The trans isomer of oleic acid is called elaidic acid, a naturally occurring isomer of oleic acid is petroselinic acid
8.
Palmitoleic acid
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Palmitoleic acid, or -hexadec-9-enoic acid, is an omega-7 monounsaturated fatty acid with the formula CH35CH=CH7COOH that is a common constituent of the glycerides of human adipose tissue. It is present in all tissues but, in general, found in higher concentrations in the liver and it is biosynthesized from palmitic acid by the action of the enzyme delta-9 desaturase. A beneficial fatty acid, it has shown to increase insulin sensitivity by suppressing inflammation. Palmitoleic acid can be abbreviated as 16, 1∆9, dietary sources of palmitoleic acid include breast milk, a variety of animal oils, vegetable oils, and marine oils. Macadamia oil and sea buckthorn oil are sources with high concentrations, containing 17% and 19-29% of palmitoleic acid
9.
Polyunsaturated fat
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Polyunsaturated fats are lipids in which the constituent hydrocarbon chain possesses two or more carbon–carbon double bonds. Polyunsaturated fat can be mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, algae, leafy greens. Unsaturated refers to the fact that the molecules contain less than the amount of hydrogen. These materials exist as cis or trans isomers depending on the geometry of the double bond, saturated fats have hydrocarbon chains which can be most readily aligned. The hydrocarbon chains in trans fats align more readily than those in cis fats and this means that, in general, the melting points of fats increase from cis to trans unsaturated and then to saturated. See the section on chemical structure of fats for more information, the position of the carbon-carbon double bonds in carboxylic acid chains in fats is designated by Greek letters. The carbon atom closest to the group is the alpha carbon. In fatty acids the carbon atom of the group at the end of the hydrocarbon chain is called the omega carbon because omega is the last letter of the Greek alphabet. Omega-3 fatty acids have a double bond three carbons away from the carbon, whereas omega-6 fatty acids have a double bond six carbons away from the methyl carbon. The illustration below shows the omega-6 fatty acid, linoleic acid, while it is the nutritional aspects of polyunsaturated fats that are generally of greatest interest, these materials do also have non-food applications. Drying oils, which polymerize on exposure to oxygen to form films, are polyunsaturated fats. The most common ones are linseed oil, tung oil, poppy seed oil, perilla oil and these oils are used to make paints and varnishes. In preliminary research, omega-3 fatty acids in algal oil, fish oil, fish, ongoing research indicates that omega-6 fatty acids in sunflower oil and safflower oil may also reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Among n-3 fatty acids, neither long-chain nor short-chain forms were associated with breast cancer risk. High levels of acid, however, the most abundant n-3 PUFA in erythrocyte membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer. The DHA obtained through the consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids is associated with cognitive. In addition DHA is vital for the grey matter structure of the human brain, dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids has been shown in preliminary studies to decrease the risk of developing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The importance of the ratio of essential fatty acids as established by comparative studies shows an Omega-6
10.
Linoleic acid
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Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid. It is a liquid at room temperature. In physiological literature, it has a number of 18,2 cis. Linoleic acid is an acid with an 18-carbon chain and two cis double bonds, with the first double bond located at the sixth carbon from the methyl end. Linoleic acid belongs to one of the two families of essential fatty acids, which means that the body cannot synthesize it from other food components. The word linoleic derived from the Greek word linon, oleic means of, relating to, or derived from oil of olive or of or relating to oleic acid because saturating the omega-6 double bond produces oleic acid. LA is a fatty acid used in the biosynthesis of arachidonic acid and thus some prostaglandins, leukotrienes. It is found in the lipids of cell membranes and it is abundant in many nuts, fatty seeds and their derived vegetable oils, comprising over half of poppy seed, safflower, sunflower, corn, and soybean oils. LA is converted by various lipoxygenases, cyclooxygenases, certain cytochrome P450 enzymes, certain cytochrome P450 enzymes, the CYP epoxygenases, metabolize LA to epoxide products viz. its 12, 13-epoxide, Vernolic acid and its 9, 10-epoxide, Coronaric acid. All of these LA products have bioactivity and are implicated in human physiology and pathology as indicated in the cited linkages, linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid that must be consumed for proper health. A diet only deficient in linoleate causes mild skin scaling, hair loss, along with oleic acid, linoleic acid is released by cockroaches upon death which has the effect of preventing other roaches from entering the area. This is similar to the found in ants and bees. The first step in the metabolism of LA is performed by Δ6desaturase, there is evidence suggesting that infants lack Δ6desaturase of their own, and must acquire it through breast milk. Studies show that breast-milk fed babies have higher concentrations of GLA than formula-fed babies, GLA is converted to dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, which in turn is converted to arachidonic acid. The three types of eicosanoids are prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes, eicosanoids produced from AA tend to promote inflammation and promote growth during and after physical activity in healthy humans. For example, both AA-derived thrombaxane and leukotrieneB4 are proaggregatory and vasoconstrictive eicosanoids during inflammation, there are some suggested negative health effects related to this inflammation promoting function of linoleic acid as an omega-6 fatty acid. Linoleic acid is used in making quick-drying oils, which are useful in oil paints and these applications exploit the easy reaction of the linoleic acid with oxygen in air, which leads to crosslinking and formation of a stable film called linoxyn. Reduction of linoleic acid yields linoleyl alcohol, linoleic acid is a surfactant with a critical micelle concentration of 1.5 x 10−4 M @ pH7.5
11.
Food energy
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Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction, with the water substance produced being in the liquid phase. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
12.
Melting point
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The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium, the melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of the change from liquid to solid. Because of the ability of some substances to supercool, the point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance. For most substances, melting and freezing points are approximately equal, for example, the melting point and freezing point of mercury is 234.32 kelvins. However, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures, for example, agar melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 31 °C to 40 °C, such direction dependence is known as hysteresis. The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of pressure is close to 0 °C. In the presence of nucleating substances the freezing point of water is the same as the melting point, the chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten, at 3687 K, this property makes tungsten excellent for use as filaments in light bulbs. Many laboratory techniques exist for the determination of melting points, a Kofler bench is a metal strip with a temperature gradient. Any substance can be placed on a section of the strip revealing its thermal behaviour at the temperature at that point, differential scanning calorimetry gives information on melting point together with its enthalpy of fusion. A basic melting point apparatus for the analysis of crystalline solids consists of an oil bath with a transparent window, the several grains of a solid are placed in a thin glass tube and partially immersed in the oil bath. The oil bath is heated and with the aid of the melting of the individual crystals at a certain temperature can be observed. In large/small devices, the sample is placed in a heating block, the measurement can also be made continuously with an operating process. For instance, oil refineries measure the point of diesel fuel online, meaning that the sample is taken from the process. This allows for more frequent measurements as the sample does not have to be manually collected, for refractory materials the extremely high melting point may be determined by heating the material in a black body furnace and measuring the black-body temperature with an optical pyrometer. For the highest melting materials, this may require extrapolation by several hundred degrees, the spectral radiance from an incandescent body is known to be a function of its temperature. An optical pyrometer matches the radiance of a body under study to the radiance of a source that has been previously calibrated as a function of temperature, in this way, the measurement of the absolute magnitude of the intensity of radiation is unnecessary. However, known temperatures must be used to determine the calibration of the pyrometer, for temperatures above the calibration range of the source, an extrapolation technique must be employed
13.
Specific gravity
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This page is about the measurement using water as a reference. For a general use of gravity, see relative density. See intensive property for the property implied by specific, Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference substance. The reference substance is always water at its densest for liquids. Nonetheless, the temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference, pressure is nearly always 1 atm. Temperatures for both sample and reference vary from industry to industry, in British beer brewing, the practice for specific gravity as specified above is to multiply it by 1000. Being a ratio of densities, specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity, Specific gravity varies with temperature and pressure, reference and sample must be compared at the same temperature and pressure or be corrected to a standard reference temperature and pressure. Substances with a gravity of 1 are neutrally buoyant in water. Those with SG greater than 1 are denser than water and will, disregarding surface tension effects and those with an SG less than 1 are less dense than water and will float on it. In scientific work, the relationship of mass to volume is expressed directly in terms of the density of the substance under study. It is in industry where specific gravity finds wide application, often for historical reasons. True specific gravity can be expressed mathematically as, S G true = ρ sample ρ H2 O where ρ sample is the density of the sample, the density of water varies with temperature and pressure as does the density of the sample. So it is necessary to specify the temperatures and pressures at which the densities or weights were determined and it is nearly always the case that measurements are made at 1 nominal atmosphere. For true specific gravity calculations, air pressure must be considered, temperatures are specified by the notation with T s representing the temperature at which the samples density was determined and T r the temperature at which the reference density is specified. For example, SG would be understood to mean that the density of the sample was determined at 20°C and of the water at 4°C. Taking into account different sample and reference temperatures, we note that, while S G H2 O =1.000000, it is also the case that S G H2 O =0.998203 /0.999840 =0.998363. Here, temperature is being specified using the current ITS-90 scale, on the previous IPTS-68 scale, the densities at 20 °C and 4 °C are 0.9982071 and 0.9999720 respectively, resulting in an SG value for water of 0.9982343. For example, in the industry, the Plato table lists sucrose concentration by weight against true SG
14.
Domestic pig
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The domestic pig, often called swine, hog, or pig when there is no need to distinguish it from other pigs, is a large, even-toed ungulate. It is variously considered a subspecies of the boar or a distinct species. The domestic pigs head-plus-body-length ranges from 0.9 to 1.8 m, compared to other artiodactyls, its head is relatively long, pointed, and free of warts. Even-toed ungulates are generally herbivorous, but the pig is an omnivore. Domestic pigs are farmed primarily for the consumption of their meat called pork, the animals bones, hide, and bristles are also used in commercial products. Domestic pigs, especially the pig and micro pig, are sometimes kept as pets. The domestic pig typically has a head, with a long snout which is strengthened by a special prenasal bone. The snout is used to dig into the soil to find food, the dental formula of adult pigs is 3.1.4.33.1.4.3, giving a total of 44 teeth. The rear teeth are adapted for crushing, in the male the canine teeth can form tusks, which grow continuously and are sharpened by constantly being ground against each other. There are four hoofed toes on each foot, or trotter, most domestic pigs have rather a sparse hair covering on their skin, although woolly-coated breeds, such as the Mangalitsa, are raised. Pigs possess both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, although the latter appear limited to the snout and dorsonasal areas, pigs, however, like other hairless mammals, do not use thermal sweat glands in cooling. Pigs are also less able than many other mammals to dissipate heat from wet mucous membranes in the mouth through panting and their thermoneutral zone is 16 to 22 °C. Pigs are one of four known species which possess mutations in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake venom. Mongooses, honey badgers, hedgehogs, and pigs all have modifications to the receptor pocket which prevents the snake venom α-neurotoxin from binding and these represent four separate, independent mutations. However, in 1777, Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben classified the domestic pig as a species from the wild boar. He gave it the name Sus domesticus, which is used by some taxonomists. Remains of pigs have been dated to earlier than 11,400 BC in Cyprus and those animals must have been introduced from the mainland, which suggests domestication in the adjacent mainland by then. There was also a separate domestication in China which took place about 8000 years ago, DNA evidence from sub-fossil remains of teeth and jawbones of Neolithic pigs shows that the first domestic pigs in Europe had been brought from the Near East
15.
Fat
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Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
16.
Adipose tissue
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In biology, adipose tissue /ˈædᵻˌpoʊs/, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes and its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as an endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin. The two types of tissue are white adipose tissue, which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene, Adipose tissue – more specifically brown adipose tissue – was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551. In humans, adipose tissue is located beneath the skin, around internal organs, in bone marrow, intermuscular, Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes, which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other types are present. SVF includes preadipocytes, fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells, Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, around organs, it provides protective padding. Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles, under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to the brain. Mice have eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity, the mesenteric depot forms a glue-like web that supports the intestines and the omental depot and - when massive - extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue as lymph nodes and milky spots, the layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a frosting of white adipose tissue, sometimes these two types of fat are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group of lymph nodes, minor depots include the pericardial, which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node. Of all the depots in the mouse, the depots are the largest. In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus, a panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese individual. It may remain as an apron of skin if a severely obese person quickly loses large amounts of fat. This condition cannot be corrected through diet and exercise alone, as the panniculus consists of adipocytes and other supporting cell types shrunken to their minimum volume. Reconstructive surgery is one method of treatment, visceral fat or abdominal fat is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs
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Cooking
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Cooking or cookery is the art, technology and craft of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill, cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago. The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients, New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served, phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave, there is evidence that Homo erectus was cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Evidence for the use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. Archeological evidence, from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe, anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago, when hearths started appearing. More recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the nineteenth-century Age of Nationalism cuisine became a symbol of national identity. Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Colombian exchange influenced the history of cooking, the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, in the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias and fast-food establishments emerged. Along with changes in food, starting early in the 20th century, governments have issued nutrition guidelines, the 1916 Food For Young Children became the first USDA guide to give specific dietary guidelines. Updated in the 1920s, these guides gave shopping suggestions for different-sized families along with a Depression Era revision which included four cost levels, in 1943, the USDA created the Basic Seven chart to make sure that people got the recommended nutrients. It included the first-ever Recommended Daily Allowances from the National Academy of Sciences, in 1956, the Essentials of an Adequate Diet brought recommendations which cut the number of groups that American school children would learn about down to four. In 1979, a guide called Food addressed the link between too much of certain foods and chronic diseases, but added fats, oils, most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi
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Shortening
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Shortening is any fat that is a solid at room temperature and used to make crumbly pastry and other food products. Shortening is used in pastries that should not be elastic, such as cake, although butter is solid at room temperature and is frequently used in making pastry, the term shortening seldom refers to butter, but is more closely related to margarine. Originally shortening was synonymous with lard, but with the invention of margarine by French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès in 1869, since the invention of hydrogenated vegetable oil in the early 20th century, shortening has come almost exclusively to mean hydrogenated vegetable oil. Vegetable shortening shares many properties with lard, Both are semi-solid fats with a higher point than butter. They contain less water and are less prone to splattering, making them safer for frying. Lard and shortening have a fat content compared to about 80% for butter. Cake margarines and shortenings tend to contain a few percent of monoglycerides whereas other margarines typically have less, such high ratio shortenings blend better with hydrophilic ingredients such as starches and sugar. In 1907, a German chemist, Edwin Cuno Kayser, moved to Cincinnati, Ohio and he had worked for British soap manufacturer Joseph Crosfield and Sons and was well acquainted with Normanns process, as Crosfield and Sons owned the British rights to Normanns patent. While similar to lard, vegetable shortening was much cheaper to produce, shortening also required no refrigeration, which further lowered its costs and increased its appeal in a time when refrigerators were rare. With these advantages, plus an intensive advertisement campaign by Procter & Gamble, as food production became increasingly industrialized and manufacturers sought low-cost raw materials, the use of vegetable shortening also became common in the food industry. In addition, vast US government-financed surpluses of cottonseed oil, corn oil, and soy beans also helped create a market in low-cost vegetable shortening. Crisco, owned by The J. M. Smucker Company since 2002, remains the brand of shortening in the US, nowadays consisting of a blend of partially and fully hydrogenated soybean. In Ireland and the UK, Cookeen is a brand, while in Australia, Copha is popular. A short dough is one that is crumbly or mealy, the opposite of a short dough is a long dough or dough that stretches. Vegetable shortening can produce both types of dough, the difference is in technique, for a long dough, the shortening is cut in only until the pea-sized crumbs are formed, or even larger lumps may be included. After cutting in the fat, the liquid is added and the dough is shaped for baking, neither short dough nor long flake dough is considered to be creamed or stirred batters. Consequently, a low trans fat variant of Crisco was introduced in 2004, in 2006, Cookeen was also reformulated to remove trans fats. William Shurtleff and Akiko Aoyagi,2007
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Spread (food)
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A spread is a food that is literally spread, generally with a knife, onto food products such as bread and crackers. Spreads are added to food in order to enhance the flavor or texture of the food, spreads should be distinguished from dips, such as salsa, which are generally not applied to spread onto food but have food dipped into them instead. Peanut butter is an example of spread. Common spreads include dairy spreads, honey, plant-derived spreads, yeast spreads, List of butters List of dips List of foods Food portal
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Butter
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Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
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Loin
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The loins are the sides between the lower ribs and pelvis, and the lower part of the back. It is often used when describing the anatomy of humans and quadrupeds, the anatomical reference also carries over into the description of cuts of meat from some such animals, e. g. tenderloin or sirloin steak. In human anatomy the term loin or loins refers to the side of the body below the rib cage to just above the pelvis. It is frequently used to reference the area below the ribs. While the term loin is generally not used in medical science, the lumbar region of the spinal column is located in the loin area of the body. The term also has become euphemistic for human genitals because of their prominence in that anatomical region, because of this euphemistic use of the term, the article of clothing that is worn around the genital area has been named a loincloth. In the Authorized King James Version of the Christian Bible the term loins is used frequently and it is suggested that the loins is the minimum one must cover on their body to be respectful of the law. This suggests that if a man covers up just his genital area, frequently the expression fruit of his loins is used to refer to children. Such a fruit of my loins reference is made in the King James Version. It is also used as a term for the lower area of the body much like the term below the belt references the area below where the average person would wear a belt. In the modern age, it has become an idiom meaning to prepare oneself for action, as in, Butchers frequently refer to the section of meat below the rib cage, but above the round as loin. Various names of meats further butchered from the section of cattle. In American culinary arts the loin section of meat from the top half of cattle is divided into three sections, the various cuts of beef from this section are named sirloin, tenderloin, top sirloin, and short loin. They are named for their parts on the cattle. In the British butchery tradition, the set of muscles is generally referred to as the rump. It has been suggested by culinary professionals that tenderloin is the most tender cut of one can get. The loin section of beef is fairly popular among consumers for its low fat qualities and it is the source of filet mignon
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Fatback
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Fatback is a cut of meat from a domestic pig. It consists of the layer of tissue under the skin of the back. Fatback is hard fat, distinct from the fat that occurs in the abdominal cavity and is called soft fat. Like other types of pig fat, fatback may be rendered to make a high quality lard, finely diced or coarsely ground fatback is an important ingredient in sausage making and in some meat dishes. Fatback is an important element of traditional charcuterie, in several European cultures it is used to make specialty bacon. Containing no skeletal muscle, this bacon is a delicacy, at one time fatback was Italys basic cooking fat, especially in regions where olive trees are sparse or absent, but health concerns have reduced its popularity. However, it provides a rich, authentic flavour for the classic battuto – sautéed vegetables, herbs, today, pancetta is often used instead. Fatback is processed into slab bacon by many methods, including brine curing, dry curing, smoking, usually the skin is left on. This fatback bacon is widely eaten throughout Europe, in Italy it is called lardo, and notable examples are Valle dAosta Lard dArnad and Lardo di Colonnata. In Ukraine, Russia, and other countries of the former Soviet Union, in Hungary, where it is called szalonna, it is very popular for campfire cookouts. In Germany, where it is called Rückenspeck, it is one of two known as Speck. Streak o lean is fatback with some still attached. It is still popular in areas, particularly the Southeastern United States where it is typically cooked in the same manner as regular fatback. It has a much higher meat content, as much as 50% by volume and it resembles regular bacon in many respects, including the marbling of meat and fat, although it is typically sold in smaller blocks. Like many cured pork products, it is very high in sodium due to the salt content. In Polish, it is called boczek, since it comes from the side of the pig and has long been a key component of bigos, a common delicacy is strips of heavily salted and fried fatback. Fatback was extremely popular in the South during the Great Depression because it is a piece of meat. In the southwestern United States, fried fatback is known by its Spanish name, fatback is an important ingredient in notable traditional sausages including nduja, cudighi, and cotechino Modena
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Centrifuge
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A centrifuge is a piece of equipment that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis, applying a potentially strong force perpendicular to the axis of spin. The centrifuge works using the principle, where the centripetal acceleration causes denser substances and particles to move outward in the radial direction. At the same time, objects that are less dense are displaced, in a laboratory centrifuge that uses sample tubes, the radial acceleration causes denser particles to settle to the bottom of the tube, while low-density substances rise to the top. There are 3 types of centrifuge designed for different applications, industrial scale centrifuges are commonly used in manufacturing and waste processing to sediment suspended solids, or to separate immiscible liquids. An example is the cream separator found in dairies, very high speed centrifuges and ultracentrifuges able to provide very high accelerations can separate fine particles down to the nano-scale, and molecules of different masses. Large centrifuges are used to high gravity or acceleration environments. Medium-sized centrifuges are used in washing machines and at swimming pools to wring water out of fabrics. Gas centrifuges are used for separation, such as to enrich nuclear fuel for fissile isotopes. English military engineer Benjamin Robins invented a whirling arm apparatus to determine drag, in 1864, Antonin Prandtl proposed the idea of a dairy centrifuge to separate cream from milk. The idea was put into practice by his brother, Alexander Prandtl, who made improvements to his brothers design. A centrifuge machine can be described as a machine with a rotating container that applies centrifugal force to its contents. Swinging head centrifuges, in contrast to fixed-angle centrifuges, have a hinge where the containers are attached to the central rotor. This allows all of the samples to swing outwards as the centrifuge is spun, continuous tubular centrifuges do not have individual sample vessels and are used for high volume applications. Types by intended use, Laboratory centrifuges, are instruments of several types with distinct. These include clinical centrifuges, superspeed centrifuges and preparative ultracentrifuges, analytical ultracentrifuges are designed to perform sedimentation analysis of macromolecules using the principles devised by Theodor Svedberg. Haematocrit centrifuges are used to measure the percentage of red blood cells in whole blood. Gas centrifuges, including Zippe-type centrifuges, for isotopic separations in the gas phase, industrial centrifuges may otherwise be classified according to the type of separation of the high density fraction from the low density one. Generally, there are two types of centrifuges, the filtration and sedimentation centrifuges, for the filtration or the so-called screen centrifuge the drum is perforated and is inserted with a filter, for example a filter cloth, wire mesh or lot screen
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Hydrogenation
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Hydrogenation – to treat with hydrogen – is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen and another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel, palladium or platinum. The process is employed to reduce or saturate organic compounds. Hydrogenation typically constitutes the addition of pairs of atoms to a molecule. Catalysts are required for the reaction to be usable, non-catalytic hydrogenation takes place only at high temperatures. Hydrogenation reduces double and triple bonds in hydrocarbons and it has three components, the unsaturated substrate, the hydrogen and, invariably, a catalyst. The reduction reaction is carried out at different temperatures and pressures depending upon the substrate, the same catalysts and conditions that are used for hydrogenation reactions can also lead to isomerization of the alkenes from cis to trans. This process is of great interest because hydrogenation technology generates most of the fat in foods. A reaction where bonds are broken while hydrogen is added is called hydrogenolysis, some hydrogenations of polar bonds are accompanied by hydrogenolysis. For hydrogenation, the source of hydrogen is H2 gas itself. The hydrogenation process often uses greater than 1 atmosphere of H2, usually conveyed from the cylinders, gaseous hydrogen is produced industrially from hydrocarbons by the process known as steam reforming. For many applications, hydrogen is transferred from donor molecules such as acid, isopropanol. These hydrogen donors undergo dehydrogenation to, respectively, carbon dioxide, acetone and these processes are called transfer hydrogenations. Typical substrates are listed in the table With rare exceptions, H2 is unreactive toward organic compounds in the absence of metal catalysts, the unsaturated substrate is chemisorbed onto the catalyst, with most sites covered by the substrate. In heterogeneous catalysts, hydrogen forms surface hydrides from which hydrogens can be transferred to the chemisorbed substrate, platinum, palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium form highly active catalysts, which operate at lower temperatures and lower pressures of H2. Non-precious metal catalysts, especially based on nickel have also been developed as economical alternatives. The trade-off is activity vs. cost of the catalyst and cost of the apparatus required for use of high pressures, notice that the Raney-nickel catalysed hydrogenations require high pressures, Catalysts are usually classified into two broad classes, homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts. Homogeneous catalysts dissolve in the solvent that contains the unsaturated substrate, heterogeneous catalysts are solids that are suspended in the same solvent with the substrate or are treated with gaseous substrate. Some well known homogeneous catalysts are indicated below and these are coordination complexes that activate both the unsaturated substrate and the H2
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Transfat
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Trans fat has been shown to consistently be associated, in an intake-dependent way, with increased risk of coronary heart disease, a leading cause of death in Western nations. Fats contain long chains, which can either be unsaturated, i. e. have double bonds, or saturated. In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have cis as opposed to trans configurations, Trans fats also occur naturally in a limited number of cases. Vaccenyl and conjugated linoleyl containing trans fats occur naturally in trace amounts in meat, most artificial trans fats are chemically different from natural trans fats. A study by the US Department of Agriculture showed that vaccenic acid raises both HDL and LDL cholesterol, whereas industrial trans fats only raise LDL without any effect on HDL. In 2003 the World Health Organisation recommended that trans fats make up no more than 1% of a persons diet. On 16 June 2015, the FDA finalized its determination that trans fats are not generally recognized as safe, in other countries, there are legal limits to trans fat content. Trans fats levels can be reduced or eliminated using saturated fats such as lard, palm oil or fully hydrogenated fats, other alternative formulations can also allow unsaturated fats to be used to replace saturated or partially hydrogenated fats. Hydrogenated oil is not a synonym for trans fat, complete hydrogenation removes all unsaturated fats, nobel laureate Paul Sabatier worked in the late 1890s to develop the chemistry of hydrogenation, which enabled the margarine, oil hydrogenation, and synthetic methanol industries. Whereas Sabatier considered hydrogenation of only vapors, the German chemist Wilhelm Normann showed in 1901 that liquid oils could be hydrogenated, during the years 1905–1910, Normann built a fat-hardening facility in the Herford company. At the same time, the invention was extended to a plant in Warrington, England, at Joseph Crosfield & Sons. It took only two years until the fat could be successfully produced in the plant in Warrington, commencing production in the autumn of 1909. The initial years production totalled nearly 3,000 tonnes, in 1909, Procter & Gamble acquired the US rights to the Normann patent, in 1911, they began marketing the first hydrogenated shortening, Crisco. Further success came from the technique of giving away free cookbooks in which every recipe called for Crisco. Normanns hydrogenation process made it possible to stabilize affordable whale oil or fish oil for human consumption, prior to 1910, dietary fats consisted primarily of butterfat, beef tallow, and lard. During Napoleons reign in France in the early 19th century, a type of margarine was invented to feed the troops using tallow and buttermilk, it did not gain acceptance in the U. S. In the early 20th century, soybeans began to be imported into the U. S. as a source of protein, what to do with that oil became an issue. At the same time, there was not enough available for consumers
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Emulsion
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An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible. Emulsions are part of a general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids, in an emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other. Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, mayonnaise, the word emulsion comes from the Latin word for to milk, as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. Two liquids can form different types of emulsions, as an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, wherein the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the dispersion medium. Second, they can form an emulsion, wherein water is the dispersed phase. Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion and an oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion, emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure. The droplets dispersed in the matrix are usually assumed to be statistically distributed. The term emulsion is used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographic emulsion consist of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix, nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles. Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a phase, with the boundary between the phases called the interface. Emulsions tend to have an appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally, if the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency and low-wavelength light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the Tyndall effect. If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths and this phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil, two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent. This property is due to the fact that lightwaves are scattered by the only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light. Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused, the required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications, in addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels
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Antioxidant
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An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a reaction that can produce free radicals, leading to chain reactions that may damage cells. Antioxidants such as thiols or ascorbic acid terminate these chain reactions, supplementation with selenium or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Oxidative stress can be considered as either a cause or consequence of some diseases, industrial antioxidants have diverse uses, such as food and cosmetics preservatives and inhibitors of rubber or gasoline deterioration. Although certain levels of antioxidant vitamins in the diet are required for good health, moreover, if they are actually beneficial, it is unknown which antioxidant are needed from the diet and in what amounts beyond typical dietary intake. Some authors dispute the hypothesis that antioxidant vitamins could prevent chronic diseases, polyphenols, which often have antioxidant properties in vitro, are not necessarily antioxidants in vivo due to extensive metabolism. In many polyphenols, the group acts as electron acceptor and is therefore responsible for the antioxidant activity. However, this catechol group undergoes extensive metabolism upon uptake in the body, for example by catechol-O-methyl transferase. Many polyphenols may have non-antioxidant roles in minute concentrations that affect cell-to-cell signaling, receptor sensitivity, tirilazad is an antioxidant steroid derivative that inhibits the lipid peroxidation that is believed to play a key role in neuronal death in stroke and head injury. It demonstrated activity in animal models of stroke, but human trials demonstrated no effect on mortality or other outcomes in subarachnoid haemorrhage, similarly, the designed antioxidant NXY-059 exhibited efficacy in animal models, but failed to improve stroke outcomes in a clinical trial. As of November 2014, other antioxidants are being studied as potential neuroprotectants, common pharmaceuticals with antioxidant properties may interfere with the efficacy of certain anticancer medication and radiation. During exercise, oxygen consumption can increase by a factor of more than 10, however, no benefits for physical performance to athletes are seen with vitamin E supplementation and 6 weeks of vitamin E supplementation had no effect on muscle damage in ultramarathon runners. Some research suggests that supplementation with amounts as high as 1000 mg of vitamin C inhibits recovery, other studies indicated that antioxidant supplementation may attenuate the cardiovascular benefits of exercise. Relatively strong reducing acids can have antinutrient effects by binding to dietary minerals such as iron and zinc in the gastrointestinal tract, notable examples are oxalic acid, tannins and phytic acid, which are high in plant-based diets. Calcium and iron deficiencies are not uncommon in diets in developing countries where meat is eaten and there is high consumption of phytic acid from beans. Nonpolar antioxidants such as major component of oil of cloves—have toxicity limits that can be exceeded with the misuse of undiluted essential oils. Toxicity associated with high doses of water-soluble antioxidants such as ascorbic acid are less of a concern, more seriously, very high doses of some antioxidants may have harmful long-term effects. The beta-carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial study of cancer patients found that smokers given supplements containing beta-carotene
28.
Butylated hydroxytoluene
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Butylated hydroxytoluene, also known as dibutylhydroxytoluene, is a lipophilic organic compound, chemically a derivative of phenol, that is useful for its antioxidant properties. European and U. S. regulations allow small amounts to be used as a food additive, in addition to this use, BHT is widely used to prevent oxidation in fluids and other materials where free radicals must be controlled. Phytoplankton, including the green algae Botryococcus braunii, as well as three different cyanobacteria are capable of producing BHT, confirmation was made via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis. BHT stops this autocatalytic reaction by converting peroxy radicals to hydroperoxides and it effects this function by donating a hydrogen atom, RO2. + ArO. → nonradical products where R is alkyl or aryl, each BHT consumes two peroxy radicals. In the United States, it is classified as generally recognized as based on a National Cancer Institute study from 1979 in rats. It is permitted in the European Union under E321 and it is forbidden as food additive in Japan, Romania, Sweden, and Australia. Since the 1970s, BHT has been replaced with butylated hydroxyanisole. Some food companies have voluntarily eliminated BHT from their products, others like General Mills and Kelloggs announced in February 2015, following a petition by Vani Hari, that they were going to phase it out. BHT is also used as an antioxidant in products such as cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, rubber, electrical transformer oil, in the petroleum industry, where BHT is known as the fuel additive AO-29, it is used in hydraulic fluids, turbine and gear oils, and jet fuels. BHT is also used to prevent peroxide formation in diethyl ether and other laboratory chemicals, some additive products contain BHT as their primary ingredient, while others contain the chemical merely as a component of their formulation, sometimes alongside butylated hydroxyanisole. Debate surrounds the link of BHT to cancer risk, asthma, there is in vitro indication for endocrine disruption with effect on the testes and thyroid. Because of this uncertainty, the consumer group Center for Science in the Public Interest recommend to avoid BHT, the National Cancer Institute determined in 1979 that it was noncarcinogenic in a mouse model. BHT is marketed as a food supplement in capsule form. It has been reported to have effects, particularly in use against herpes family viruses, sometimes in combination with L-lysine. This latter use has made it some of the more popular literature. Closely related phenol antioxidants exhibit low toxicity, for example, the LD50 of 2, 6-di-tert-butylphenol is greater than 9 g/kg. Why are BHA and BHT in foods, CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
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Rancidification
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Rancidification, the product of which can be described as rancidity, is the process which causes a substance to become rancid, that is, having a rank, unpleasant smell or taste. Specifically, it is the hydrolysis and/or autoxidation of fats into short-chain aldehydes and ketones which are objectionable in taste, when these processes occur in food, undesirable odors and flavors can result. In some cases, however, the flavors can be desirable, in processed meats, these flavors are collectively known as warmed-over flavor. Rancidification can also detract from the value of food. Akin to rancidification, oxidative degradation also occurs in other hydrocarbons, e. g. lubricating oils, fuels, three pathways for rancidification are recognized, Hydrolytic rancidity refers to the odor that develops when triglycerides are hydrolyzed and free fatty acids are released. This reaction of lipid with water sometimes requires a catalyst, but results in the formation of fatty acids. In particular, short-chain fatty acids, such as common butter fats, are odorous, rancidity in foods may be very slight, indicated by a loss of freshness to very severe, indicated by objectionable odors and/or flavors. Oxidative rancidity is associated with the degradation by oxygen in the air, via a free radical process, the double bonds of an unsaturated fatty acid can undergo cleavage, releasing volatile aldehydes and ketones. Oxidation primarily occurs with unsaturated fats, for example, even though meat is held under refrigeration or in a frozen state, the poly-unsaturated fat will continue to oxidize and slowly become rancid. This chemical process continues during frozen storage, though more slowly at lower temperature, the process can be suppressed by the exclusion of oxygen or by the addition of antioxidants. Thus, airtight packaging will slow rancidity development, microbial rancidity refers to a process in which microorganisms, such as bacteria or molds, use their enzymes such as lipases to break down fat. This pathway can be prevented by sterilization, consuming rancid food products is unlikely to cause immediate illness or harm. Rancidification can reduce the value of food, and some vitamins are highly sensitive to degradation. In addition, rancidification can produce toxic compounds associated with long-term harmful health effects concerning advanced aging, neurological disorders, heart disease. Antioxidants are often used as preservatives in fat-containing foods to delay the onset or slow the development of rancidity due to oxidation, natural antioxidants include polyphenols, ascorbic acid and tocopherols. Synthetic antioxidants include butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene, TBHQ, propyl gallate, the natural antioxidants tend to be short-lived, so synthetic antioxidants are used when a longer shelf-life is preferred. The effectiveness of water-soluble antioxidants is limited in preventing direct oxidation within fats, a combination of water-soluble and fat-soluble antioxidants is ideal, usually in the ratio of fat to water. Antimicrobial agents can also delay or prevent rancidification by inhibiting the growth of bacteria or other micro-organisms that affect the process, oxygen scavenging technology can be used to remove oxygen from food packaging and therefore prevent oxidative rancidification
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Artisan
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Artisans practice a craft and may through experience and aptitude reach the expressive levels of an artist. The adjective artisanal is sometimes used in describing hand-processing in what is viewed as an industrial process. Thus, artisanal is sometimes used in marketing and advertising as a word to describe or imply some relation with the crafting of handmade food products, such as bread. Many of these have traditionally been handmade, rural or pastoral goods but are now commonly made on a larger scale with automated mechanization in factories. Artisans were the dominant producers of products prior to the Industrial Revolution. In ancient Greece, artisans were drawn to agoras and often built workshops nearby, during the Middle Ages, the term artisan was applied to those who made things or provided services. It did not apply to unskilled manual labourers, Artisans were divided into two distinct groups, those who operated their own businesses and those who did not. Those who owned their businesses were called masters, while the latter were the journeymen, one misunderstanding many people have about this social group is that they picture them as workers in the modern sense, employed by someone. The most influential group among the artisans were the masters, the business owners, the owners enjoyed a higher social status in their communities. Shokunin is a Japanese word for artisan or craftsman, which implies a pride in ones own work. In the words of shokunin Tashio Odate, Shokunin means not only having technical skill, a social obligation to work his best for the general welfare of the people, obligation both material and spiritual. Applied art Artist Arts and Crafts movement Caste — Tarkhan Guild Handicraft The dictionary definition of artisan at Wiktionary History of Artisans
31.
Deep frying
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Deep frying is a cooking method in which food is submerged in hot fat, most commonly oil, rather than the shallow oil used in conventional frying, done in a frying pan. Normally, a deep fryer or chip pan is used for this, industrially, Deep frying may also be performed using oil that is heated in a pot. Deep frying is classified as hot-fat cooking method, typically, deep frying cooks foods quickly, all sides of a food are cooked simultaneously as oil has a high rate of heat conduction. The term deep frying and many modern deep-fried foods were not invented until the 19th century, early records and cookbooks suggest that the practice began in a few European and Arabian countries before other countries adopted the practice. Deep frying is popular worldwide, with deep-fried foods accounting for a portion of global caloric consumption. Although the nouns deep-fried, deep-frying, and the verb deep-fry were not documented until 1916,1932, and 1933, one of the earliest known practices of deep frying came from the Egyptians in the 5th millennium BCE. Later developments included the Greeks deep frying food in oil in the 5th century BCE. In the 1st century CE, a Roman cookbook, Apicius, appears to list the ancient Romans first use of deep frying to prepare Pullum Frontonianum, the practice of deep frying spread to other parts of Europe and Arabia in the following centuries. Deep-fried foods such as funnel cakes arrived in northern Europe by the 13th century, falafel arrived in the Middle East from population migrations from Egypt as soon as the 14th century. The deep frying of food in Japan was likely introduced by Portuguese the 16th century, evidence of potato frying can be found as early as the late 17th century in Europe. Modern deep frying began in the 19th century with the popularity of cast iron. French fries, invented in the late 18th century, became popular in the early 19th century western Europe, doughnuts were invented in the mid-19th century, with foods such as onion rings, deep-fried turkey, and corn dogs all being invented in the early 20th century. In recent years, the growth of fast food has expanded the reach of deep-fried foods, Deep frying food is defined as a process where food is completely submerged in hot oil at temperatures typically between 350 °F and 375 °F. One common method for preparing food for deep frying involves adding multiple layers of batter around the food, such as cornmeal, flour, or tempura, breadcrumbs may also be used. After the food is submerged in oil, the surface of it begins to dehydrate and it undergoes Maillard reactions which break down sugars and proteins, once the surface is dehydrated, it forms a crust which prevents further oil absorption. The heat conducts throughout the food causing proteins to denature, starches to undergo starch gelatinization, while most foods need batter coatings for protection, it is not as necessary for cooked noodles and potatoes because their high starch content enables them to hold more moisture and resist shrinking. Meats may be cooked before deep frying to ensure that they are done inside while keeping juiciness, when performed properly, deep frying does not make food excessively greasy, because the moisture in the food repels the oil. The hot oil heats the water within the food, steaming it, as long as the oil is hot enough and the food is not immersed in the oil for too long, oil penetration will be confined to the outer surface
32.
Pork rind
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Pork rind is the skin of a pig. It is an ingredient of sausages, which helps to improve their consistency. It can also be fried or roasted in pork fat as a snack, the frying renders much of the fat that is attached to the uncooked rind, causing the cooked product to reduce considerably in size. This product may be known by names, such as pork scratchings or pork crackling in the UK. Often a by-product of the rendering of lard, it is also a way of making even the skin of a pig edible. Microwaveable pork rinds are sold in bags that resemble microwaveable popcorn, pickled pork rinds, on the other hand, are often enjoyed refrigerated and cold. Unlike the crisp and fluffy texture of fried pork rinds, pickled pork rinds are very rich and buttery, for the large scale production of commercial pork rinds, frozen, dried pork skin pellets are used. They are first rehydrated in water with added flavoring, and then fried in fat at 200–210 °C. Cooking makes the rinds expand and float on the oil surface, the rinds are then removed from the fat, flavored, and air dried. Antioxidants may be added to improve stability, like many snack foods, pork rinds are high in sodium and fat, however, they are low in carbohydrates and are sometimes considered an alternative snack food for those following the Atkins diet. According to Mens Health, a one-ounce serving contains nine times the protein and less fat than is found in a serving of potato chips, which are much higher in carbohydrates. They add that 43 percent of pork fat is unsaturated, and most of that is oleic acid. Another 13 percent of its fat content is stearic acid, a type of saturated fat that is considered harmless because it not raise cholesterol levels. A60 g serving of pork rind contains 29 g of fat,375 kcal and 0. 65g of sodium, however, pork rinds are considered an incomplete source of protein because they contain very low amounts of some essential amino acids, including methionine, tryptophan and histidine. Torresmo is a bar snack in Brazil, usually served in bite-sized chunks. It is also an accompaniment to typical dishes such as feijoada. Chicharrones is the term for pork rinds in Colombia and this makes for a crispy skin and a soft, juicy meat. It is traditionally served with beans, rice, fried eggs, avocado, scrunchions is a Newfoundland term for small pieces of pork rind or pork fatback fried until rendered and crispy
33.
Triglyceride
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A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids. Triglycerides are the constituents of body fat in humans and other animals. They are also present in the blood to enable the bidirectional transference of adipose fat and blood glucose from the liver, there are many different types of triglyceride, with the main division between saturated and unsaturated types. Saturated fats are saturated with hydrogen – all available places where hydrogen atoms could be bonded to carbon atoms are occupied and these have a higher melting point and are more likely to be solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats have double bonds between some of the atoms, reducing the number of places where hydrogen atoms can bond to carbon atoms. These have a melting point and are more likely to be liquid at room temperature. Triglycerides are chemically tri esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Triglycerides are formed by combining glycerol with three fatty acid molecules, organic acids have a carboxyl group. Alcohols and organic acids join to form esters, the glycerol molecule has three hydroxyl groups. Each fatty acid has a carboxyl group, the chain lengths of the fatty acids in naturally occurring triglycerides vary, but most contain 16,18, or 20 carbon atoms. Bacteria, however, possess the ability to synthesise odd- and branched-chain fatty acids, as a result, ruminant animal fat contains odd-numbered fatty acids, such as 15, due to the action of bacteria in the rumen. Many fatty acids are unsaturated, some are polyunsaturated, most natural fats contain a complex mixture of individual triglycerides. Because of this, they melt over a range of temperatures. Cocoa butter is unusual in that it is composed of only a few triglycerides, derived from palmitic, oleic, and stearic acids in the 1-, 2-, the simplest triglycerides are those where the three fatty acids are identical. Their names indicate the fatty acid, stearin derived from acid, palmitin derived from palmitic acid. These compounds can be obtained as three forms or polymorphs, α, β, and β′ and these forms differ in terms of their melting points. If the first and third chain R and R″ are different, then the carbon atom is a chiral centre. The pancreatic lipase acts at the bond, hydrolysing the bond. In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the duodenum, fatty acids, monoglycerides, and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down
34.
Fatty acid
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In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms. Fatty acids are derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. Fatty acids are important dietary sources of fuel for animals because, many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. Fatty acids that have double bonds are known as unsaturated. Fatty acids without double bonds are known as saturated and they differ in length as well. Fatty acid chains differ by length, often categorized as short to very long, short-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of five or fewer carbons. Medium-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6–12 carbons, long-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 13 to 21 carbons. Very long chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 22 or more carbons, unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. The two carbon atoms in the chain that are next to either side of the double bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration. Cis A cis configuration means that the two atoms adjacent to the double bond stick out on the same side of the chain. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the cis isomer, causes the chain to bend, the more double bonds the chain has in the cis configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations, for example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a kink in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. α-Linolenic acid, with three bonds, favors a hooked shape. Trans A trans configuration, by contrast, means that the adjacent two hydrogen atoms lie on opposite sides of the chain, as a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids. In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each bond has three n carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in the configuration are not found in nature and are the result of human processing. Fatty acids that are required by the body but cannot be made in sufficient quantity from other substrates
35.
Tallow
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Tallow is a rendered form of beef or mutton fat, processed from suet. It is solid at room temperature, unlike suet, tallow can be stored for extended periods without the need for refrigeration to prevent decomposition, provided it is kept in an airtight container to prevent oxidation. In industry, tallow is not strictly defined as beef or mutton fat, in this context, tallow is animal fat that conforms to certain technical criteria, including its melting point. It is common for commercial tallow to contain fat derived from animals, such as lard from pigs. The diagram to the shows the chemical structure of a typical triglyceride molecule. Tallow is used mainly in producing soap and animal feed, tallow can be used for the production of biodiesel in much the same way as oils from plants are currently used. Because tallow is derived from animal by-products which have little to no value to food industries. The United States Air Force has experimented successfully with the use of tallow in aviation biofuels. During five days of flight testing from August 23 to 27,2010, at Edwards Air Force Base, California, a significant use of tallow is for the production of shortening. It is one of the ingredients of Native American food called pemmican. Tallow is sometimes used in deep frying in place of other oils, before switching to pure vegetable oil in 1990, the McDonalds corporation cooked its French fries in a mixture of 93% beef tallow and 7% cottonseed oil. Many items of goods are produced from tallow, which was widely available domestically. Tallow can also be used as flux for soldering and it is also the primary ingredient in some leather conditioners. Tallow used to be used commonly in high-end shaving soaps, in particular those of elite British firms such as Geo, F Trumper, Truefitt & Hill, and Taylor of Old Bond Street. Tallow-based shaving soaps have enjoyed a resurgence in recent years due to gaining popularity of traditional wet-shaving, tallow also has a use in printmaking where it is combined with bitumen and applied to metal print plates to provide a resist to acid etching. The use of trace amounts of tallow as an additive to the used in polymer banknotes came to light in November 2016. Notes issued in 24 countries including Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom were found to be affected, leading to objections from vegans, in Leviticus 3, 14-17 the Israelites are forbidden to eat the suet surrounding certain internal organs of animals sacrificed at the Temple. This suet is Halakhically called chelev, tallow once was widely used to make moulded candles before more convenient wax varieties became available—and for some time after, as they continued to be a cheaper alternative
36.
Pork
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Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC, Pork is eaten both freshly cooked and preserved. Curing extends the life of the pork products. Ham, smoked pork, gammon, bacon and sausage are examples of preserved pork, charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products, many from pork. Pork is the most popular meat in East and Southeast Asia and it is highly prized in Asian cuisines for its fat content and pleasant texture. Consumption of pork is forbidden by Jewish and Muslim dietary law, the sale of pork is illegal or severely restricted in Israel and in certain Muslim countries, particularly those where sharia law is part of their constitution. The pig is one of the oldest forms of livestock, having been domesticated as early as 5000 BC and it is believed to have been domesticated either in the Near East or in China from the wild boar. The adaptable nature and omnivorous diet of this creature allowed early humans to domesticate it much earlier than other forms of livestock. Pigs were mostly used for food, but people also used their hides for shields and shoes, their bones for tools and weapons, and their bristles for brushes. Charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products such as bacon, ham, sausage, terrines, galantines, pâtés, and confit, primarily from pork. Originally intended as a way to preserve meats before the advent of refrigeration, in 15th century France, local guilds regulated tradesmen in the food production industry in each city. The guilds that produced charcuterie were those of the charcutiers, the members of this guild produced a traditional range of cooked or salted and dried meats, which varied, sometimes distinctively, from region to region. The only raw meat the charcutiers were allowed to sell was unrendered lard, the charcutier prepared numerous items, including pâtés, rillettes, sausages, bacon, trotters, and head cheese. Due to the nature of the meat in Western culinary history. The year-round availability of meat and fruits has not diminished the popularity of this combination on Western plates, Pork is the most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 38% of meat production worldwide. Consumption varies widely from place to place, the meat is taboo to eat in the Middle East and most of the Muslim world because of Jewish kosher and Islamic Halal dietary restrictions. But pork is widely consumed in East and Southeast Asia, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, as the result, large numbers of pork recipes are developed throughout the world. Feijoada for example, the dish of Brazil, is traditionally prepared with pork trimmings, ears, tail