1.
Piloti
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Pilotis, or piers, are supports such as columns, pillars, or stilts that lift a building above ground or water. In modern architecture, pilotis are ground-level supporting columns, a prime example is Le Corbusiers Villa Savoye in Poissy, France. Another is Patrick Gwynnes The Homewood in Surrey, England, beyond their support function, the pilotis raise the architectural volume, lighten it and free a space for circulation under the construction. They refine a buildings connectivity with the land by allowing for parking, garden or driveway below while allowing a sense of floating, in hurricane-prone areas, pilotis may be used to raise the inhabited space of a building above typical storm surge levels. Le Corbusier used them in a variety of forms from slender posts to the massive brutalist look of the Marseilles Housing Unit with a range of bases, inclusions and this was part of Le Corbusiers idea of machine-like efficiency where land, people and buildings would work together optimally
2.
Dolmen
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A dolmen is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more vertical megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone, although there are also more complex variants. Most date from the early Neolithic, Dolmens were typically covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus. In many instances, that covering has weathered away, leaving only the skeleton of the burial mound intact. It remains unclear when, why, and by whom the earliest dolmens were made, the oldest known dolmens are in Western Europe, where they were set in place around 7,000 years ago. Archaeologists still do not know who erected these dolmens, which makes it difficult to know why they did it and they are generally all regarded as tombs or burial chambers, despite the absence of clear evidence for this. Human remains, sometimes accompanied by artefacts, have found in or close to the dolmens which could be scientifically dated using radiocarbon dating. However, it has been impossible to prove that these date from the time when the stones were originally set in place. The word dolmen has a confused history, the word entered archaeology when Théophile Corret de la Tour dAuvergne used it to describe megalithic tombs in his Origines gauloises using the spelling dolmin. The name was derived from a Breton language term meaning stone table but doubt has been cast on this. Nonetheless it has now replaced cromlech as the usual English term in archaeology, granja is used in Portugal, Galicia, and Spain. The rarer forms anta and ganda also appear, in the Basque Country, they are attributed to the jentilak, a race of giants. The etymology of the German, Hünenbett, Hünengrab and Dutch, of other Celtic languages, Welsh, cromlech was borrowed into English and quoit is commonly used in English in Cornwall. Great dolmen Passage grave Polygonal dolmen Rectangular, enlarged or extended dolmen Simple dolmen Korean dolmens exhibit a distinct from the Atlantic European dolmen. The largest concentration of dolmens in the world is found on the Korean Peninsula, with an estimated 35,000 dolmens, Korea alone accounts for nearly 40% of the world’s total. Three specific UNESCO World Heritage sites at Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa by themselves account for over 1,000 dolmens, the Korean word for dolmen is goindol supported stone. Serious studies of the Korean megalithic monuments were not undertaken until relatively recently, after 1945, new research is being conducted by Korean scholars. In 1981 a curator of National Museum of Korea, Gongil Ji, the boundary between them falls at the Bukhan River although examples of both types are found on either side. Korean dolmens can also be divided into three types, the table type, the go-table type and the unsupported capstone type
3.
Bevaix boat
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The Bevaix boat is a 1st-century Gallo-Roman wreck from the Bay of Bevaix, Lake Neuchatel, Switzerland. The remains of the ship, and a reconstruction, are on display at the Laténium archeology museum. The Bevaix boat was built from oak planks and measured 19.40 metres in length. It is characterized by a bottom and the complete absence of a keel or any central plank. Its four principle bottom planks were arranged one besides the other in a way that the first plank forms the stern, the beam of the boat was determined by the addition of L-shaped bilge strakes. These strakes allowed a transition between the flat bottom and the sides of the boat. The spaces left between the bilge strakes and the four large bottom planks were filled by two planks with an irregular outline, the purpose of these last planks was to obtain appropriate symmetry of the bottom. The upper strakes, those above the bilge strake, did not survive, however, evidence of caulking, found on the upper edges of the bilge strakes clearly suggests that the sides had been heightened by at least one or two strakes. This, in turn, led to estimates suggesting that the height of the boat was about 0.80 to 0.90 metres. Twenty-two pairs of frames, also made of oak, were arranged head to tail to give almost vertical sides. All the pairs consisted of two timbers, each made of a single naturally bent timber which was cut from a tree junction, in every case, frames were always installed in pairs covering the whole length of the bottom, but alternatively supporting only one side of the hull. The only exception is a pair, which was a single piece of oak with a mortise cut in the center to function as a mast-step. The framing was fastened to the planks with some 300 iron nails driven from inside and they passed first through the frame, and then the strakes. Any projecting end was clenched at the right angle, the Bevaix boat presents a very distinctive caulking technique, which clearly differentiated it from similar finds of this period from other parts of Europe. It was observed that caulking was consistently present between all the planks of the boat, first, a string was inserted into the seam. Next, this string was covered by layer of mosses, which in turn was held by a wooden lath that was secured with thousands of little caulking nails, inserted into the seams from the outside. The Gallo-Roman boat from the Bay of Bevaix, Lake Neuchatel, Switzerland, IJNA4, 123-141 Arnold, navigation sur le Lac Neuchatel, une esquisse a travers le temp, Helvetia Archaeologica Arnold, B.1979. Gallo-Roman boat finds in Switzerland, CBA Research Report 24, 31-5 Gardiner, R.1996
4.
Bevaix
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Bevaix is a municipality in the district of Boudry in the canton of Neuchâtel in Switzerland. Bevaix is first mentioned in 998 as in villa Bevacensi, in 1139 it was mentioned as Betuaci. The village of Bevaix is sited in front of a plateau, near Lake Neuchâtel. Discovery nearby of several dugout canoes and boats illuminated techniques of shipbuilding in Gallo-Roman times, the village was predominantly agricultural until the building of a railway station in 1860, and the drainage of the surrounding wetlands around 1900, when the area became increasingly residential. Bevaix has an area, as of 2009, of 10.8 square kilometers, of this area,3.68 km2 or 34. 1% is used for agricultural purposes, while 5.08 km2 or 47. 1% is forested. Of the rest of the land,1.97 km2 or 18. 3% is settled and 0.08 km2 or 0. 7% is unproductive land. Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 10. 2% and transportation infrastructure made up 4. 3%. Of the agricultural land,18. 7% is used for growing crops and 8. 2% is pastures, the municipality is located in the Boudry district, on a small, marshy plateau near Lake Neuchâtel. The proposed merger of the municipalities of Bevaix, Boudry and Cortaillod was rejected by the residents. The blazon of the coat of arms is Impalled, Azure a Fish haurient Argent and a Bar Or, and Gules. Bevaix has a population of 3,817, as of 2008,16. 0% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has changed at a rate of 7. 8% and it has changed at a rate of 4. 2% due to migration and at a rate of 1. 5% due to births and deaths. Most of the population speaks French as their first language, German is the second most common, there are 5 people who speak Romansh. As of 2008, the population was 50. 0% male and 50. 0% female, the population was made up of 1,583 Swiss men and 335 non-Swiss men. There were 1,649 Swiss women and 269 non-Swiss women, of the population in the municipality,767 or about 21. 3% were born in Bevaix and lived there in 2000. There were 1,147 or 31. 8% who were born in the canton, while 836 or 23. 2% were born somewhere else in Switzerland. As of 2000, children and teenagers make up 25% of the population, while adults make up 59. 7%, as of 2000, there were 1,365 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 1,828 married individuals,218 widows or widowers and 192 individuals who are divorced, as of 2000, there were 1,443 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.4 persons per household
5.
Magdalenian
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The Magdalenian refers to one of the later cultures of the Upper Paleolithic in western Europe, dating from around 17,000 to 12,000 years ago. It is named after the site of La Madeleine, a rock shelter located in the Vézère valley, commune of Tursac. The culture was geographically widespread, and later Magdalenian sites have found from Portugal in the west to Poland in the east. It is the epoch of Gabriel de Mortillets cave chronology system. The Magdalenian epoch was a one, represented by numerous stations, whose contents show progress in the arts. It was characterized by a cold and dry climate, the existence of humans in association with the reindeer, the use of bone and ivory for various implements, already begun in the preceding Solutrian epoch, was much increased, and the period is essentially a Bone age. The bone instruments are varied, spear-points, harpoon-heads, borers, hooks. Most remarkable is the evidence La Madeleine affords of prehistoric art, numbers of bones, reindeer antlers and animal teeth were found, with rude pictures, carved or etched on them, of seals, fishes, reindeer, mammoths and other creatures. The man is naked which, together with the snake, suggests a warm climate, the fauna of the Madelenian epoch seems, indeed, to have included tigers and other tropical species side by side with reindeer, blue foxes, Arctic hares and other polar creatures. Madelenian humans appears to have been of low stature, dolichocephalic, with low retreating forehead, the culture spans approximatively from 17,000 to 12,000 BP, toward the end of the last ice age. The Magdalenian tool culture is characterised by regular blade industries struck from carinated cores, typologically, the Magdalenian is divided into six phases which are generally agreed to have chronological significance. Similarly, finds from the forest of Beauregard near Paris often have been suggested as belonging to the earliest Magdalenian, the earliest Magdalenian sites are all found in France. The Epigravettian is a similar culture appearing at the time in Italy, the Balkans, Moldavia, Romania. The later phases of the Magdalenian are also synonymous with the human re-settlement of north-western Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum during the Late Glacial Maximum, research in Switzerland, southern Germany, and Belgium has provided AMS radiocarbon dating to support this. Being hunter gatherers, Magdalenians did not simply re-settle permanently in north-west Europe, however, as they often followed herds, by the end of the Magdalenian, the lithic technology shows a pronounced trend toward increased microlithisation. The bone harpoons and points have the most distinctive chronological markers within the typological sequence, as well as flint tools, the Magdalenians are best known for their elaborate worked bone, antler, and ivory that served both functional and aesthetic purposes, including perforated batons. Cave sites such as the world famous Lascaux contain the best known examples of Magdalenian cave art, in northern Spain and south west France this tool culture was superseded by the Azilian culture. In northern Europe a slightly different situation exists, with different variants of the Tjongerian techno-complex following it
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
