1.
Eurasian skylark
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The Eurasian skylark is a small passerine bird species. It is a species found across Europe and Asia with introduced populations in many other parts of the world. The genus name is from the Latin alauda, lark, pliny thought the word was originally of Celtic origin. The specific arvensis is also Latin, and means of the field, formerly, many authorities considered the Japanese skylark as a separate species. It is now considered a subspecies of the Eurasian skylark. Alternate names for the Eurasian skylark include common skylark, Eurasian lark, European skylark, found from south-eastern European Russia and western Siberia to north-western China and south-western Mongolia A. a. kiborti - Zaliesski,1917, Also formerly known as Japanese skylark. Found in southern Siberia, northern and eastern Mongolia and north-eastern China A. a. intermedia - Swinhoe,1863, found from north-central Siberia to north-eastern China and Korea A. a. pekinensis - Swinhoe,1863, Originally described as a separate species. Found on southern Sakhalin, southern Kuril Islands, Japan and Ryukyu Islands The Eurasian skylark is 16 to 18 centimetres long, the long, unbroken song is a clear, bubbling warble delivered high in the air while the bird is rising, circling or hovering. The song generally lasts two to three minutes, but it tends to last longer later in the season, when songs can last for 20 minutes or more. The male has broader wings than the female, like most other larks, the Eurasian skylark is a rather dull-looking species on the ground, being mainly brown above and paler below. It has a short blunt crest on the head, which can be raised and lowered, in flight it shows a short tail and short broad wings. The tail and the edge of the wings are edged with white, which are visible when the bird is flying away. The Eurasian skylark has sturdy legs and spends time on the ground foraging for seeds. This lark breeds across most of Europe and Asia and in the mountains of north Africa and it is mainly resident in the west of its range, but eastern populations are more migratory, moving further south in winter. Even in the milder west of its range, many move to lowlands. The Eurasian skylark makes a grass nest on the ground, hidden among vegetation and it is sometimes found nesting in bracken, using it for cover. Generally the nests are difficult to find. Nesting may start in late March or early April, and three to six eggs are laid, a second or third brood may be started later in the year
2.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
3.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
4.
Chordate
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Chordates are deuterostomes, as during the embryo development stage the anus forms before the mouth. They are also bilaterally symmetric coelomates, in the case of vertebrate chordates, the notochord is usually replaced by a vertebral column during development, and they may have body plans organized via segmentation. There are also additional extinct taxa, the Vertebrata are sometimes considered as a subgroup of the clade Craniata, consisting of chordates with a skull, the Craniata and Tunicata compose the clade Olfactores. Of the more than 65,000 living species of chordates, the worlds largest and fastest animals, the blue whale and peregrine falcon respectively, are chordates, as are humans. Fossil chordates are known from at least as early as the Cambrian explosion, Hemichordata, which includes the acorn worms, has been presented as a fourth chordate subphylum, but it now is usually treated as a separate phylum. The Hemichordata, along with the Echinodermata, form the Ambulacraria, the Chordata and Ambulacraria form the superphylum Deuterostomia, composed of the deuterostomes. Attempts to work out the relationships of the chordates have produced several hypotheses. All of the earliest chordate fossils have found in the Early Cambrian Chengjiang fauna. Because the fossil record of early chordates is poor, only molecular phylogenetics offers a prospect of dating their emergence. However, the use of molecular phylogenetics for dating evolutionary transitions is controversial and it has also proved difficult to produce a detailed classification within the living chordates. Attempts to produce family trees shows that many of the traditional classes are paraphyletic. While this has been known since the 19th century, an insistence on only monophyletic taxa has resulted in vertebrate classification being in a state of flux. Although the name Chordata is attributed to William Bateson, it was already in prevalent use by 1880, ernst Haeckel described a taxon comprising tunicates, cephalochordates, and vertebrates in 1866. Though he used the German vernacular form, it is allowed under the ICZN code because of its subsequent latinization, among the vertebrate sub-group of chordates the notochord develops into the spine, and in wholly aquatic species this helps the animal to swim by flexing its tail. In fish and other vertebrates, this develops into the spinal cord, the pharynx is the part of the throat immediately behind the mouth. In fish, the slits are modified to form gills, a muscular tail that extends backwards behind the anus. This is a groove in the wall of the pharynx. In filter-feeding species it produces mucus to gather food particles, which helps in transporting food to the esophagus and it also stores iodine, and may be a precursor of the vertebrate thyroid gland
5.
Bird
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Birds, a subgroup of Reptiles, are the last living examples of Dinosaurs. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m ostrich. They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species, at ten thousand. Birds are the closest living relatives of crocodilians, the fossil record indicates that birds evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs. True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years ago, Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling. Primitive bird-like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper, in the broader group Avialae, have been found dating back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago. Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species, the digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved for swimming. Many species annually migrate great distances, Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and bird songs, and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous or, rarely, Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents, most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser, Birds prominently figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry, the first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use, Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda, Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria
6.
Passerine
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A passerine is any bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. A notable feature of passerines compared to other orders of Aves is the arrangement of their toes, sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders, with over 5,000 identified species. It has roughly twice as many species as the largest of the mammal orders and it contains more than 110 families, the second-most of any order of tetrapods. The passerines contain several groups of parasites such as the viduas, cuckoo-finches. Most passerines are omnivorous, while the shrikes are carnivorous, the order is divided into three suborders, Tyranni, Passeri, and the basal Acanthisitti. Oscines have the best control of their syrinx muscles among birds, producing a range of songs and other vocalizations. Most passerines are smaller than members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the thick-billed raven and the races of common raven. The superb lyrebird and some birds-of-paradise, due to long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall. The smallest passerine is the short-tailed pygmy tyrant, at 6.5 cm and 4.2 g, the foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backward, called anisodactyl arrangement. This arrangement enables the birds to perch upon vertical surfaces, such as trees. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some cotingas, the hind toe joins the leg at the same level as the front toes. The passeriformes have this toe arrangement in common with hunting birds like eagles, the leg arrangement of passerine birds contains a special adaptation for perching. This enables passerines to sleep while perching without falling off and this is especially useful for passerine birds that develop nocturnal lifestyles. Most passerine birds develop 12 tail feathers, although the superb lyrebird has 16, certain species of passerines have stiff tail feathers, which help the birds balance themselves when perching upon vertical surfaces. Some passerines, specifically in the family Ploceidae, are known for their elaborate sexual ornaments. A well-known example is the long-tailed widowbird, the chicks of passerines are altricial, blind, featherless, and helpless when hatched from their eggs. Hence, the chicks require extensive parental care, vinous-throated parrotbill has two egg colours, white and blue
7.
Passeroidea
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Passerida is, under the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, one of two parvorders contained within the suborder Passeri. While more recent research suggests that its sister parvorder, Corvida, is not a monophyletic grouping, the Passerida quite certainly consist of the 3 major subclades outlined by Sibley & Ahlquist. However, their content has been much revised, in addition, it has turned out that not all passeridan lineages neatly fit into this arrangement. The kinglets are so distinct that they might form a separate infraorder. See Jønsson & Fjeldså for details on phylogeny, Mostly insectivores, distribution centered on the Indo-Pacific region. Alaudidae, larks Hirundinidae, swallows and martins Phylloscopidae, leaf-warblers, aegithalidae, long-tailed tits Cettiidae, ground-warblers and allies. Pycnonotidae, bulbuls Cisticolidae, cisticolas and allies Sylviidae, true/sylviid warblers, sylvioidea incertae sedis African warblers, A proposed clade, but monophyly needs confirmation. Tentatively placed here, possibly closest to Megaluridae, tentatively placed here, formerly in Pycnonotidae. Tentatively placed here, formerly in Paradoxornithidae, Mostly insectivores, near-global distribution centered on Old World tropics. One family is endemic to the Americas, cinclidae, dippers Muscicapidae, Old World flycatchers and chats. Sturnidae, starlings and possibly Philippine creepers, placement of latter in Muscicapoidea seems good, but inclusion in Sturnidae requires confirmation, possibly distinct family Rhabdornithidae. Mimidae, mockingbirds and thrashers Mostly herbivores, near-global distribution centered on Palearctic, passeridae, true sparrows Prunellidae, accentors Motacillidae, wagtails and pipits Urocynchramidae, Przewalskis finch. Recently split from Fringillidae, tentatively placed here, certain members of Ploceidae, such as the long-tailed widowbird are well known for their elaborate sexual ornaments. Viduidae, indigobirds and whydahs Nine-primaried oscines Peucedramidae, olive warbler Fringillidae, family invalid or not monotypic, reallocation pending. Rather basal Passerida, most of which seem to constitute several small, most occur in Asia, Africa and North America. Possible superfamily Paroidea – titmice and allies Paridae, tits, chickadees and titmice Remizidae, a newly assembled family, sometimes included in Paridae. Possible superfamily Sittoidea or Certhioidea – wrens and allies, tentatively placed here, might belong into Certhidae. Troglodytidae, wrens Polioptilidae, gnatcatchers Possible monotypic superfamily N. N, promeropidae, sugarbirds Possible monotypic superfamily N. N
8.
Nicholas Aylward Vigors
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Nicholas Aylward Vigors was an Irish zoologist and politician. He popularized the classification of birds on the basis of the quinarian system, Vigors was born at Old Leighlin, County Carlow. He studied at Trinity College, Oxford and he served in the army during the Peninsular War from 1809 to 1811. He then returned to Oxford, graduating in 1815 and he practiced as a barrister and became a Doctor of Civil Law in 1832. Vigors was a co-founder of the Zoological Society of London in 1826, in that year, he founded what became the Royal Entomological Society of London. He was a fellow of the Linnean Society and the Royal Society and he was the author of 40 papers, mostly on ornithology. He described 110 species of birds, enough to him among the top 30 bird authors historically. He provided the text for John Goulds A Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains, one bird that he described was Sabines snipe. This was treated as a common snipe by Barrett-Hamilton in 1895 and by Meinertzhagen in 1926, Vigors lent a skin for later editions of Thomas Bewicks History of British Birds. Vigors succeeded to his fathers estate in 1828 and he was MP for the borough of Carlow from 1832 until 1835. He briefly represented the constituency of County Carlow in 1835, Vigors had been elected in a by-election in June after the Conservative MPs originally returned at the United Kingdom general election,1835 were unseated on petition and a new writ issued. On 19 August 1835 Vigors and his mate, in the two member county constituency, were unseated on petition. The same two Conservatives who had previously been unseated were awarded the seats, on the death of one of them, Vigors won the subsequent by-election in 1837 and retained the seat until his own death. Dublin, M. H. Gill & son, wikisource Kavanagh, P. J. Nicholas Aylward Vigors, MP, 1786-1840. Parliamentary Election Results in Ireland, 1801-1922, edited by B. M, walker Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Nicholas Aylward Vigors BBC Your Paintings, Toucan by Vigors
9.
Old World
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The Old World consists of Africa, Europe, and Asia, regarded collectively as the part of the world known to Europeans before contact with the Americas. It is used in the context of, and contrast with and these regions were connected via the Silk Road trade route, and they have a pronounced Iron Age period following the Bronze Age. The concept of the three continents in the Old World, viz. Asia, Africa, and Europe, goes back to classical antiquity and their boundaries as defined by Ptolemy and other geographers of antiquity were drawn along the Nile and Don rivers. This definition remained influential throughout the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, the Old world has areas of North Africa, Eurasia, parts of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. The mainland of Afro-Eurasia has been referred to as the World Island, the term may have been coined by Sir Halford John Mackinder in The Geographical Pivot of History. The equivalent of the Old World had names in some of its ancient cultures, including Midgard in Germanic cosmology, synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures Afro-Eurasia
10.
Horned lark
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The horned lark, called the shore lark in Europe, is a species of lark in the Alaudidae family found across the northern hemisphere. The specific alpestris is Latin and means of the mountains, from Alpes. The horned lark was classified in the genus Alauda. Recent genetic analysis has suggested that the species consists of six clades that in the future may warrant recognition as separate species, Found from west-central to east-central Mexico E. a. oaxacae –, Found in southern Mexico Colombian horned lark –, Originally described as a separate species. Found in Colombia Shore lark –, Originally described as a species in the genus Alauda. Found in northern Europe and northern Asia Steppe horned lark –, Originally described as a separate species. Found from south-eastern European Russia to western Mongolia and northern China Moroccan horned lark –, Originally described as a separate species. Found in Morocco Balkan horned lark –, This subspecies is also called shore lark, Found in southern Balkans and Greece E. a. kumerloevei – Roselaar,1995, Found in western and central Asia Minor Southern horned lark –, This subspecies is also called shore lark. Originally described as a species in the genus Alauda. Found from eastern Turkey and the Caucasus to Iran Lebanon horned lark –, Originally described as a separate species. Found from Lebanon to Israel/Syria border Pamir horned lark –, This subspecies is also called shore lark, Originally described as a separate species. Found from north-eastern Iran and Turkmenistan to north-western Pakistan E. a. argalea –, Found in extreme western China Przewalskis lark –, This subspecies is also called shore lark. Originally described as a separate species, Found in western and west-central China E. a. przewalskii –, This subspecies is also called shore lark. Found in northern Qinghai E. a. nigrifrons –, This subspecies is also called shore lark, Originally described as a separate species. Found in north-eastern Qinghai Long-billed horned lark –, This subspecies is also called shore lark, Originally described as a separate species. Found in north-eastern Pakistan and western Himalayas E. a. elwesi –, Originally described as a separate species. Found on southern and eastern Tibetan Plateau E. a. khamensis –, except for the central feathers, the tail is mostly black, contrasting with the paler body, this contrast is especially noticeable when the bird is in flight. The summer male has horns, which give this species its American name
11.
Songbird
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A songbird is a bird belonging to the clade Passeri of the perching birds. Another name that is seen as a scientific or vernacular name is Oscines, from Latin oscen. This group contains some 4,000 species found all over the world, in which the vocal organ typically is developed in such a way as to produce a diverse and elaborate bird song. Songbirds form one of the two lineages of extant perching birds, the other being the Tyranni which are most diverse in the Neotropics. These have a simpler syrinx musculature, and while their vocalizations are often just as complex and striking as those of songbirds, there is a third perching bird lineage, the Acanthisitti from New Zealand, of which only two species remain alive today. The song in this clade is essentially territorial in that it communicates the identity and whereabouts of an individual to other birds, sexual selection among songbirds is highly based on mimetic vocalization. Female preference has shown in some populations to be based on the extent of a males song repertoire, the larger a males repertoire, the more females a male individual attracts. It is not to be confused with bird calls which are used for alarms, while almost all living birds give calls of some sort, well-developed songs are only given by a few lineages outside the songbirds. Other birds sometimes have songs to attract mates or hold territory, the monotonous repetition of the common cuckoo or little crake can be contrasted with the variety of a nightingale or marsh warbler. On the other hand, although many songbirds have songs which are pleasant to the human ear, many members of the crow family communicate with croaks or screeches which sound harsh to humans. Even these, however, have a song of sorts, a softer twitter which is given between courting partners, sexual selection can be broken down into several different studies regarding different aspects of a bird’s song. As a result, song can vary even within a single species, many believe that song repertoire and cognition have a direct relationship. However, a study published in 2013 has shown that all cognitive ability may not be related to the song repertoire of a songbird. Specifically, spatial learning is said to have a relationship with song repertoire. So for example, this would be an individual who does not migrate as far as others in the species and this suggests an evolutionary trade-off between possible alleles. With natural selection choosing traits best fit for reproductive success there could be a trade off in either direction depending on which trait would produce a higher fitness at that time period, Song repertoire can be attributed to male songbirds as it is one of the main mechanisms of courtship. Song repertoires differ from individual to male individual and species to species. Some species may typically have large repertoires while others may have smaller ones
12.
Passeri
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A songbird is a bird belonging to the clade Passeri of the perching birds. Another name that is seen as a scientific or vernacular name is Oscines, from Latin oscen. This group contains some 4,000 species found all over the world, in which the vocal organ typically is developed in such a way as to produce a diverse and elaborate bird song. Songbirds form one of the two lineages of extant perching birds, the other being the Tyranni which are most diverse in the Neotropics. These have a simpler syrinx musculature, and while their vocalizations are often just as complex and striking as those of songbirds, there is a third perching bird lineage, the Acanthisitti from New Zealand, of which only two species remain alive today. The song in this clade is essentially territorial in that it communicates the identity and whereabouts of an individual to other birds, sexual selection among songbirds is highly based on mimetic vocalization. Female preference has shown in some populations to be based on the extent of a males song repertoire, the larger a males repertoire, the more females a male individual attracts. It is not to be confused with bird calls which are used for alarms, while almost all living birds give calls of some sort, well-developed songs are only given by a few lineages outside the songbirds. Other birds sometimes have songs to attract mates or hold territory, the monotonous repetition of the common cuckoo or little crake can be contrasted with the variety of a nightingale or marsh warbler. On the other hand, although many songbirds have songs which are pleasant to the human ear, many members of the crow family communicate with croaks or screeches which sound harsh to humans. Even these, however, have a song of sorts, a softer twitter which is given between courting partners, sexual selection can be broken down into several different studies regarding different aspects of a bird’s song. As a result, song can vary even within a single species, many believe that song repertoire and cognition have a direct relationship. However, a study published in 2013 has shown that all cognitive ability may not be related to the song repertoire of a songbird. Specifically, spatial learning is said to have a relationship with song repertoire. So for example, this would be an individual who does not migrate as far as others in the species and this suggests an evolutionary trade-off between possible alleles. With natural selection choosing traits best fit for reproductive success there could be a trade off in either direction depending on which trait would produce a higher fitness at that time period, Song repertoire can be attributed to male songbirds as it is one of the main mechanisms of courtship. Song repertoires differ from individual to male individual and species to species. Some species may typically have large repertoires while others may have smaller ones
13.
Tyranni
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Tyranni is a clade of passerine birds that includes more than 1,000 species, the large majority of which are South American. It is named after the type genus Tyrannus and these have a different anatomy of the syrinx musculature than the oscines, hence its common name of sub-oscines. The available morphological, DNA sequence, and biogeographical data, as well as the fossil record, according to Sibley and Ahlquists DNA-DNA hybridization studies the Tyranni can be divided into three infraorders, Acanthisittides, Eurylaimides, and Tyrannides. The first, containing the Acanthisittidae, is of disputed position, current opinion is that they are more likely a very distinct and ancient lineage, and constitute a suborder on their own. More recently, as passeriform relationships become better resolved, there is a trend to elevate the Eurylaimides to suborder rank. However, as indicated above, DNA-DNA hybridization has shown to be not very suited to reliably resolve the suboscine phylogeny. It was eventually determined that there was a dichotomy between the antbirds and allies, and the tyrant-flycatchers and allies. In the former case, the name Furnarioidea would be available for the tracheophones, whereas Tyrannoidea, in the latter case, the tracheophones would be classified as Furnariides, while the Tyrannides would be restricted to the tyrant-flycatchers and other bronchophone families. The tracheophones contain the Furnariidae, Thamnophilidae, Formicariidae, and Conopophagidae, the tyrant-flycatcher clade includes the namesake family, the Tityridae, the Cotingidae, and the Pipridae. Irestedt, Martin, Fjeldså, Jon, Johansson, Ulf S. & Ericson, systematic relationships and biogeography of the tracheophone suboscines. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 23, 499–512
14.
Swallow
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The swallows and martins, or Hirundinidae, are a family of passerine birds found around the world on all continents except Antarctica. Highly adapted to feeding, they have a distinctive appearance. The term Swallow is used colloquially in Europe as a synonym for the barn swallow, there are around 83 species in 19 genera, with the greatest diversity found in Africa, which is also thought to be where they evolved as hole-nesters. They also occur on a number of oceanic islands, a number of European and North American species are long-distance migrants, by contrast, the West and South African swallows are non-migratory. This family comprises two subfamilies, Pseudochelidoninae and Hirundininae, within the New World, martin is reserved for members of the genus Progne. The swallows and martins have a conservative body shape which is similar across the clade but is unlike that of other passerines. Their body shape allows for efficient flight, the metabolic rate of swallows in flight is 49–72% lower than equivalent passerines of the same size. Like the unrelated swifts and nightjars, which hunt in a way, they have short bills, but strong jaws. Their body length ranges from about 10–24 cm and their weight from about 10–60 g, the wings are long, pointed, and have nine primary feathers. The tail has 12 feathers and may be forked, somewhat indented. A long tail increases maneuverability, and may function as a sexual adornment. In barn swallows the tail of the male is 18% longer than those of the female, the legs are short, and their feet are adapted for perching rather than walking, as the front toes are partially joined at the base. Swallows are capable of walking and even running, but they do so with a shuffling, waddling gait, the leg muscles of the river martins are stronger and more robust than those of other swallows. The river martins have other characteristics that separate them from the other swallows, the most common hirundine plumage is glossy dark blue or green above and plain or streaked underparts, often white or rufous. Species which burrow or live in dry or mountainous areas are often matte brown above, the sexes show limited or no sexual dimorphism, with longer outer tail feathers in the adult male probably being the most common distinction. The chicks hatch naked and with closed eyes, fledged juveniles usually appear as duller versions of the adult. The swallows and martins have a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring on every continent except Antarctica. Many species have enormous worldwide ranges, particularly the barn swallow, the family uses a wide range of habitats
15.
American Ornithological Society
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The American Ornithological Society is an ornithological organization based in the United States. The society was formed in October 2016 by the merger of the American Ornithologists Union and its members are primarily professional ornithologists although membership is open to anyone with an interest in birds. The AOS is a member of the Ornithological Council and Ornithological Societies of North America, the society publishes the two scholarly journals The Auk and The Condor as well as the AOS Checklist of North American Birds. In October 2016 the AOU announced that it was ceasing to operate as an independent union, the American Ornithologists Union was founded in 1883. Three members of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, Elliott Coues, J. A. Twenty-five responded to the letter and 21 were present at the first meeting, the founding convention was held in the library of the American Museum of Natural History on 26 September 1883. Founding members of the AOU include those present at the inaugural convention, from New York, Harry Balch Bailey, Eugene Pintard Bicknell, Daniel Giraud Elliot, Albert Kenrick Fisher, Joseph Bassett Holder, Edgar Alexander Mearns, and Clinton Hart Merriam. From Massachusetts, Charles Foster Batchelder, William Brewster, Charles Barney Cory, from the District of Columbia, Elliott Coues, D. Webster Prentiss, and Robert Ridgway. Regular membership in the AOS is open to any dues paying person with an interest in birds, Student rates are available for full-time students. Student Membership Awards of a no-cost membership are available to qualified undergraduate and graduate students who wish to pursue a career in ornithology, there are three higher classes of membership, Elective Member, Honorary Fellow and Fellow. Elective Members are selected for significant contributions to ornithology and/or service to the Union, when elected, they must reside in the Western Hemisphere. A proposed Elective Member must be nominated by three Fellows or Elective Members and more than half of the Fellows and Elective Members must vote for the member to be declared elected. Nominations for Honorary Fellow are by a committee appointed by the president or any three Fellows. A vote of the majority of the Fellows present at a meeting is required for election. Each Fellow may vote affirmatively for as many as there are vacancies, Fellows are chosen for exceptional and sustained contributions to ornithology and/or service to the Union and must be residents or citizens of the Western Hemisphere when elected. Candidates must be an Honorary Fellow or Elective Member in good standing, a vote of two thirds of the Fellows at an annual meeting is required for election as a Fellow. The quarterly journal, The Auk, has published since January 1884. The weekly journal The Condor, has published since 1899. Other significant publications include the AOU Checklist of North American Birds, which is the reference work for the field
16.
British Ornithologists' Union
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The British Ornithologists Union aims to encourage the study of birds in Britain, Europe and around the world, in order to understand their biology and to aid their conservation. The BOU was founded in 1858 by Professor Alfred Newton, Henry Baker Tristram and its quarterly journal, Ibis, has been published since 1859. The Records Committee is a committee of the BOU established to maintain the British List, BOU is headquartered in Peterborough and is a registered charity in England & Wales and Scotland. Publishes Ibis as an international journal of ornithological science. Organises a programme of meetings and conferences, awards grants and bursaries for ornithological research. Encourages liaison between those engaged in ornithological research. Provides a representative body of the community able to provide ornithological information and advice to government. Maintains and publishes the official list of birds recorded in Britain – The British List, the British Ornithologists Union Records Committee is the recognised national bird records committee for Britain. It maintains a list of birds of Britain and its findings are published in Ibis, the house journal of its parent body the British Ornithologists Union. From time to time, BOURC re-reviews records which it has previously accepted, the Committee does not assess records of birds from Ireland, that task is carried out by the Irish Rare Birds Committee, which publishes its decisions in Irish Birds. For many years, records of IRBC-assessed rarities were included in the BOURCs reports, BOURC is widely recognised as maintaining the most authoritative list of birds of Britain. BOURC has a chairman, a secretary and a number of voting members, the Committee publishes an annual report in Ibis. All reports can be accessed via the British List pages of the BOU website, previously, the Committees Taxonomic Sub-committee also published regular reports, also in Ibis, and these too can be accessed via the British List pages of the BOU website. Glutz von Blotzheim Soekarja Somadikarta Joe Sultana Staffan Ulfstrand Ibis British Ornithologists Union checklists British Birds Rarities Committee Official website
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Passerida
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Passerida is, under the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, one of two parvorders contained within the suborder Passeri. While more recent research suggests that its sister parvorder, Corvida, is not a monophyletic grouping, the Passerida quite certainly consist of the 3 major subclades outlined by Sibley & Ahlquist. However, their content has been much revised, in addition, it has turned out that not all passeridan lineages neatly fit into this arrangement. The kinglets are so distinct that they might form a separate infraorder. See Jønsson & Fjeldså for details on phylogeny, Mostly insectivores, distribution centered on the Indo-Pacific region. Alaudidae, larks Hirundinidae, swallows and martins Phylloscopidae, leaf-warblers, aegithalidae, long-tailed tits Cettiidae, ground-warblers and allies. Pycnonotidae, bulbuls Cisticolidae, cisticolas and allies Sylviidae, true/sylviid warblers, sylvioidea incertae sedis African warblers, A proposed clade, but monophyly needs confirmation. Tentatively placed here, possibly closest to Megaluridae, tentatively placed here, formerly in Pycnonotidae. Tentatively placed here, formerly in Paradoxornithidae, Mostly insectivores, near-global distribution centered on Old World tropics. One family is endemic to the Americas, cinclidae, dippers Muscicapidae, Old World flycatchers and chats. Sturnidae, starlings and possibly Philippine creepers, placement of latter in Muscicapoidea seems good, but inclusion in Sturnidae requires confirmation, possibly distinct family Rhabdornithidae. Mimidae, mockingbirds and thrashers Mostly herbivores, near-global distribution centered on Palearctic, passeridae, true sparrows Prunellidae, accentors Motacillidae, wagtails and pipits Urocynchramidae, Przewalskis finch. Recently split from Fringillidae, tentatively placed here, certain members of Ploceidae, such as the long-tailed widowbird are well known for their elaborate sexual ornaments. Viduidae, indigobirds and whydahs Nine-primaried oscines Peucedramidae, olive warbler Fringillidae, family invalid or not monotypic, reallocation pending. Rather basal Passerida, most of which seem to constitute several small, most occur in Asia, Africa and North America. Possible superfamily Paroidea – titmice and allies Paridae, tits, chickadees and titmice Remizidae, a newly assembled family, sometimes included in Paridae. Possible superfamily Sittoidea or Certhioidea – wrens and allies, tentatively placed here, might belong into Certhidae. Troglodytidae, wrens Polioptilidae, gnatcatchers Possible monotypic superfamily N. N, promeropidae, sugarbirds Possible monotypic superfamily N. N
18.
Corvidae
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Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of oscine passerine birds that contains the crows, ravens, rooks, jackdaws, jays, magpies, treepies, choughs, and nutcrackers. In common English, they are known as the family, or, more technically. The genus Corvus, including the jackdaws, crows, and ravens and their total brain-to-body mass ratio is equal to that of great apes and cetaceans, and only slightly lower than in humans. They are medium to large in size, with feet and bills, rictal bristles. Corvids are found worldwide except for the tip of South America, the majority of the species are found in tropical South and Central America, southern Asia and Eurasia, with fewer than 10 species each in Africa and Australasia. The genus Corvus has re-entered Australia in relatively recent geological prehistory, with five species, several species of raven have reached oceanic islands, and some of these species are now highly threatened with extinction or have already gone extinct. Over the years, much disagreement has arisen on the evolutionary relationships of the corvid family. What eventually seemed clear was that corvids are derived from Australasian ancestors, other lineages derived from these ancestors evolved into ecologically diverse, but often Australasian groups. In the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s, Sibley and Ahlquist united the corvids with other taxa in the Corvida, the corvids constitute the core group of the Corvoidea, together with their closest relatives. They are also the group of the Corvida, which includes the related groups, such as Old World orioles. Clarification of the interrelationships of the corvids has been achieved based on analysis of several DNA sequences. The jays and magpies do not constitute monophyletic lineages, but rather seem to split up into an American and Old World lineage, and these are not closely related among each other. The position of the magpie, which has always been a major enigma, is even less clear than before. Likewise, the Humes ground jay is in fact a member of the tit family Paridae, the known prehistoric corvid genera appear to be mainly of the New World and Old World jay and Holarctic magpie lineages, Miocorvus Miopica Miocitta Corvidae gen. et sp. indet. Protocitta Corvidae gen. et sp. indet, - probably belongs in an extant genus Henocitta In addition, there are numerous fossil species of extant genera since the Mio–Pliocene, mainly European Corvus. Corvids are large to very large passerines with a robust build, strong legs, the sexes are very similar in color and size. Corvids have strong, stout bills and large wingspans, the family includes the largest members of the passerine order. The smallest corvid is the dwarf jay, at 41 g and 21.5 cm, the largest corvids are the common raven and the thick-billed raven, both of which regularly exceed 1,400 grams and 65 cm
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Shrike
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Shrikes are carnivorous passerine birds of the family Laniidae. The family is composed of species in four genera. They are fairly closely related to the bush-shrike family Malaconotidae, the family name, and that of the largest genus, Lanius, is derived from the Latin word for butcher, and some shrikes are also known as butcher birds because of their feeding habits. The common English name shrike is from Old English scríc, shriek, most shrike species have a Eurasian and African distribution, with just two breeding in North America. There are no members of family in South America or Australia. They inhabit open habitats, especially steppe and savannah, a few species of shrike are forest dwellers, seldom occurring in open habitats. Some species breed in northern latitudes during the summer, then migrate to warmer climes for the winter, shrikes are medium-sized birds, up to 50 centimetres in length, with grey, brown, or black and white plumage. Their beaks are hooked, like that of a bird of prey, reflecting their predatory nature, shrikes are known for their habit of catching insects and small vertebrates and impaling their bodies on thorns, the spikes on barbed-wire fences, or any available sharp point. This helps them to tear the flesh into smaller, more conveniently-sized fragments and this same behaviour of impaling insects serves as an adaptation to eating the toxic lubber grasshopper, Romalea guttata. The bird waits for 1–2 days for the toxins within the grasshopper to degrade, shrikes are territorial, and these territories are defended from other pairs. In migratory species a breeding territory is defended in the breeding grounds, where several species of shrike exist together, competition for territories can be intense. Shrikes make regular use of exposed perch sites, where they adopt an upright stance. These sites are used in order to watch for prey items, the shrikes are generally monogamous breeders, although polygyny has been recorded in some species. Males attract females to their territory with well stocked caches, which may include inedible, during courtship the male will perform a ritualised dance which includes actions that mimic the skewering of prey on thorns and will feed the female. Shrikes make simple, cup-shaped nests from twigs and grasses, in bushes, the family Laniidae was introduced by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. Malaconotidae, puffback shrikes, bush shrikes, tchagras and boubous, the Prionopidae and Malaconotidae are quite closely related to the Laniidae, and were formerly included in the shrike family. The cuckoo-shrikes are not closely related to the true shrikes, the Australasian butcherbirds are not shrikes, although they occupy a similar ecological niche. Shrike videos on the Internet Bird Collection Shrike
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Vireo
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The vireos /ˈvɪri. oʊz/ make up a family, Vireonidae, of small to medium-sized passerine birds restricted to the New World. Vireo is a Latin word referring to a migratory bird, perhaps the female golden oriole. They are typically dull-plumaged and greenish in color, the smaller species resembling wood warblers apart from their heavier bills. They range in size from the Chocó vireo, dwarf vireo and lesser greenlet, all at around 10 centimeters and 8 grams, to the peppershrikes, most species are found in Middle America and northern South America. Thirteen species of true vireos occur farther north, in the United States, Bermuda and Canada, of these all, members of the family seldom fly long distances except in migration. They inhabit forest environments, with different species preferring forest canopies, undergrowth, a few species in the genus Vireo have appeared on the eastern side of the Atlantic as vagrants to the Western Palearctic. The resident species occur in pairs or family groups that maintain territories all year, most of the migrants defend winter territories against conspecifics. The exceptions are the complex comprising the red-eyed vireo, the yellow-green vireo, the black-whiskered vireo, and the Yucatan vireo, males of most species are persistent singers. Songs are usually simple, monotonous in some species of the Caribbean littoral and islands, and most elaborate and pleasant to human ears in the Chocó vireo. The nests of tropical species are unknown. Of those that are known, all build a cup-shaped nest that hangs from branches, the female does most of the incubation, spelled by the male except in the red-eyed vireo complex. All members of the family eat some fruit but mostly insects and they take prey from leaves and branches, true vireos also flycatch, and the gray vireo takes 5 percent of its prey from the ground. The four genera of birds make up the family Vireonidae, and are believed to be related to the crow-like birds in family Corvidae. Recent biochemical studies have identified two babbler genera which may be Old World members of this family, observers have commented on the vireo-like behaviour of the Pteruthius shrike-babblers, but apparently no-one suspected the biogeographically unlikely possibility of vireo relatives in Asia. The family can be conveniently though perhaps inaccurately categorised by genus as the true vireos, the greenlets, the shrike-vireos, furthermore some vireo and greenlet species may be closer to the peppershrikes than to their respective congeners. A more comprehensive study may reveal this family to be considerably undersplit at both the generic and species level, warbling vireo, Vireo gilvus Western warbling vireo, Vireo swainsonii Brown-capped vireo, Vireo leucophrys Philadelphia vireo, Vireo philadelphicus Bells vireo, Vireo bellii Clade uncertain. Golden vireo, Vireo hypochryseus Slaty vireo, Vireo brevipennis Genus Hylophilus Group A - Generally with simple song, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. Ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds
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Taxonomic rank
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In biological classification, rank is the relative level of a group of organisms in a taxonomic hierarchy. Examples of taxonomic ranks are species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain, a given rank subsumes under it less general categories, that is, more specific descriptions of life forms. Above it, each rank is classified within more general categories of organisms, the rank of any species and the description of its genus is basic, which means that to identify a particular organism, it is usually not necessary to specify ranks other than these first two. Consider a particular species, the red fox Vulpes vulpes, its next rank, as one group of the class Mammalia, all of the above are classified among those with backbones in the Chordata phylum rank, and with them among all the animals in the Animalia kingdom rank. Finally, all of the above will find their earliest relatives somewhere in their domain rank Eukarya, today, nomenclature is regulated by the nomenclature codes. There are seven main ranks, kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus. In addition, the domain is now used as one of the fundamental ranks. Also, this represents a synonym for the category of dominion. Unlike Moore, Whoese et al. did not suggest a Latin term for this category, a taxon is usually assigned a rank when it is given its formal name. The basic ranks are species and genus, when an organism is given a species name it is assigned to a genus, and the genus name is part of the species name. The species name is called a binomial, that is. For example, the name for the human species is Homo sapiens. This is usually italicized in print and underlined when italics are not available, in this case, Homo is the generic name and it is capitalized, sapiens indicates the species and it is not capitalized. There are definitions of the taxonomic ranks in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, subtribe, genus, subgenus. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature divides names into family-group names, genus-group names, in the genus group and species group no further ranks are allowed. At higher ranks a lower level may be denoted by adding the prefix infra, meaning lower, a taxon above the rank of species has a scientific name in one part. A species has a composed of two parts, generic name + specific name, for example Canis lupus. A subspecies has a composed of three parts, generic name + specific name + subspecific name, for example Canis lupus familiaris
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Old World warbler
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Old World warblers are a large group of birds formerly grouped together in the bird family Sylviidae. The family held over 400 species in over 70 genera, and were the source of taxonomic confusion. Two families were split out initially, the cisticolas into Cisticolidae, in the past ten years they have been the subject of much research and many species are now placed into other families, including the Acrocephalidae, Cettiidae, Phylloscopidae, and Megaluridae. In addition some species have moved into existing families or have not yet had their placement fully resolved. A smaller family of warblers, together with some babblers formerly placed in the family Timaliidae, most Old World warblers are of generally undistinguished appearance, though some Asian species are boldly marked. The sexes are identical, but may be clearly distinct. They are of small to medium size, varying from 9 to 16 centimetres in length, with a small, almost all species are primarily insectivorous, although some will also eat fruit, nectar, or tiny seeds. The majority of species are monogamous and build simple, cup-shaped nests in dense vegetation and they lay between two and six eggs per clutch, depending on species. Both parents typically help in raising the young, which are able to fly at around two weeks of age, in the late 20th century, the Sylviidae were thought to unite nearly 300 small insectivorous bird species in nearly 50 genera. They had themselves been split out of the Muscicapidae, the latter family had for most of its existence served as perhaps the ultimate wastebin taxon on the history of ornithology. By the early 20th century, about every insectivorous Old World songster known to science had at one point been placed therein, only after the mid-20th century did the dismantling of the pan-Muscicapidae begin in earnest. However, the Sylviidae remained a family, with few clear patterns of relationships recognisable. Though by no means as diverse as the Timaliidae, the frontiers between the former pan-Muscicapidae were much blurred, the largely southern warbler family Cisticolidae was traditionally included in the Sylviidae. The kinglets, a genus in a monotypic family Regulidae, were also frequently placed in this family. The American Ornithologists Union includes the gnatcatchers, as subfamily Polioptilinae, sibley & Ahlquist united the Old World warblers with the babblers and other taxa in a superfamily Sylvioidea as a result of DNA–DNA hybridisation studies. This demonstrated that the Muscicapidae as initially defined were a form taxon which collected entirely unrelated songbirds, consequently, the monophyly of the individual songster lineages themselves was increasingly being questioned. More recently, analysis of DNA sequence data has provided information on the Sylvioidea, usually, the scope of the clade was vastly underestimated and only one or two specimens were sampled for each presumed family. Minor or little-known groups such as the parrotbills were left out entirely, in 2003, a study of Timaliidae relationships using mtDNA cytochrome b and 12S/16S rRNA data indicated that the Sylviidae and Old World babblers were not reciprocally monophyletic to each other
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Old World babbler
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The Old World babblers or timaliids are a large family of mostly Old World passerine birds. They are rather diverse in size and coloration, but are characterised by soft fluffy plumage and these are birds of tropical areas, with the greatest variety in Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The timaliids are one of two unrelated groups of known as babblers, the other being the Australasian babblers of the family Pomatostomidae. Morphological diversity is high, most species resemble warblers, jays or thrushes. This group is among those Old World bird families with the highest number of still being discovered. Timaliids are small to medium birds and they have strong legs, and many are quite terrestrial. They typically have generalised bills, similar to those of a thrush or warbler, except for the scimitar babblers which, most have predominantly brown plumage, with minimal difference between the sexes, but many more brightly coloured species also exist. This group is not strongly migratory, and most species have rounded wings. They live in wooded or scrubland environments, ranging from swamp to near-desert. They are primarily insectivorous, although many also take berries. Typical babblers live in communities of around a dozen birds, jointly defending a territory, many even breed communally, with a dominant pair building a nest, and the remainder helping to defend and rear their young. Young males remain with the group, while females move away to find a new group and they make nests from twigs, and hide them in dense vegetation. The systematics of Old World babblers have long been contested, during much of the 20th century, the family was used as a wastebin taxon for numerous hard-to-place Old World songbirds. Ernst Hartert was only half-joking when in 1910 he summarized this attitude with the statement that, in the passerines, Was man nicht unterbringen kann, the most obviously misplaced taxa were removed piecemeal towards the end of the last century. Since then, with the aid of DNA sequence data, it has confirmed that even the remaining group is not monophyletic. Analysis of mtDNA cytochrome b and 12S/16S rRNA data spread the Timaliidae that were studied across what essentially was a badly resolved polytomy with Old World warblers, as the typical warblers grouped with some presumed timaliids, it was suggested that some Sylviidae should be moved to the Timaliidae. Notably, one of the few conclusions beyond genus level which received quite robust support in Cibois was the distinctness of Sylvia and the related babblers from the Timaliidae sensu stricto. Thus, for the time being, it seems wisest to maintain the Sylviidae and Timaliidae as distinct, the parrotbills are somewhat tit-like birds that in the past were moved about between the timaliids, the tits, and distinct family status
24.
Gray's lark
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Grays lark is a species of lark in the family Alaudidae. It is found in south-western Africa in its habitat of hot deserts. Grays lark was originally described as a species within the genus Alauda and it was then placed in the sister genus Ammomanes until re-classified in 2009 by the IOC into the monotypic genus Ammomanopsis. Some authorities still consider the species as Ammomanes grayi, alternately, it has been named Grays desert lark or Grays sand lark. Two subspecies are recognized, A. g. hoeschi -, Found in north-western Namibia and south-western Angola A. g. grayi -, Found in west-central and south-western Namibia
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Rufous-rumped lark
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The rufous-rumped lark is a species of lark in the family Alaudidae. It is found in western and central Africa from Mali, Guinea and Sierra Leone to eastern Sudan, South Sudan and its natural habitat is dry savannah. Originally, the rufous-rumped lark was classified within the genus Alauda, later, some authorities considered the rufous-rumped lark to be a species within the genera Certhilauda and Mirafra. Alternate common names include red-rumped lark, red-tailed bush lark and red-tailed lark
26.
Thick-billed lark
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The thick-billed lark or Clotbey lark is a species of lark in the family Alaudidae. It was named after Antoine Clot and it was originally described as belonging to the genus Melanocorypha and is now placed in the monotypic genus Ramphocoris. It is found in northern Africa from Mauritania and Morocco to Libya and its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland and hot deserts
27.
Lullula
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Lullula is the genus of woodlarks, songbirds in the family Alaudidae. There is only one remaining extant species, the woodlark which is found in Europe, the mountains of northern Africa, the remainder are known only from the fossil record. The genus Lullula is onomatopoeic from the French “Lulu”, the name given by de Buffon, both the French name, Alouette lulu and the genus name are derived from the sound of its song
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Woodlark
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The woodlark or wood lark is the only extant species in the lark genus Lullula. It is found across most of Europe, the Middle East, western Asia and it is mainly resident in the west of its range, but eastern populations of this passerine bird are more migratory, moving further south in winter. There are two subspecies of woodlark, L. a. arborea and L. a. pallida, the former is native to northern regions of Europe, while the latter can be found in the south of the woodlarks range. Their diet is composed of seeds but also includes insects during the breeding period. A comparatively small bird, the woodlark is between 13.5 and 15 centimetres long and roughly 20% shorter than the skylark and it is a brown bird with a pale underside and has a white-tipped tail. The woodlark was originally placed within the genus Alauda until re-classified to the genus Lullula, the current genus name is onomatopoeic from French “Lulu”, the name given to the bird by de Buffon. The French name, Alouette lulu, and the scientific name, the specific arborea is from Latin arbor, arboris, tree. 5- to 15-cm-long bird, slightly smaller than the skylark being roughly 20% shorter. The woodlark is mainly brown above and pale below, but with a distinctive white superciliar meeting on the nape and it has a crest which is quite small and at most times inconspicuous. In flight it shows a tail and short broad wings. The tail is tipped with white, but unlike the skylark, the tail sides, a songbird, the woodlark has a melodious, warbling song often described onomatopoeically as a lu-lu-lu- or, more precisely, as a serial lū-lū-lū-lū-lū-, toolooeet toolooeet toolooeet. Found mainly in Europe, the mountains of northern Africa and western Asia, in Europe, the bird seems most at home in the sandy heaths of Belgium, where its density was 7.5 pairs per square kilometre in 1988. In the same year, densities in East Germany ranged from 0.29 to 5.0 pairs per km2, however, populations fluctuated across Europe in the 1990s and 2000s and more up-to-date density figures are unavailable. The extent of the range is England in the west, parts of northern Egypt to the south, Iran and Turkmenistan to the east. Declining populations have resulted in the woodlarks range contracting, for example in Britain it once bred in Wales, within its range it is mainly resident in the west, with eastern populations migrating south in the winter. The woodlarks natural habitat is heathland and open spaces sparsely populated with trees and they prefer clearings in pine forests and heathland and like newly planted areas with pine saplings. The bird can also be more rarely in urban areas. For example, in 1950 a pair were recorded on a road near Putney Heath. The male woodlark has a flight similar to that of the Eurasian skylark but flutters more as he rises and spirals upwards
29.
Alauda
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Alauda is a genus of larks found across much of Europe, Asia and in the mountains of north Africa, and one of the species endemic to the islet of Raso in the Cape Verde Islands. Further, at least two species are known from the fossil record. The current genus name is from Latin alauda, lark, pliny the Elder thought the word was originally of Celtic origin. The genus Alauda has four extant and at least two extinct species, formerly, many other species have also been considered to belong to the genus
30.
Large-billed lark
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The large-billed lark or southern thick-billed lark is a small passerine bird found in southern Africa. The name large-billed lark may also refer to Bradfields lark, the name thick-billed lark more commonly refers to the species of the same name. The large-billed lark was originally placed in the genus Alauda, another alternate name used for the large-billed lark is the long-billed lark. It is relatively short-tailed and has a bill with a yellow base to the lower mandible. It has streaked brown-grey upperparts, and a white supercilium. Like other species in the genus, it has a crest that can be raised in display or alarm, the underparts are cream-coloured with heavy dark streaking on the breast. The heavy bi-coloured bill distinguishes this species from all other African larks, the call of this very vocal species is a soft creaking treeeeleeeeleee. The large-billed lark is a resident breeder in southern South Africa, Lesotho and its natural habitat is fynbos, karoo scrub and mountain grassland. The large-billed lark is found in cultivated and fallow agricultural land. Like other larks, the large-billed lark nests on the ground and its food is seeds and insects, the latter especially in the breeding season. Sinclair, Hockey and Tarboton, SASOL Birds of Southern Africa, ISBN 1-86872-721-1 BirdLife International Species text - The Atlas of Southern African Birds
31.
Eremophila (bird)
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The bird genus Eremophila comprises the two horned larks. The current genus name is from Ancient Greek eremos, desert, in the summer males of both species have black horns, which give these larks their alternative names. These are larks of open country which nest on the ground, the migratory horned lark breeds across much of northern North America, Europe and Asia and in the mountains of Europe. Temminck’s lark is mainly a resident breeding species across much of north Africa, through northern Arabia to western Iraq
32.
Melanocorypha
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Melanocorypha is a small genus of birds in the lark family. The current genus name, Melanocorypha is from Ancient Greek melas, black, and koruphos a term used by ancient writer for a now unknown bird, but here confused with korudos, lark. Established by Friedrich Boie in 1828, the genus Melanocorypha has five extant, some have the typically undistinguished lark plumage, mainly streaked greyish-brown above and white below, but the, black and white-winged larks have distinctive male plumages. Several species have black patches on the breast sides. In flight they show broad wings and a shortish tail, the songs of most species are like that of the skylark. The members of Melanocorypha occur mainly in temperate Asia from Turkey through central Asia to China and these larks are mostly partially migratory, moving relatively short distances from the coldest parts of their ranges. Several species are rare vagrants to western Europe. These are birds of open cultivation, steppe or semi-desert and they nest on the ground and the young are precocial. The food is supplemented with insects especially in the breeding season. They are gregarious outside the breeding season
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. PMID 11839199. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
