1.
Bugle call
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A bugle call is a short tune, originating as a military signal announcing scheduled and certain non-scheduled events on a military installation, battlefield, or ship. Historically, bugles, drums, and other musical instruments were used for clear communication in the noise. Naval bugle calls were used to command the crew of many warships. A defining feature of a call is that it consists only of notes from a single overtone series. This is in fact a requirement if it is to be playable on a bugle or equivalently on a trumpet without moving the valves, Bugle calls typically indicated the change in daily routines of camp. Every duty around camp had its own call, and since cavalry had horses to look after. Boots and Saddles was the most imperative of these signals and could be sounded without warning at any time of day or night, signaling the men to equip themselves, adjutants Call, Indicates that the adjutant is about to form the guard, battalion, or regiment. Alarm Assembly, Signals troops to assemble at a designated place, attention, Sounded as a warning that troops are about to be called to attention. Boots and Saddles, Sounded for mounted troops to mount and take their place in line, Call to Quarters, Signals all personnel not authorized to be absent to return to their quarters for the night. Charge, Signals troops to execute a charge, or gallop forward into harms way with deadly intent, church Call, Signals that religious services are about to begin. The call may also be used to announce the formation of an escort from a selected military unit. Drill Call, Sounds as a warning to turn out for drill, fatigue Call, Signals all designated personnel to report for fatigue duty. Fire Call, Signals that there is a fire on the post or in the vicinity, the call is also used for fire drill. First Call, Sounds as a warning that personnel will prepare to assemble for a formation and this call is also used in horse racing, where it is known as Call to the Post. In that context, it indicates that jockeys need to have their mounts in position to be loaded into the starting gate, First Sergeants Call, Signals that the First Sergeant is about to form the company. Guard Mount, Sounds as a warning that the guard is about to be assembled for guard mount, last Post, Used at Commonwealth of Nations military funerals and ceremonies commemorating those who have been killed in a war. Mail Call, Signals personnel to assemble for the distribution of mail, officers Call, Signals all officers to assemble at a designated place. Pay Call, Signals that troops will be paid, recall, Signals duties or drills to cease
2.
Infantry of the British Army
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The Infantry of the British Army, part of the structure of the British Army, comprises 47 infantry battalions, from 19 regiments. Of these,33 battalions are part of the Regular army, the British Armys Infantry forms a highly flexible organisation, taking on a variety of roles, including armoured, mechanised, air assault and light. Traditionally, regiments that form the arms of the British Army recruit from specific areas of the country. Infantry regiments had been assigned specific areas from which they would recruit from by the mid eighteenth century and these were formalised under the Cardwell Reforms that began in the 1860s. Under this scheme, single battalion regiments were amalgamated into two battalion regiments, then assigned to a depot and associated recruiting area. The recruiting area would become part of the regiments title. It was this that gave rise to the concept of the county regiment, over time, regiments have been amalgamated further, which has led to recruiting areas of individual regiments increasing in size. Often, these amalgamations have been between regiments whose recruiting areas border each other, however, there have been occasions where regiments of a similar type, but from widely different areas, have been amalgamated. Two modern examples have been the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers and The Light Infantry, since September 2007, when the most recent reforms were completed, the infantry has consisted of 18 separate regiments. The five regiments of foot guards recruit from their home nations. Scotland, Ireland and Wales each have a regiment of line infantry from which they recruit, while England has seven line infantry. They initially enlisted for seven years with the colours and a five years with the reserve. They trained at their own regimental depot and this course, called the Combat Infantrymans Course, lasts 26 weeks as standard and teaches recruits both the basics of soldiering and the specifics of soldiering in the infantry. On completion of the CIC, the newly qualified infantry soldier will then be posted to his battalion, for some infantry units, the CIC is longer, due to specific additional requirements for individual regiments, The Foot Guards CIC has an additional two-week enhanced drill course. The Parachute Regiment CIC has an additional two-week Pre-Parachute Selection course, the Brigade of Gurkhas CIC combines the Common Military Syllabus with the CIC, together with courses on British culture and the English Language. The Gurkha CIC lasts 37 weeks, new officers conduct their Phase 1 training at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. Phase 2 training for officers, which is encompassed by the Platoon Commanders Battle Course, is run at the Infantry Battle School at Brecon in Wales and it is here that leadership and tactics are taught to new platoon commanders. New NCOs and Warrant Officers are also sent on courses at Brecon when they come up for promotion, Phase 3 training is also undertaken at the Support Weapons School at Warminster, where new officers, NCOs and soldiers are trained in the use of support weapons and in communications
3.
Royal Artillery
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The Royal Regiment of Artillery, commonly referred to as the Royal Artillery, is the artillery arm of the British Army. Despite its name Royal Regiment of Artillery it actually consists of 13 Regular Regiments and 5 Reserve Regiments, the introduction of artillery into the English army came as early as the Battle of Crécy in 1346. Henry VIII made the armys artillery semi-permanent in the sixteenth century, before the 18th century, artillery traynes were raised by royal warrant for specific campaigns and disbanded again when they were over. On 26 May 1716, however, by warrant of George I two regular companies of field artillery, each 100 men strong, were raised at Woolwich. The title Royal Artillery was first used in 1720, in 1741 the Royal Military Academy was formed in the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich to provide training for RA and Royal Engineers officers. The regiment expanded rapidly and, by 1757, had 24 companies divided into two battalions, as well as a company formed in 1741. During 1748, the presidential artilleries of Bengal, Madras and Bombay were formed,1756 saw the creation of the Royal Irish Regiment of Artillery. In 1762 the Royal Artillery Band was formed at Minden, by 1771 there were 32 companies in four battalions, as well as two invalid companies comprising older and unfit men employed in garrison duties. During 1782, the regiment moved to the Royal Artillery Barracks on Woolwich Common, in January 1793, two troops of Royal Horse Artillery were raised to provide fire support for the cavalry, augmented by two more in November 1793. The Royal Irish Artillery was absorbed into the RA in 1801, during 1805, the Royal Military Academy moved to Woolwich Common. In 1819, the Rotunda was given to the regiment by the Prince Regent to celebrate end of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1832, the regimental motto, Ubique Quo Fas Et Gloria Ducunt, was granted. The motto signified that the regiment had seen action in all the conflicts of the British Army. The regiment was under the control of the Board of Ordnance until the board was abolished in 1855, thereafter the regiment came under the War Office along with the rest of the army. The School of Gunnery established at Shoeburyness, Essex in 1859, the third group continued to be titled simply Royal Artillery, and was responsible for ammunition storage and supply. Which branch a gunner belonged to was indicated by metal shoulder titles, the RFA and RHA also dressed as mounted men, whereas the RGA dressed like foot soldiers. In 1920 the rank of Bombardier was instituted in the Royal Artillery, the three sections effectively functioned as separate corps. This arrangement lasted until 1924, when the three amalgamated once more to one regiment. In 1938, RA Brigades were renamed Regiments, during the World War II there were over 1 million men serving in 960 gunner regiments
4.
Royal Horse Artillery
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The regiments of the Royal Horse Artillery, dating from 1793, are part of the Royal Regiment of Artillery of the British Army. Horses are still in service for ceremonial purposes but were phased out from deployment during the 1930s. Britain remained in conflict with France for almost 22 years, during which time significant progress was achieved in artillery development. The first two troops of Horse Artillery were raised in January 1793 at Goodwood, East Sussex, by the Master-General of the Ordnance and they were joined by two more troops in November 1793. Each troop had six 6-pounder guns, included in the establishment were 45 drivers and 187 horses, making it the first self-contained fighting unit of artillery. Initially, horses were hired with civilian drivers, in 1794 a Driver Corps was raised which, however, did not formally become a unit of the Royal Artillery until after Waterloo. There were many disadvantages of the control until horses and drivers were organised into the RHA troops. Another development was the formation of a headquarters staff providing a channel between the regiment and the Board of Ordnance, captain John Macleod was the first brigade major and became the first deputy-adjutant-general in 1795. By 1806, eleven troops had been formed, with ten companies of the Royal Irish Artillery incorporated, as the Seventh Battalion, the regiment wore light cavalry uniforms of blue with gold lace and red facings. Their overalls were grey with a red stripe and on their heads they wore the distinctive Tarleton helmets, if needed, they carried 1796 light-cavalry sabres or their own semi-official RHA 1796P sabre. In 1859, the battalion was replaced by brigade. The five Horse Artillery brigades consisted of two batteries each, between 1899 and 1924, the Royal Artillery was divided, with the creation of the Royal Field Artillery which utilised horse for its medium-calibre guns. When the Territorial Force was created in 1908, artillery units of the old Volunteer Force were converted into foot, horse, there were 14 batteries of horse artillery,12 of which belonged to the RHA, the remaining two being provided by the Honourable Artillery Company. Territorial batteries were of four guns each rather than the six guns of regular batteries, the principal weapon of Territorial RHA units was the Ordnance QF15 pounder although the Ordnance BLC15 pounder was issued to some second-line RHA units formed in 1914. At the outbreak of World War I the regular RHA comprised twenty-five batteries and they were equipped with the Ordnance QF13 pounder. In the 1920s, development of trucks and track vehicles brought an end to use of horses. By 1927, medium artillery was drawn by tractors instead of heavy draught horses, by 1937, nine field brigades had been mechanised as well as a brigade of RHA. The last battery to be mechanised was K Battery, in 1939, today, the ceremonial Kings Troop alone retains the glamour of the mounted batteries
5.
Commonwealth of Nations
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The Commonwealth of Nations, also known as simply the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 52 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth dates back to the century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the states as free. The symbol of free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is also the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth, the other Commonwealth members have different heads of state,31 members are republics and five are monarchies with a different monarch. Member states have no obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their values of democracy, free speech, human rights. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games, the Commonwealth covers more than 29,958,050 km2, 20% of the worlds land area, and spans all six inhabited continents. She declared, So, it marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. As long ago as 1884, however, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, had described the changing British Empire—as some of its colonies became more independent—as a Commonwealth of Nations. Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887, the Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. Newfoundland never did, as on 16 February 1934, with the consent of its parliament, Newfoundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively, after World War II ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, there remain the 14 British overseas territories still held by the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word British was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature, burma and Aden are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Hoped for success was reinforced by such achievements as climbing Mount Everest in 1953, breaking the four minute mile in 1954, however, the humiliation of the Suez Crisis of 1956 badly hurt morale of Britain and the Commonwealth as a whole. More broadly, there was the loss of a role of the British Empire. That role was no longer militarily or financially feasible, as Britains withdrawal from Greece in 1947 painfully demonstrated, Britain itself was now just one part of the NATO military alliance in which the Commonwealth had no role apart from Canada
6.
The Rouse
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The Rouse is a bugle call most often associated with the military in Commonwealth countries. It is commonly played following Last Post at military services, and is mistakenly referred to as Reveille. Despite often being referred to by the name Reveille, The Rouse is actually a piece of music from the traditional Reveille. The Rouse was traditionally played following Reveille, which was a bugle call played in the morning to wake soldiers up, the Rouse would be played to get soldiers out of bed. The use of both Last Post and The Rouse at cenotaph ceremonies in Commonwealth nations essentially turns the two-minute silence into a night vigil. Being bugle music, both The Rouse and Reveille are composed entirely from the notes of the brass instruments harmonic series C major
7.
Reveille
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Reveille is a bugle call, trumpet call or pipes call most often associated with the military and prisons, it is chiefly used to wake military personnel and prisoners at sunrise. The name comes from réveille, the French word for wake up, the tune used in the Commonwealth of Nations is different from the one used in the United States, but they are used in analogous ways, to ceremonially start the day. In modern times, the U. S. military plays Reveille in the morning, generally near sunrise, though its exact time varies from base to base. While in formation, soldiers are brought to the position of parade rest while Reveille plays then called to attention and present arms as the national flag is raised while To the Colors plays. On board U. S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard facilities, on some U. S. military bases, Reveille is accompanied by a cannon shot. In Commonwealth Remembrance Day and Remembrance Sunday services, The Last Post begins the period of silent reflection, the two tunes symbolize sunset and sunrise respectively, and therefore, death and resurrection. To Reveille or to sound Reveille is often used among military personnel as a meaning to notify personnel that it is time to wake up. Although there are no lyrics to Reveille, these unofficial lyrics for the Commonwealth Reveille have been recently popularized. Or-der-ly officer is on his round, the first lines of the British Cavalry Reveille were for many years rendered as, Soldiers arise. Scrub the bloody muck out of your eyes. The infantry and general Reveille ran, Get out of bed, Get out of bed, I feel sorry for you, I do. In the Royal Navy, Reveille was usually verbalised as, Wakey Wakey, Lash up and Stow. To the U. S. tune, Reveille and Rouse are composed, like all music, solely from the notes of the major triad, usually notated in C as, C, the tonic, E, the mediant, and G. Reise Reise is the wake up call on ships of the German Navy and it comes from the Low German word for rise. Every day on a German Navy ship starts with a call, the purren, which is started by the Locken. The wake-up call is given by a whistle and the call, Reise, reise, aufstehen. Rise, rise, wake up, get your hammock ready, in the Indian Army, reveille is sounded at 06,00, and the regimental colours are hoisted. As this also signals the start of the physical training parade, for practical reasons, in the Irish Army, reveille is sounded at dawn and at military wreath-laying ceremonies, as on the National Day of Commemoration. In Mountjoy Prison a large triangle was formerly beaten to wake the prisoners
8.
Household Cavalry
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The Household Cavalry is made up of the two most senior regiments of the British Army, the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals. The Household Cavalry is part of the Household Division and is the Queens official bodyguard, the British Household Cavalry is classed as a corps in its own right, and consists of two regiments, the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals. They are the regular regiments in the British Army, with traditions dating from 1660. They are guards regiments and, with the five foot guard regiments, the Household Cavalry as a whole is split into two different units that fulfil very distinct roles. These are both joint units, consisting of personnel from both regiments, like other Cavalry formations, the Household Cavalry is divided into regiments and squadrons. The whole corps is under the command of the Commander Household Cavalry and he is a Colonel, and is assisted by a retired lieutenant colonel as Regimental Adjutant. The current Commander is Colonel S H Cowen RHG/D, the first unit is the Household Cavalry Regiment. It has an operational role as a Formation Reconnaissance Regiment, serving in armoured fighting vehicles. The regiment serves as part of the Royal Armoured Corps, one of HCRs squadrons is assigned to the airborne role with 16 Air Assault Brigade as of 2003. The Regiment is based at Combermere Barracks, Windsor, one mile from Windsor Castle, the men of the Household Division have sometimes been required to undertake special tasks as the Sovereign’s personal troops. The Household Cavalry were called to Windsor Castle on 20 November 1992 to assist with salvage operations following the Great Fire, the second unit is the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment, which is horsed and carries out mounted ceremonial duties on State and Royal occasions. These include the provision of a Sovereigns Escort, most commonly seen on The Queens Birthday Parade in June each year, other occasions include state visits by visiting heads of state, or whenever required by the British monarch. The regiment also mounts the guard at Horse Guards, the Regiment has been based at Hyde Park Barracks, Knightsbridge, since 1795. This is three-quarters of a mile from Buckingham Palace, new troopers and officers are generally first assigned to London upon completion of horsemanship training and remain there for up to three years. Like the five Foot Guards regiments they rotate between the unit and ceremonial duties. However, this origin may be apocryphal, since serjeant was a used by some offices of comparative seniority, such as Serjeants at Arms. Uniquely, non-commissioned officers and warrant officers of the Household Cavalry do not wear insignia on their full dress uniforms. Rank is indicated by a system of aiguillettes, Second Lieutenants in The Blues and Royals are known as Cornets
9.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
10.
Guardhouse
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A guardhouse is a building used to house personnel and security equipment. Some guardhouses also function as jails, in the case of small to mid-sized facilities, generally, the entire physical security envelope is controlled from the Guardhouse. One of the orders of a sentry in the United States Navy. Guardhouses thus serve as central hubs for outlying sentry posts. When sentries are relieved by their replacements, the sentry stationed at the Guardhouse, modern guardhouses are manufactured with welded, galvanized steel construction, insulated, include heat and light, have 360 degree visibility, and can also be bullet resistant. These guardhouses keep security guards comfortable as well as secure, the first modern guardhouse was manufactured by Par-Kut International in 1954. In the Fortress of Louisbourg in the 18th century, Guardhouses were where sentries were stationed to eat, the town had five Guardhouses, and whilst not sleeping sentries would be on call from those Guardhouses at need. Prison cells were unfurnished, containing simply a slop bucket and iron rings on walls for the attachment of shackles, gatehouse Neue Wache Kōban The Guardhouse. - a description of the guardhouse at Colonial Williamsburg Lindsay, Charles S. Louisbourg Guardhouses, canadian Historic Sites, Occasional Papers in Archaeology and History - Contributions from the Fortress of Louisbourg. Arsenal Technical High School Alumni Association, - an archaeological report on the guardhouse at the Macquarie Street entrance of the Lancer Barracks in Parramatta, New South Wales Guardhouse. - an extract from the Fort Concho Medical History Record of May 1871, describing in detail the now nonexistent guardhouse
11.
Remembrance Day
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Following a tradition inaugurated by King George V in 1919, the day is also marked by war remembrances in many non-Commonwealth countries. Remembrance Day is observed on 11 November in most countries to recall the end of hostilities of World War I on that date in 1918, the First World War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919. The memorial evolved out of Armistice Day, which continues to be marked on the same date, the first official Armistice Day was subsequently held on the grounds of Buckingham Palace the following morning. The red remembrance poppy has become an emblem of Remembrance Day due to the poem In Flanders Fields written by Canadian physician Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae. After reading the poem, Moina Michael, a professor at the University of Georgia, wrote the poem, We Shall Remember, the custom spread to Europe and the countries of the British Empire and Commonwealth within three years. Madame Anne E. Guerin tirelessly promoted the practice in Europe, in the UK Major George Howson fostered the cause with the support of General Haig. Poppies were worn for the first time at the 1921 anniversary ceremony, at first real poppies were worn. These poppies bloomed across some of the worst battlefields of Flanders in World War I, the Flowers of the Forest, O Valiant Hearts, I Vow to Thee, My Country and Jerusalem are often played during the service. Services also include wreaths laid to honour the fallen, a blessing, the central ritual at cenotaphs throughout the Commonwealth is a stylised night vigil. The Last Post was the bugle call at the close of the military day. This makes the ritual more than just an act of remembrance, the act is enhanced by the use of dedicated cenotaphs and the laying of wreaths—the traditional means of signalling high honours in ancient Greece and Rome. Services are held at 11 am at war memorials and schools in suburbs and cities across the country, at which the Last Post is sounded by a bugler and a one-minute silence is observed. In recent decades, Remembrance Day has been eclipsed as the national day of war commemoration by ANZAC Day. When Remembrance Day falls on a working day in Melbourne and other major cities. While this occurs, the majority of passers by stop and observe a moment of silence while waiting for the bugler to finish the recital, in Barbados, Remembrance Day is not a public holiday. It is recognised as 11 November, but the parade and ceremonial events are carried out on Remembrance Sunday, the day is celebrated to recognise the Barbadian soldiers who died fighting in the First and Second World Wars. The parade is held at National Heroes Square, where a service is held. The Governor-General and Barbadian Prime Minister are among those who attend, along with government dignitaries
12.
Cenotaph
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A cenotaph is an empty tomb or a monument erected in honour of a person or group of people whose remains are elsewhere. It can also be the tomb for a person who has since been reinterred elsewhere. The word derives from the Greek, κενοτάφιον kenotaphion Cenotaphs were common in the ancient world with many built in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and across Northern Europe. The Basilica di Santa Croce in Florence, Italy, contains a number of cenotaphs including one for Dante Alighieri, a cenotaph is the focal point of the Voortrekker Monument in Pretoria, South Africa. It is situated below the main point of interest, a marble Historical Frieze in the Hall of Heroes. The Hall of Heroes itself has a dome from the summit of one can view the interior of the monument. At noon on 16 December each year the sun shines through another opening in the dome onto the middle of the cenotaph, the ray of sunshine symbolises Gods blessing on the lives and endeavours of the Voortrekkers. 16 December is the date in 1838 that the Battle of Blood River was fought, durban, South Africa, has a striking and unusual cenotaph made of granite and lavishly decorated with brightly coloured ceramics. Port Elizabeth, South Africa, has a cenotaph, on either side of the central sarcophagus are statues by Technical College Art School principal, James Gardner, who served in the trenches during the war. One depicts St George and the Dragon, the other depicts the sanctity of family life, surrounding the sarcophagus are a number of bas-relief panels depicting scenes and people during the First World War. It was unveiled by Mrs W F Savage and dedicated by Canon Mayo on 10 November 1929, a surrounding memorial wall commemorates the men and women killed during World War II. In Livingstone there is a cenotaph at the Eastern Cataract of The Victoria Falls with the names of the men of Northern Rhodesia who died during the Great War 1914–18 and it was unveiled by HRH Prince Arthur of Connaught on 1 August 1923. There is also a cenotaph in Lusaka at Embassy Park, opposite the Cabinet Office along Independence Avenue, the cenotaph was commemorated in 1977. A monument which has come to be known to as the Cenotaph was erected in Plaza San Martín, in downtown Buenos Aires, to commemorate the Argentinian soldiers who died during the Falklands War, in 1982. The monument consists of a series of plaques of marble with the names of the fallen, surrounding a flame. Another cenotaph, which is a replica of the Argentine Military Cemetery in Darwin on the Falkland Islands, exists in Campo de Mayo, a limestone replica of the Cenotaph at Whitehall in London was erected outside the Cabinet Building in Hamilton, Bermuda in 1920. In the United States, a cenotaph in Yale Universitys Hewitt Quad honours men of Yale who died in battle, the John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial in Dallas is often described as a cenotaph. It has an Egyptian Revival cenotaph base, surmounted by a fasces bound together with ribbons bearing the names of the dead and it was designed by French émigré architect Maximilian Godefroy in 1815, and construction was completed in 1827
13.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
14.
Military tattoo
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A tattoo is a military performance of music or display of armed forces in general. The tattoo was originally a form of music, but the practice has evolved into more elaborate shows involving theatrics. It is also used to designate military exhibitions such as the Royal International Air Tattoo, the term dates from around 1600 during the Thirty Years War in the Low Countries. The Dutch fortresses were garrisoned with troops that were under federal command since 1594. The Dutch States Army had become an army, consisting mostly of Scottish, English, German and Swiss mercenaries. Drummers from the garrison were sent out into the towns at 21,30 hrs each evening to inform the soldiers that it was time to return to barracks. The process was known as doe den tap toe, an instruction to innkeepers to stop serving beer, the drummers continued to play until the curfew at 22,00 hrs. Tattoo, earlier tap-too and taptoo, are alterations of the Dutch words tap toe which have the same meaning. Over the years, the became more of a show and often included the playing of the first post at 21,30 hrs. Bands and displays were included and shows were conducted by floodlight or searchlight. Tattoos were commonplace in the late 19th century with most military, between the First World War and the Second World War elaborate tattoos were held in many towns, with the largest in Aldershot, England. One of the best known tattoos is held on the Esplanade in front of Edinburgh Castle each August as part of the annual Edinburgh Festival. The Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo was first staged in 1950, it combines the sounds of the bagpipes. In 2008, the Windsor Castle Royal Tattoo was launched, the events proceeds went to the Royal British Legion to help support recently returned troops from battle. Another well-known tattoo was the Royal Tournament which was held annually in London from 1880 to 1999, the last producer of the Royal Tournament was Major Sir Michael Parker. The British Military Tournament, its successor, was established in 2010 at the venue of the Royal Tournament, Earls Court. Another UK tattoo is the Birmingham Tattoo held annually at the National Indoor Arena in November, the Royal International Air Tattoo is the worlds largest military airshow, held annually at RAF Fairford in Gloucestershire in aid of the RAF Charitable Trust. The Norwegian Military Tattoo is internationally famous for its quality and streamlined production and it has been held every second year since 1994 in the capital of Norway, Oslo
15.
Beer tap
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A beer tap is a valve, specifically a tap, for controlling the release of beer. While in other contexts, depending on location, a tap may be a faucet, valve or spigot and this may be because the word was originally coined for the wooden valve in traditional barrels. Beer served from a tap is known as draught beer. There are many different types of beer or keg taps, there are also many styles of beer taps. Beer supplied in kegs is served with the aid of external pressure from a cylinder of carbon dioxide which forces the beer out of the keg, at the end of this tube is a valve built into a fixture on the bar. This is the tap and opening it with a small lever causes beer, pushed by the gas from the cylinder. One disadvantage of this system is that it produces a head which must be left to subside before more beer can be added to the glass. Some manufacturers have tried to address this problem by producing a device allows the beer to be poured from the bottom up. Sometimes, beer kegs designed to be connected to the system are instead used on their own. In this case, a self-contained portable tap is required that allows beer to be served straight from the keg, because the keg system uses pressure to force the beer up and out of the keg, these taps must have a means of supplying it. The typical picnic tap uses a pump to push air into the keg. Portable taps with small CO2 cylinders are also available, beers brewed and served by traditional methods, typically cask ale, do not use artificial gas. Taps for cask beer are simple on-off valves that are hammered into the end of the cask, when beer is served directly from the cask, as at beer festivals and some pubs, it simply flows out of the tap and into the glass. When the cask is stored in the cellar and served from the bar, as in most pubs, the line is screwed onto the tap. The taps used are the same, and in beer-line setups the first pint is often poured from the cask as for gravity, for tasting, cask beer taps can be brass, stainless steel, plastic, and wood. In Scotland, cask ale was served through a tall fount. These appear similar to keg taps rendered from brass but the beer was drawn from the barrel via air pressure generated by an engine rather than by a pressurised artificial gas. The Aitken fount variety is still in use in several Edinburgh pubs, typical tap handles are 9-13 tall, but can range from very short to novelty lengths
16.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
17.
Taps
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Taps is a bugle call played at dusk, during flag ceremonies, and at military funerals by the United States armed forces. The official military version is played by a bugle or trumpet. It is also performed often at Boy Scout, Girl Scout, the tune is also sometimes known as Butterfields Lullaby, or by the first line of the lyric, Day Is Done. The duration may vary to some extent, the typical recording below is 59 seconds long, Taps is derived from the same source as Tattoo. Taps originates from the Dutch taptoe, meaning close the taps, an alternative explanation, however, is that it carried over from a term already in use before the American Civil War. Three single, slow drum beats were struck after the sounding of the Tattoo or Extinguish Lights and this signal was known as the Drum Taps, The Taps, or simply as Taps in soldiers slang. Within months Taps was used by both Union and Confederate forces and it was officially recognized by the United States Army in 1874. Taps concludes many military funerals conducted with honors at Arlington National Cemetery, the tune is also sounded at many memorial services in Arlingtons Memorial Amphitheater and at grave sites throughout the cemetery. Captain John Francis Tidball, West Point Class of 1848, started the custom of playing Taps at military funerals, in early July 1862 at Harrisons Landing, a corporal of Tidballs Battery A, 2nd U. S. Artillery, died. He was, Tidball recalled later, a most excellent man, Tidball wished to bury him with full military honors, but, for military reasons, he was refused permission to fire three guns over the grave. Tidball later wrote, The thought suggested itself to me to sound taps instead, the idea was taken up by others, until in a short time it was adopted by the entire army and is now looked upon as the most appropriate and touching part of a military funeral. As Tidball proudly proclaimed, Battery A has the honor of having introduced this custom into the service and it became a standard component to U. S. military funerals in 1891. Taps is sounded during each of the military wreath ceremonies conducted at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier every year, the ceremonies are viewed by many people, including veterans, school groups, and foreign officials. The melody of Taps is composed entirely from the notes of the C major triad. This is because the bugle, for which it is written, can play only the notes in the series of the instruments fundamental tone, a B-flat bugle thus plays the notes B-flat, D. Taps uses the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth partials, there is one original set of lyrics meant to accompany the music, written by Horace Lorenzo Trim, Several later lyrical adaptations have been created. There are several legends concerning the origin of Taps and that Daniel Butterfield composed Taps has been sworn to by numerous reputable witnesses including his bugler Norton, who first performed the tune. While scholars continue to debate whether or not the tune was original or based on an earlier melody, another, perhaps more historically verifiable, account of Taps first being used in the context of a military funeral involves John C
18.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
19.
Royal Military College of Canada
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The Royal Military College of Canada, commonly abbreviated as RMCC or RMC, is the military college of the Canadian Armed Forces, and is a degree-granting university training military officers. RMC was established in 1876 and is the only institution in Canada with degree-granting powers. The Royal Military College of Canada Degrees Act,1959 empowers the college to confer degrees in arts, science, programs are offered at the undergraduate and graduate levels both on campus as well as through the Colleges distance learning programme via the Division of Continuing Studies. Located on Point Frederick, a 41-hectare peninsula in Kingston, Ontario, the college is a blend of older, historic buildings, as well as more academic, athletic. Officer cadets of the Royal Military College of Canada are trained in what are known as the four pillars of academics, officership, athletics, and bilingualism. RMC provides programs and courses of education and professional development to meet the needs of the Canadian Armed Forces. Those able to gain admission to this institution will belong to a community of peers that encourages alumni prosperity. For most students under the ROTP, education is free and a salary is paid which meets incidentals. The courses are offered both on site and by learning in both official languages, English and French. After graduation, Officers are to two months of service for each subsidized month of education. RMC offers 19 undergraduate programs in Arts, Science and Engineering, RMC offers 34 graduate studies opportunities, including 14 doctorates. All undergraduate students are required to complete the curriculum, which is designed to provide a balanced liberal arts, science. The Core Curriculum consists of Economics, Psychology, Mathematics, English, Calculus, Military history of Canada, Chemistry, Canadian History, Engineering and Management was offered, 1972–1995. Engineering Physics was offered 1975–1995 and Fuels and Materials Engineering were offered 1982–1991, engineers provide support to deployed operations and domestic installations. RMC was the first college in Canada to train engineers, Physics, Chemistry, Computer Science, Mathematics and Space Science are offered by the Faculty of Science. The science programs are relevant to occupations in both the Canadian Armed Forces and the civilian sector, students pursuing a Bachelor of Arts gain practical communication and critical thinking skills as well as specialized, hands-on experience in their chosen field. English, French, Economics, Political Science, History, Business Administration, Military theory, Military strategy studies, Military Psychology and Leadership are offered by the Faculty of Arts. Tuition fees at the undergraduate level vary from $2,780 – $3,710 for Canadian undergraduate students, the tuition fees for international students vary from $8,750 – $9,000 for undergraduate students and $6,200 – $6,700 for graduate students
20.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
21.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
22.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
23.
Anzac Day
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Observed on 25 April each year, Anzac Day was originally to honour the members of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps who fought at Gallipoli against the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Anzac Day is also observed in the Cook Islands, Niue, Pitcairn Islands, and Tonga, Anzac Day marks the anniversary of the first campaign that led to major casualties for Australian and New Zealand forces during the First World War. The acronym ANZAC stands for Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, when war broke out in 1914, Australia and New Zealand had been dominions of the British Empire for thirteen and seven years respectively. In 1915, Australian and New Zealand soldiers formed part of an Allied expedition that set out to capture the Gallipoli Peninsula to open the way to the Black Sea for the Allied navies. The objective was to capture Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, the ANZAC force landed at Gallipoli on 25 April, meeting fierce resistance from the Ottoman Army commanded by Mustafa Kemal. What had been planned as a strike to knock the Ottomans out of the war quickly became a stalemate. At the end of 1915, the Allied forces were evacuated after both sides had suffered casualties and endured great hardships. The creation of what became known as an Anzac legend became an important part of the identity in both countries. This has shaped the way their citizens have viewed both their past and their understanding of the present, the heroism of the soldiers in the failed Gallipoli campaign made their sacrifices iconic in New Zealand memory, and is often credited with securing the psychological independence of the nation. On 30 April 1915, when the first news of the landing reached New Zealand, remnant seedlings of the original wattles still grow in Wattle Grove. Also in South Australia, Eight Hour Day,13 October 1915, was renamed Anzac Day, in New Zealand it was gazetted as a half-day holiday. This occurred in Egypt as well and he particularly feared that the universality of the ceremony would fall victim to religious sectarian disputes. In London, over 2,000 Australian and New Zealand troops marched through the streets of the city, a London newspaper headline dubbed them The Knights of Gallipoli. Marches were held all over Australia in 1916, wounded soldiers from Gallipoli attended the Sydney march in convoys of cars, over 2,000 people attended the service in Rotorua. For the remaining years of the war, Anzac Day was used as an occasion for patriotic rallies and recruiting campaigns, and marches of serving members of the AIF were held in most cities. Anzac Day was gazetted as a holiday in New Zealand in 1920, through the Anzac Day Act, after lobbying by the New Zealand Returned Soldiers’ Association. In Australia at the 1921 State Premiers Conference, it was decided that Anzac Day would be observed on 25 April each year, however, it was not observed uniformly in all the states. During the 1920s, Anzac Day became established as a National Day of Commemoration for the 60,000 Australians and 18,000 New Zealanders who died during the war
24.
The Royal British Legion
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Service in the military is no longer a requirement of Legion membership. The Legion has a membership magazine, Legion, which is free to all Legion members as part of their annual subscription. According to Mark Garnett and Richard Weight, it was established and run by Britains upper class and they argue, It was a product of the First World War and the combination of altruism towards, and fear of, the working class. A Royal Charter was granted in 1925, accompanied by invaluable patronage from royalty circles, during the Second World War, it was active in civil defence, providing step the officers to the Home Guard. Its membership grew rapidly as the veterans of the Second World War were demobilised and it was granted another Royal Charter on 29 May 1971 to mark its fiftieth anniversary which gives the Legion the privilege of the prefix Royal. Earl Haig, British commander at the Battle of the Somme and Passchendaele was one of the founders of the Legion, the head office is based next to Borough tube station. The Legion support nearly 36,000 War Disablement Pension cases for war veterans and make around 300,000 welfare and friendship visits every year. The Poppy is the trademark of The Royal British Legion, RBL states The red poppy is our registered mark, the paper poppies are manufactured at the Poppy Factory in Richmond. Other products bearing the Poppy, the Trademark of The Royal British Legion are sold throughout the year as part of the ongoing fundraising, the Legion organises The Festival of Remembrance in Royal Albert Hall, London on the Saturday before Remembrance Sunday. Originally featuring composer John Fouldss World Requiem it now includes military displays by current members of the forces, choral works. The festival is awash with the finest of British pomp and pageantry, there is a release of poppy petals from the roof of the hall. On the day there are two performances, the matinee is open to any member of the public. In 2007, the half of the evening event was aired live on BBC Radio 2. BBC One showed the event an hour later, most parts of the Festival are of a formal, thought-provoking, and solemn nature. In recent years, the items have included more contemporary performers to attract a younger audience, honour the Covenant is a campaign launched by The Royal British Legion in September 2007, which calls on the UK Government to honour the Military Covenant. The campaign aims to seek support for the issues identified by the Legion. The campaign accuses the Government of failing to meet its commitments under the Covenant, the Legion highlighted the case of a 23-year-old paratrooper, injured in battle, who was awarded £152,150 despite injuries requiring care for the rest of his life. It also criticised the practice of treating soldiers in wards alongside civilian patients, in his conference speech that October, Conservative Party leader David Cameron referred to the Covenant and said Mr. Brown, I believe your government has broken it
25.
Menin Gate
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The memorial is located at the eastern exit of the town and marks the starting point for one of the main roads out of the town that led Allied soldiers to the front line. Designed by Sir Reginald Blomfield and built and maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, in medieval times, the original narrow gateway on the eastern side of the city of Ypres was called the Hangoartpoort, poort being the Dutch word for gate. In order to prosper and maintain its wealth, the city of Ypres had to be fortified, during the 17th and 18th centuries, while under the occupation of the Habsburgs and the French, the city was increasingly fortified. Major works were completed at the end of the 17th century by the French military engineer Sebastien Le Prestre, at the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, the eastern exit simply cut through the remains of the ramparts and crossed a moat. The gateway was by this time known as the Menenpoort, or Menin Gate in English, because the road leading through the gateway led to the small town of Menen. Ypres occupied a position during the First World War because it stood in the path of Germanys planned sweep across the rest of Belgium. By October 1914, the much battered Belgian Army broke the dykes on the Yser River to the north of the City to keep the tip of Belgium out of German hands. For the Allies, Ypres was also important because it became the last major Belgian town that was not under German control. The importance of the town is reflected in the five major battles that occurred around it during the war, during the First Battle of Ypres the Allies halted the German Armys advance to the east of the city. The German army eventually surrounded the city on three sides, bombarding it throughout much of the war, the Second Battle of Ypres marked a second German attempt to take the city in April 1915. The third battle is more commonly referred to as Passchendaele, the fourth and fifth battles occurred during 1918. British and Commonwealth soldiers often passed through the Menenpoort on their way to the front lines with some 300,000 of them being killed in the Ypres Salient,90,000 of these soldiers have no known graves. From September to November 1915, the British 177th Tunnelling Company built tunnelled dugouts in the city ramparts near the Menin Gate and these were the first British tunnelled dugouts in the Ypres Salient. The carved limestone lions adorning the original gate were damaged by shellfire and they were restored in 1987, and currently reside at the entrance to that Memorial, so that all visitors to the Memorial pass between them. Reginald Blomfields triumphal arch, designed in 1921, is the entry to the passage for traffic through the mausoleum that honours the Missing. The patient lion on the top is the lion of Britain and it was chosen to be a memorial as it was the closest gate of the town to the fighting, and so Allied Troops would have marched past it on their way to fight. Actually, most troops passed out of the gates of Ypres. Its large Hall of Memory contains names on stone panels of 54,395 Commonwealth soldiers who died in the Salient, on completion of the memorial, it was discovered to be too small to contain all the names as originally planned
26.
Ypres
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Ypres is a Belgian municipality located in the Flemish province of West Flanders. Though Ieper is the name, the citys French name. The municipality comprises the city of Ypres and the villages of Boezinge, Brielen, Dikkebus, Elverdinge, Hollebeke, Sint-Jan, Vlamertinge, Voormezele, Zillebeke, together, they are home to about 34,900 inhabitants. During the First World War, Ypres was the centre of Battles of Ypres between German and Allied forces, during the war it was nicknamed Wipers, as its name was difficult for English-speaking British Imperial forces troops to pronounce. Ypres is an ancient town, known to have been raided by the Romans in the first century BC and it is first mentioned by name in 1066 and is probably named after the river Ieperlee on the banks of which it was founded. During the Middle Ages, Ypres was a prosperous Flemish city with a population of 40,000 in 1200 AD, renowned for its trade with England. As the third largest city in the County of Flanders Ypres played an important role in the history of the textile industry, textiles from Ypres could be found in the markets of Novgorod in Kievan Rus in the early 12th century. In 1241, a fire ruined much of the old city. The powerful city was involved in important treaties and battles, including the Battle of the Golden Spurs, the Battle at Mons-en-Pévèle, the Peace of Melun, the famous Cloth Hall was built in the thirteenth century. Also during this time cats, then the symbol of the devil and witchcraft, were thrown off Cloth Hall, today, this act is commemorated with a triennial Cat Parade through town. During the Norwich Crusade, led by the English bishop Henry le Despenser, Ypres was besieged from May to August 1383, after the destruction of Thérouanne, Ypres became the seat of the new Diocese of Ypres in 1561, and Saint Martins Church was elevated to cathedral. On 25 March 1678 Ypres was conquered by the forces of Louis XIV of France and it remained French under the treaty of Nijmegen, and Vauban constructed his typical fortifications that can still be seen today. In 1697, after the Treaty of Ryswick, Ypres was returned to the Spanish Crown, in 1713 it was handed over to the Habsburgs, and became part of the Austrian Netherlands. In 1782 the Habsburg Austrian Emperor Joseph II ordered parts of the torn down. This destruction, which was partly repaired, made it easier for the French to capture the city in the 1794 Siege of Ypres during the War of the First Coalition. In 1850 the Ypresian Age of the Eocene Epoch was named on the basis of geology in the region by Belgian geologist André Hubert Dumont, Ypres had long been fortified to keep out invaders. Parts of the ramparts, dating from 1385, still survive near the Rijselpoort. Over time, the earthworks were replaced by masonry and earth structures
27.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
28.
Ypres Salient
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The Ypres Salient is the area around Ypres in Belgium which was the scene of some of the biggest battles in World War I. Ypres lies at the junction of the Ypres–Comines Canal and the Ieperlee, the high point of the ridge is at Wytschaete,7,000 yd from Ypres, while at Hollebeke the ridge is 4,000 yd distant and recedes to 7,000 yd at Polygon Wood. Wytschaete is about 150 ft above the plain, on the Ypres–Menin road at Hooge, the rises are slight apart from the vicinity of Zonnebeke, which has a 1,33 gradient. From Hooge and to the east, the slope is 1,60 and near Hollebeke, it is 1,75, the heights are subtle but have the character of a saucer lip around Ypres. The main ridge has spurs sloping east and one is particularly noticeable at Wytschaete, which runs 2 mi south-east to Messines, with a slope to the east. Further south is the valley of the Douve river, Ploegsteert Wood. West of Messines Ridge is the parallel Wulverghem Spur, the Oosttaverne Spur, the general aspect south of Ypres is of low ridges and dips, gradually flattening to the north into a featureless plain. In 1914, Ypres had 2,354 houses and 16,700 inhabitants inside medieval earth ramparts, faced with brick, possession of the higher ground to the south and east of the city, gives ample scope for ground observation, enfilade fire and converging artillery-fire. An occupier also has the advantage of artillery deployments and the movement of reinforcements, the ridge had woods from Wytschaete to Zonnebeke, giving good cover, some being of notable size like Polygon Wood and those later named Battle Wood, Shrewsbury Forest and Sanctuary Wood. The woods usually had undergrowth, but the fields in gaps between the woods were 800–1,000 yd wide and devoid of cover, roads in this area were usually unpaved, except for the main ones from Ypres, with occasional villages and houses. The lowland west of the ridge was a mixture of meadow and fields, with high hedgerows dotted with trees, cut by streams and ditches emptying into the canals. The Ypres–Comines Canal is about 18 ft wide and the Yperlee about 36 ft, a salient in military terms is a battlefield feature that projects into an opponents territory. The salient is surrounded on three sides, making the occupying the salient vulnerable. The battles saved Ypres and the corner of Belgium around Veurne from German occupation, the few rises or hills became the objectives of the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915, which saw the first use of gas and the almost total destruction and evacuation of Ypres. During this battle, the Allied units were forced to back from Zonnebeke. This line was to define the Ypres Salient for over two years, during which Hooge lay in one of the eastern-most sectors of the salient and was much contested. This situation changed little despite British tunnelling prior to the Battle of Messines in June 1917, after the Third Battle of Ypres, the Ypres Salient was left relatively quiet until the Fourth Battle of Ypres, when the German Spring Offensive threatened to overwhelm the entire area. This offensive was stopped at the point the Allies were closest to being forced to abandon the salient, by August 1918, the Fifth Battle of Ypres pushed the German forces out of the salient entirely and they did not return
29.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
30.
Brookwood Cemetery
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Brookwood Cemetery, also known as the London Necropolis, is a burial ground in Brookwood, Surrey, England. It is the largest cemetery in the United Kingdom and one of the largest in Europe, the cemetery is listed a Grade I site in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. The cemetery is said to have been landscaped by architect William Tite, in 1854, Brookwood was the largest cemetery in the world. Brookwood originally was accessible by rail from a special station – the London Necropolis railway station – next to Waterloo station in Central London, the original London Necropolis station was relocated in 1902 but its successor was demolished after suffering bomb damage during World War II. Two stations were in the cemetery itself, North for non-conformists and their platforms still exist along the path called Railway Avenue. For visitors wishing to use the South Western Main Line, Brookwood station has provided direct access since June 1864. A commemorative very short piece of track with signpost and plaque which purposefully gives way to a grass field recollects the old final main stage of the journey of the deceased. The LNC offered three classes of funerals, A first class funeral allowed its buyer to select the site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery. The LNC charged extra for burials in some designated special sites in the cemetery, at the time of opening prices began at £2 10s for a basic 9-by-4-foot with no special coffin specifications. It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral, Second class funerals cost £1 and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings, third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals, those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish. Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays, the LNC provided dedicated sections of the cemetery for these groups, on the basis that those who had lived or worked together in life could remain together after death. A large number of these plots were established, ranging from Chelsea Pensioners and the Ancient Order of Foresters to the Corps of Commissionaires. The Nonconformist cemetery also includes a Parsee burial ground established in 1862, dedicated sections in the Anglican cemetery were also reserved for burials from those parishes which had made burial arrangements with the LNC. The first burial was of the twins of a Mr and Mrs Hore of Ewer Street. The Hore twins, along with the burials on the first day, were pauper funerals. The first burial at Brookwood with a permanent memorial was that of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Goldfinch, buried on 25 November 1854, the 26th person to be buried in the cemetery. The first permanent memorial erected in the Nonconformist section of cemetery was that of Charles Milligan Hogg, son of botanist Robert Hogg, buried on 12 December 1854
31.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
32.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
33.
Peter Sculthorpe
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Peter Joshua Sculthorpe AO OBE was an Australian composer. He was known primarily for his orchestral and chamber music, such as Kakadu and Earth Cry and he also wrote 18 string quartets, using unusual timbral effects, works for piano, and two operas. He stated that he wanted his music to make feel better and happier for having listened to it. He typically avoided the dense, atonal techniques of many of his contemporary composers and his work was often distinguished by its distinctive use of percussion. Sculthorpe was born and raised in Launceston, Tasmania and his mother, Edna, was passionate about English literature and was the first woman to hold a drivers licence in Tasmania, his father, Joshua, loved fishing and nature. He was educated at the Launceston Church Grammar School and he began writing music at the age of seven or eight, after having his first piano lesson, continuing in secret when his piano teacher punished him for this activity. By the age of 14, he had decided to make a career of music, despite many encouraging him to different fields. In his early teens he attempted to learn composition through studying Ernst Kreneks Studies in Counterpoint – a pretty dreadful book as he described it. He studied at the Melbourne Conservatorium of Music from 1946 to 1950, unable to make any money as a composer, he went into business, running a hunting, shooting and fishing store in Launceston with his brother Roger. His Piano Sonatina was performed at the ISCM Festival in Baden-Baden in 1955 and he won a scholarship to study at Wadham College, Oxford, studying under Egon Wellesz. Through Wellesz he met Wilfrid Mellers, whose wide literary interests included many Australian writers, and this led directly to the composition of Irkanda II. His song-cycle Sun, based on three Lawrence poems, was dedicated to Mellers and these works were later withdrawn, but Lawrences words returned in a revised version of Irkanda IV and in The Fifth Continent. He left Wadham before completing his doctorate because his father was gravely ill and he wrote his first mature composition, Irkanda IV, in his fathers memory. Shortly afterwards, he made the acquaintance of the painter Russell Drysdale, who had recently lost his son to suicide, shortly afterwards, Drysdales wife Bonnie, who had introduced him to Sculthorpe, also took her own life. His String Quartet No.6 was dedicated to Bonnie Drysdales memory and his Piano Sonata was dedicated to Russell Drysdale, who used Lake Callabonna in South Australia as the backdrop to some of his paintings. He was distantly related to Fanny Cochrane Smith, a Tasmanian Aboriginal whose wax cylinder recordings of songs are the only recordings of any of Tasmanias indigenous languages. Her daughter Gladys married Sculthorpes great-grandfathers nephew, in 1963 he became a lecturer at the University of Sydney, and remained there more or less ever after, where he was an emeritus professor. In the mid-1960s he was composer in residence at Yale University, in 1965 he wrote Sun Music I for the Sydney Symphony Orchestras first overseas tour, on a commission from Sir Bernard Heinze, who asked for something without rhythm, harmony or melody
34.
Ralph Vaughan Williams
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Ralph Vaughan Williams OM was an English composer. His works include operas, ballets, chamber music, secular and religious pieces and orchestral compositions including nine symphonies. Strongly influenced by Tudor music and English folk-song, his output marked a break in British music from its German-dominated style of the 19th century. Vaughan Williams was born to a family with strong moral views. Throughout his life he sought to be of service to his fellow citizens and he wrote many works for amateur and student performance. He was musically a late developer, not finding his voice until his late thirties. Vaughan Williams is among the best-known British symphonists, noted for his wide range of moods, from stormy and impassioned to tranquil. Among the most familiar of his concert works are Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis. His vocal works include hymns, folk-song arrangements and large-scale choral pieces and he wrote eight works for stage performance between 1919 and 1951. Although none of his operas became popular repertoire pieces, his ballet Job, Two episodes made notably deep impressions in Vaughan Williamss personal life. The First World War, in which he served in the army, had an emotional effect. Twenty years later, though in his sixties and devotedly married, he was reinvigorated by an affair with a much younger woman. He went on composing through his seventies and eighties, producing his last symphony months before his death at the age of eighty-five. His works have continued to be a staple of the British concert repertoire, Vaughan Williams was born at Down Ampney, Gloucestershire, the third child and younger son of the vicar, the Reverend Arthur Vaughan Williams and his wife, Margaret, née Wedgwood. His paternal forebears were of mixed English and Welsh descent, many of them went into the law or the Church, the judges Sir Edward and Sir Roland Vaughan Williams were respectively Arthurs father and brother. Margaret Vaughan Williams was a great-granddaughter of Josiah Wedgwood and niece of Charles Darwin, Arthur Vaughan Williams died suddenly in February 1875, and his widow took the children to live in her family home, Leith Hill Place, Wotton, Surrey. The children were under the care of a nurse, Sara Wager, such views were consistent with the progressive-minded tradition of both sides of the family. When the young Vaughan Williams asked his mother about Darwins controversial book On the Origin of Species, she answered, great Uncle Charles thinks it took longer, but we need not worry about it, for it is equally wonderful either way
35.
Laurence Binyon
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Robert Laurence Binyon, CH was an English poet, dramatist and art scholar. His most famous work, For the Fallen, is known for being used in Remembrance Sunday services. Laurence Binyon was born in Lancaster, Lancashire, England and his parents were Frederick Binyon and Mary Dockray. Marys father, Robert Benson Dockray, was the engineer of the London. Binyon studied at St Pauls School, London, then he read Classics at Trinity College, Oxford, where he won the Newdigate Prize for poetry in 1891. Immediately after graduating in 1893, Binyon started working for the Department of Printed Books of the British Museum, writing catalogues for the museum, in 1895 his first book, Dutch Etchers of the Seventeenth Century, was published. In that same year, Binyon moved into the Museums Department of Prints and Drawings, in 1909, Binyon became its Assistant Keeper, and in 1913 he was made the Keeper of the new Sub-Department of Oriental Prints and Drawings. In 1904 he married historian Cicely Margaret Powell, and the couple had three daughters, during those years, Binyon belonged to a circle of artists, as a regular patron of the Wiener Cafe of London. His fellow intellectuals there were Ezra Pound, Sir William Rothenstein, Walter Sickert, Charles Ricketts, Lucien Pissarro and Edmund Dulac. Binyons reputation before the war was such that, on the death of the Poet Laureate Alfred Austin in 1913, Binyon was among the names mentioned in the press as his likely successor. Moved by the opening of the Great War and the high number of casualties of the British Expeditionary Force, in 1914 Laurence Binyon wrote his For the Fallen. At the time, he was visiting the cliffs on the north Cornwall coast, the piece was published by The Times newspaper in September, when public feeling was affected by the recent Battle of Marne. The The Ode of Remembrance has thus been claimed as a tribute to all casualties of war and they went with songs to the battle, they were young. Straight of limb, true of eyes, steady and aglow and they were staunch to the end against odds uncounted, They fell with their faces to the foe. They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old, Age shall not weary them, at the going down of the sun and in the morning, We will remember them. He returned in the summer of 1916 and took care of soldiers taken in from the Verdun battlefield and he wrote about his experiences in For Dauntless France and his poems, Fetching the Wounded and The Distant Guns, were inspired by his hospital service in Arc-en-Barrois. Artists Rifles, a CD audiobook published in 2004, includes a reading of For the Fallen by Binyon himself, the recording itself is undated and appeared on a 78 rpm disc issued in Japan. Other Great War poets heard on the CD include Siegfried Sassoon, Edmund Blunden, Robert Graves, David Jones, after the war, he returned to the British Museum and wrote numerous books on art, in particular on William Blake, Persian art, and Japanese art
36.
Ode of Remembrance
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The Ode of Remembrance is an ode taken from Laurence Binyons poem, For the Fallen, which was first published in The Times in September 1914. Laurence Binyon wrote For the Fallen, which has seven stanzas, a stone plaque was erected at the spot in 2001 to commemorate the fact. A quotation appears on the Calgary Soldiers Memorial, a plaque on a statue dedicated to the fallen in La Valletta, Malta, is also inscribed with these words. They went with songs to the battle, they were young, straight of limb, true of eye, steady and aglow. They were staunch to the end against odds uncounted, They fell with their faces to the foe and they shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old, Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn. At the going down of the sun and in the morning and they mingle not with their laughing comrades again, They sit no more at familiar tables of home, They have no lot in our labour of the day-time, They sleep beyond Englands foam. The second line of the stanza, Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn, draws upon Enobarbus description of Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra, Age cannot wither her. There has been debate as to whether the line Age shall not weary them. Contemn means to treat with contempt, when the poem was first printed in The Times on 21 September 1914 the word condemn was used. This word was used in the anthology The Winnowing Fan. If the original publication had contained a misprint, Binyon would have had the chance to make amendments, the issue of which word was meant seems to have arisen only in Australia, with little debate in other Commonwealth countries that mark Remembrance Day. The Ode of Remembrance is regularly recited at memorial services held on days commemorating World War I, such as ANZAC Day, Remembrance Day, and Remembrance Sunday. In Australias Returned and Services Leagues, and in New Zealands numerous RSAs, in Australia and New Zealand it is also part of the Dawn service at 4.28 a. m. Recitations of the Ode of Remembrance are often followed by a playing of the Last Post, in Canadian remembrance services, a French translation is often used along with or instead of the English ode. The line Lest we forget, taken from Kiplings poem Recessional, is added as if were part of the ode and repeated in response by those listening. Several Boer War memorials are inscribed with the phrase showing its use pre WWI, in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Singapore, the final line of the ode, We will remember them, is repeated in response. In Canada, the stanza of the above extract has become known as the Act of Remembrance. The ode is read at the Menin Gate, every evening at 8 p. m. after the first part of the Last Post
37.
Robert Graves
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Robert von Ranke Graves was an English poet, novelist, critic and classicist. He produced more than 140 works, Irish literature deeply affected Graves White Goddess theories, specifically the genre aisling. He earned his living from writing, particularly historical novels such as I, Claudius, King Jesus, The Golden Fleece. He also was a prominent translator of Classical Latin and Ancient Greek texts, his versions of The Twelve Caesars and The Golden Ass remain popular, for their clarity, Graves was awarded the 1934 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for both I, Claudius and Claudius the God. Graves was born into a family in Wimbledon, then part of Surrey. Gravess mother was from a recently ennobled German family, the eldest daughter of Heinrich von Ranke, a professor of medicine at the University of Munich and she was also a greatniece of the German historian Leopold von Ranke. At school, Graves was enrolled as Robert von Ranke Graves and in Germany his books are published under that name but before and during the First World War, the name caused him difficulties. In August 1916 an officer who disliked him spread the rumour that he was a spy, the problem resurfaced in a minor way in the Second World War, when a suspicious rural policeman blocked his appointment to the Special Constabulary. Gravess eldest half-brother, Philip Perceval Graves, achieved note as a journalist and his brother, Charles Patrick Graves, was a writer. Among the masters his chief influence was George Mallory, who introduced him to contemporary literature, in his final year at Charterhouse, he won a classical exhibition to St Johns College, Oxford but did not take his place there until after the war. At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Graves enlisted almost immediately and he published his first volume of poems, Over the Brazier, in 1916. He developed a reputation as a war poet and was one of the first to write realistic poems about experience of frontline conflict. In later years, he omitted his war poems from his collections, at the Battle of the Somme, he was so badly wounded by a shell-fragment through the lung that he was expected to die and was officially reported as having died of wounds. He gradually recovered and, apart from a spell back in France. One of Gravess friends at this time was the poet Siegfried Sassoon, in 1917, Sassoon rebelled against the conduct of the war by making a public antiwar statement. Graves feared Sassoon could face a court martial and intervened with the authorities, persuading them that Sassoon was suffering from shell shock. As a result, Sassoon was sent to Craiglockhart, a hospital in Edinburgh. Graves also suffered shell shock, or neurasthenia as it was then called, but he was never hospitalised for it, I thought of going back to France
38.
Ford Madox Ford
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Ford is now remembered for his novels The Good Soldier, the Parades End tetralogy and The Fifth Queen trilogy. Ford was born in Wimbledon to Catherine Madox Brown and Francis Hueffer, Fords father, who became music critic for The Times, was German and his mother English. His paternal grandfather Johann Hermann Hüffer was first to publish Westphalian poet, Ford used the name of Ford Madox Hueffer, but in 1919 he changed it to Ford Madox Ford in honour of his grandfather, the Pre-Raphaelite painter Ford Madox Brown, whose biography he had written. In 1889, after the death of his father, Ford, Ford graduated from the University College School in London, but never attended university. In 1894, Ford eloped with his school girlfriend Elsie Martindale, the couple were married in Gloucester and moved to Bonnington. In 1901, the moved to Winchelsea. The couple had two daughters, Christina and Katharine, Fords neighbors in Winchelsea included the authors Henry James and H. G. Wells. In 1904, Ford suffered a breakdown due to financial and marital problems. He went to Germany to spend time with family there and undergo cure treatments, between 1918 and 1927 he lived with Stella Bowen, an Australian artist twenty years his junior. In 1920, Ford and Bowen had a daughter, Julia Madox Ford, in the summer of 1927, The New York Times reported that Ford had converted a mill building in Avignon, France into a home and workshop that he called Le Vieux Moulin. The article implied that Ford was reunited with his wife at this point, Ford spent the last years of his life teaching at Olivet College in Olivet, Michigan. Ford died in Deauville, France, at the age of 65, one of Fords most famous works is the novel The Good Soldier. Set just before World War I, The Good Soldier chronicles the tragic lives of two perfect couples, one British and one American, using intricate flashbacks. In the Dedicatory Letter to Stella Ford” that prefaces the novel, Ford reports that a friend pronounced The Good Soldier “the finest French novel in the English language. ”Ford pronounced himself a Tory mad about historic continuity and believed the novelists function was to serve as the historian of his own time. Ford was involved in British war propaganda after the beginning of World War I. He worked for the War Propaganda Bureau, managed by C. F. G. Masterman, along with Arnold Bennett, G. K. Chesterton, John Galsworthy, Hilaire Belloc and Gilbert Murray. After writing the two books, Ford enlisted at 41 years of age into the Welch Regiment of the British Army on 30 July 1915. Fords combat experiences and his previous propaganda activities inspired his tetralogy Parades End, set in England and on the Western Front before, during, Ford wrote dozens of novels as well as essays, poetry, memoirs and literary criticism
39.
Lee Kernaghan
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Lee Kernaghan OAM is an Australian country music singer, songwriter, musician, guitarist. He was the 2008 Australian of the Year, in recognition for his support of rural and regional Australia, Lee Kernaghans Pass The Hat Around Australia tours, Spirit Of The Bush drought relief concerts & Farmhand initiative have raised millions of dollars for country Australia. The son of country singer and truck driver Ray Kernaghan, Lee Kernaghan was born in the Victorian town of Corryong. In 1986 Kernaghan travelled to the United States with to represent Australia at the Nashville ‘Fan Fair’ country music festival. In 1993 his debut solo album The Outback Club won an ARIA award for Best Country Album, Kernaghan has made a huge impact on country music in Australia, creating a new musical landscape for the genre when he burst onto the scene. To many people, Lee represents the spirit and values of contemporary rural Australia and his love of the Australian way of life features in his music, and he is a passionate supporter of Australia’s rural culture. These letters were held in the vaults at the AWM, upon release, Spirit Of The Anzacs struck a chord with the Australian people. The album not only went Platinum within 3 weeks but it dominated the ARIA all genre chart by holding the #1 position for four weeks in a row. Making it the highest selling Australian album for 2015,2015 also saw the release of Kernaghan’s first book – The Boy From The Bush, These Are My Songs, These Are My Stories. Kernaghan closed out 2015 with a national tour called The Songs And The Stories In Concert. Fittingly, the tour covered elements of the book and also features the songs from Spirit Of The Anzacs and he is the father of two sons and is an avid Magic, the Gathering player. He has won four ARIA Awards and three APRA Awards, and been nominated in award categories numerous times, as of 2015, Kernaghan has had 33 #1 hits on the Australian Country Charts, and sold over two million albums. Lee was named Hit Maker of the Decade twice, in 2001 and 2011 and this title goes to the country artist from anywhere in the world who achieves the most amount of hits in the Australian market over the decade. He has sold two million albums, and won 36 Golden Guitars at the Country Music Awards of Australia. Kernaghan was the recipient of the Outstanding Achievement Award at the 2015 ARIA Awards and his album Spirit Of The Anzacs was the highest selling Australian Album of 2015 Kernaghan received the Order of Australia Medal in 2004. He was presented with the award by Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and he was inducted into the Roll of Renown during the 2015 Tamworth Country Music Festival and has won numerous awards at the Country Music Awards of Australia. During July 2015 Kernaghans music was played at rallies in Australia. He responded that the use of his work should be consistent with – and respectful of, laid down their lives for the freedoms we have today
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Spirit of the Anzacs (album)
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Spirit of the Anzacs is a studio album by Australian country singer Lee Kernaghan. It was released digitally and physically in Australia on March 13,2015 through ABC Music, a limited deluxe edition features four additional tracks plus a 64-page booklet that includes many of the letters, stories and images behind the songs. It is Kernaghans first number one album in Australia and has been certified Platinum by ARIA,2015 marks the 100th anniversary of the ANZACs landing of Australian and New Zealand soldiers at Gallipoli during World War I. In honour of this occasion, former Australian of the Year Kernaghan teamed up with a host of local artists. The album was recorded at Rancom Street Studio in Sydney and Kernaghan worked with long-time producer,2 in Australia behind Kendrick Lamars To Pimp a Butterfly before moving to no.1 the next week. It is Kernaghans first no.1 album and his first to climb in the week on the charts. The album sold 7,421 in its first week and 14,005 in its second week, the album spent four weeks at No.1. However, in April 2015 the tour was canceled due to poor ticket sales. Thompson would act as narrator and read letters from the Australian War Memorial archives and it was to be directed by Ignatius Jones, and presented by Chugg Entertainment and Stephen White Productions. If the tour had commenced, $3 from every ticket sold would have donated to the Soldier On. List of number-one albums of 2015 Lee Kernaghan Spirit Of The Anzacs radio interview on Ben Sorensens REAL Country
