1.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
2.
Constitution of Brazil
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The Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil is the supreme law of Brazil. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of Brazil and it provides the framework for the organization of the Brazilian government and for the relationship of the federal government to the states, to citizens, and to all people within Brazil. The current Brazilian Constitution is the seventh enacted since the independence in 1822. It was promulgated on October 5,1988 after a process in which it was written from scratch. Among the new constitutional guarantees are the errand of injunction and the habeas data and it also anticipated the existence of a Consumers Defence Code, of a Childrens and Youth Code and of a new Civil Code. It was the first constitution to demand punishment for breaches of civil liberties. Consequently, Brazil later approved a law making the propagation of prejudice against any minority or ethnic group an unbailable crime and this law provided legal remedy against those who spread hate speech or those who do not treat all citizens equally. This second aspect helped disabled people to have a percentage of jobs in the public service and large companies. The Constitution also established many forms of popular participation besides regular voting, such as plebiscite, referendum. The mention of God in the preamble of the Constitution was opposed by most leftists as incompatible with freedom of religion because it does not recognise the rights of polytheists or atheists. The preamble to the Federal Constitution is an introductory statement that sets out the guiding purpose. The text reads, Title 1 is devoted to the principles of the Republic. This section comprises the base of the Republic, stating the States, the cities and it also establishes three independent, harmonic branches and lists the nationss main goals. One of the most important excerpts from this title is in Article 1, single paragraph, stating and this chapter ensures basic rights to all citizens and aliens, prohibits capital punishment, defines citizenship requirements, political rights, among other regulations. Title 3 regulates the State Organization and this title establishes Brasília as the Nations capital, the rights and duties for the Union, the States and the Cities, as well rules for the public staff. Title 4 disposes about the branches of government and this chapter describes the attributes for every government branch, and the rules for Amendment to the Constitution as well. Title 5 regulates the Defense of the State and its Democratic Institutions and this title rules the deployment of the armed forces, the national security baselines, and declaration of state of siege. Title 6 comprises the Taxation and the nations Budget, such title disposes on tax distribution among the Union components and their competencies, and the Nations budget
3.
Federal Police of Brazil
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The Federal Police of Brazil, in Portuguese Polícia Federal, is one of Brazils three federal police forces. It is a separate force from Brazils other two federal police forces, the Federal Highway Police and the Federal Railroad/Railway Police. From 1944 to 1967 it was called the Federal Department for Public Security and it is subordinate to the federal Ministry of Justice. The idea was create a police with jurisdiction in the whole country, despite its name change, initially the DFSP only served in the Federal District, but acted at the national level at the maritime police. With the move of the Federal Capital in 1960, the DFSP moved to Brasília, also providing Guanabara State their public security services, due to the shortage of staff, the DFSP had to be restructured, merging its staff with another local security agency from Brasila. From November 16,1964, day edition of the Law No.4483, also in 1967, the new Brazilian Constitution changed the agency name to Departamento de Policia Federal through art.210 of Decree-Law No.200 of February 25,1967. As a federal agency, the mainly government idea, was to mold the Federal Police with the shape. Accordingly, in the year of 1996, all careers of the Federal Police turned to bachelors degree, integration with the other federal and state government agencies on a routine basis occur through formal requests, but eventually there is a high level of coordination. The Director-General provides accounting and technical support agencies in Brasília, entrusted with the tasks of planning, coordination, for the operational activities, the PF has 27 regional superintendents,95 Federal Police offices,12 border outposts,12 maritime bases and 2 bases on inland waterways. The Federal Police Commissioners are who command investigations, request search and arrest warrants, the field investigations and operational services are performed by the Federal Agents. The agency also had Forensic specialists, Notary Agents and fingerprints specialists, a bachelors degree is required for candidates to apply for any position in Federal Police. Commissioners must have a Law degree, No previous police experience is required for any jobs. Candidates applying for a position as Federal Agent, Notary Agent, candidates applying for Forensics specialists should have specific degrees, depending on their area of expertise, such as Civil Engineering, Veterinary, Accounting and Chemistry degrees. Admission tests for the Federal Police have one of the highest candidates per spot ratio in the Country, to do so, its members were trained in technical and tactical units of the Special Armed Forces in Brazil and abroad – in special units in the U. S. Today, this force for armed action plays a large range of operations. To belong to the COT the applicant must be in the ranks of the Federal Police, the headquarters of the COT is in Brasília, in an area of 40 thousand square meters, located in Police Sector South, which sends players on missions to Brazil. The maritime policing has the latest equipment, recently acquired by the Brazilian government in order to meet the country to the ISPS Code standards. In addition to the patrolling, surveillance is carried out in the international traffic in dozens of ships docking
4.
Federal Highway Police
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The title patrolman given to the members was abolished in 1998, replaced by the title police. Members of the PRF are divided into four classes, Third, Second, First, since 2009, entry into the PRF already required a university education degree recognized by the Ministry of Education. Condition now described in Law 9,654, the Federal Highway Police was created in 1928 during the administration of President Washington Luís Pereira de Sousa, under the name Roadway Police. It is present in all units of the federation and is managed by the Federal Highway Police Department, the states are divided into administrative units known as regions. A region can be a superintendency, in the case of larger states, some regions encompass more than one Brazilian state. Regions are divided into delegations, which coordinate the patrol posts, currently the PRF has over four hundred patrol posts in the most diverse Brazilian municipalities, providing a capillarity to the structure of the agency that few national institutions possess. Despite the uniformed work, the PRF is not a military institution, the entire hierarchy is based on the functions of supervision, which can be occupied by any police officer, for example a special agent may be supervisor of an inspector. The PRF has one of the most innovative systems to combat vehicular theft, after reporting a theft, the vehicles owner, stuck in the bureaucratic system, must wait 24 hours in most cases for the report to be entered into the vehicular theft system. Sometimes this information takes over 24 hours to enter the Integrated Traffic System, therefore, if the thief were to be stopped before this point, there would be no record of a stolen vehicle and the thief would not be prosecuted. To eliminate this deficiency, the Federal Highway Police Department created the Alert System, the theft victim enters his or her vehicles license plate number and all PRF patrol posts will be immediately notified. The system is not well known, as it has had little coverage by the press. The ability to interact with the PRF becomes instantaneous and free of bureaucracy and this Alert System was created by PRF members with informatics degrees, who formed a programs development center to facilitate and improve the interactivity between police officers and vehicle owners. Registry of robbery in Alert System The Federal Highway Police Department makes available a statistical survey updated daily, the press, as well as the public, can access the registry of apprehension of drugs and recovery of stolen vehicles. Through this system, checking the information available on one day and comparing it to what is published on the next day, any federal highway police officer has access to an accident reported in this system, even if it was in another region. This system allows accidents of national relevance to be investigated by the General Command in Brasília in real time, the information is not only instantaneous for commanders, but also for any PRF officer who would like to consult this information. The information in the PRFs data network not only circulates freely among regions and agents, now, not only PRF officers can view and print the BATs, but also vehicle owners, insurance companies, drivers, and victims. Anyone involved in the accident can print the bulletin, free of charge, directly from the PRFs website, the PRF presented sufficient argument to the Brazilian Army for that caliber to be allowed for PRF use. The 38 caliber, lacking in stopping power, was retired by the Federal Highway Police and this means that for every 100 people hit by this caliber,92 will become unable to continue fighting with only one shot of the firearm
5.
Military Police (Brazil)
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Military Police are a type of preventive state police in every state of Brazil. Deployed solely to act as a deterrent against the commission of crime, detective work, forensics and prosecutions are undertaken by a states Civil Police. In 1999 the National Public Security Force was created to handle any significant security crisis, the unit, which is composed of the most qualified Military Police personnel from all federal states, can only be deployed through the express command of a state governor. All state Military Police and Military Firefighters Corps are classed as reserve troops, in time of war the military police forces can be pressed into federal service. The first militarized police in Portugal was the Royal Police Guard of Lisbon, established in 1801, with the abdication of Emperor Pedro I in 1831, the Regency held reformulations on the Brazilian Armed Forces. The Royal Guard Police of Rio de Janeiro was extinct, and replaced by the Municipal Guard Corps of Volunteers, the same law allowed each province to establish its own Guard of Volunteers. In 1834 Pedro I died in Portugal and this reduced the fear in Brazil of a reunification of the kingdoms, the Guard of Volunteers were then transformed into Province Police Corps, with professional troops. The Police Corps were created with the structure as the Army. With the Proclamation of the Republic, Brazil adopted a constitution based on the United States one, the Corps of Police began to be administered by the states and became smaller regional armies, with infantry, cavalry, artillery, and later, even with air forces. This dangerous situation to the national security remained until the end of World War II, after World War II, the Military Police assumed the roles of a more traditional police force, similar to a gendarmerie subject to the states. They sought a rapprochement with the society, slowly developing the configuration it currently possesses. The Secretariat for Public Security supervises all state police activities, the SSPs are subordinate to the National Council of Public Security. According to Article 144 of the constitution, the function of the Military Polices is to serve as a conspicuous police force. The Military Police of any state are organized as a force and have a military-based rank structure. Training is weighted more heavily toward police matters, but counterinsurgency training is also included, arms and equipment of state forces include machine guns and armored cars, in addition to other items generally associated with police. Between 1969 and 1985, the Ministry of Army has controlled the Military Police during periods of declared national emergency, before 1930 these forces were under individual state control, and known as the governors armies. They sometimes outnumbered regular troops in many states, in 1932, after Constitutionalist Revolution in São Paulo, the Federal Army took steps to reverse this situation. In 1964 most Military Police members were on the side of the successful conspirators, the commandant of a states Military Police is usually a Colonel
6.
Civil Police (Brazil)
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In Brazil, the Civil Police is the name of the investigative state police forces. The Civil Polices of Brazil had origin in the General Intendancy of Police, with the transference of the Portuguese Royal Family to Brazil in 1808, the Police started to be regulated, have structure and important social role. The Police General Intendancy of the Court and the State of Brazil was created by charter of D, the first Police General Superintendent was Councilor Paulo Fernandes Viana who organized the police administration in Rio de Janeiro city as it used to be in Lisbon. The Police General Intendancy went through the phase of the Brazilian politic emancipation movement which culminated on September 7,1822. Civil Police had been developing for all country during the governments Imperial. Today, the existence of the Civil Police and its attributions elapse of article 144, IV and 144 § 4°. 27 Civil Polices in Brazil, one for each State of the federacy exist and they are directed by a Head of Police, chosen amongst the Commission agents of Police of career. The services of judiciary police are given through the Police stations of Police, the function of Judiciary Police is exercised through the police inquiry, included in the Brazilian prosecution law in order to investigate the penal infractions and their responsibility. When concluded the inquiry is sent to the criminal judge
7.
Municipal Guards
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Municipal Guards, also called the Municipal Civil Guards, are the security forces of municipalities of Brazil. Created in the time of the Empire of Brazil, the guardsmen are subordinated to the municipality mayors and their patrols are called rondas and there are 1,200 municipalities with Municipal Guards with more than 120,000 operatives according with the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. They are treated as officers by the former president of the IPA Brazilian section. Thus, even though it has divergences on the possibility the Municipal Guards actions and these organizations diverge sufficiently between one and another city. The Municipal Civil Guard is a type of civil police which can be created by specific laws of the chamber of the councilmen of the city as an instrument for public security in the city. Its components possess the same prerogatives and legal obligations as the municipalitys employees, in São Paulo they receive the name Metropolitan Civil Guard. The use of blue uniforms for the Guards has been stipulated. In Rio de Janeiro it is called only Municipal Guard. The Civil Guards are organizations of civil, not militarized corporations, Civil Guards of the cities with 20,000 inhabitants are authorized to use weapons transport. Firearms are only allowed with legal authorization, the transport is granted by the Federal government. These reforms were made clear in the Coup Détat on March 30,1964. The idea was to eliminate any resistance against the military regime, the Great Goal of the act was the elimination of the Republican State Civilian Guardas as well as the Republican Municipal Civilian Guardas. The deriving government of the Military Coup of 64, establishing control on the municipal and state uniformed police forces, extinguished the Civil Guards. They also succeeded in regulating the supervisory norms of the Army on the Military Police, there is a PEC which would change the Brazilian City/Municipal Guards constitutional status. The PEC was approved in the Brazilian Federal Senate and the Brazilian Federal House of Representatives Justice Commission
8.
Supreme Federal Court
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The Supreme Federal Court is the supreme court of Brazil, serving primarily as the Constitutional Court of the country. It is the highest court of law in Brazil for constitutional issues, on questions involving exclusively non-constitutional issues, regarding federal laws, the highest court is, by rule, the Superior Court of Justice. There are also other mechanisms for reaching the Court directly, such as the Declaratory Action of Constitutionality, the eleven judges of the court are called Ministers, although having no similarity with the government body of ministers. They are appointed by the President and approved by the Senate, there is a mandatory retirement age of 75. All judicial and administrative meetings of the Supreme Court have been broadcast live on television since 2002, the Court is open for the public to watch the meetings. The result was a court that is overstretched to the point of mutiny, the Supreme Court received 100,781 cases last year. The court was inaugurated during the era in 1808, the year that the royal family of Portugal arrived in Rio de Janeiro. It was originally called the House of Appeals of Brazil, the proclamation of the Brazilian Declaration of Independence and the adoption of the Imperial Constitution in 1824 preceded the establishment of the Supreme Court of Justice in 1829. With the first Constitution of the Republic, the current Court was established, two hundred members have served on the Court. The Constitution of 1891 decided that the Court would have 15 members, when Getúlio Vargas came into power, the number of members was reduced to 11. The number was changed to 16 in 1965, but returned to 11 in 1969 and has not changed since, of all Presidents of Brazil, only one never nominated a minister. The President and Vice-president of the Court are elected by their peers for a term of two years by secret ballot, the currently serving President is Carmen Lúcia. Re-election for a term is not allowed. By tradition, the members of the Court always elect as president the most senior minister of the Court that has not yet served as President, to avoid politicization of the Court. Therefore, it is known beforehand that the next Presidents of the Court, after Carmen Lúcia, will be, in order, Dias Toffoli and Luiz Fux. According to the convention, the Court selects as vice-president for a certain term the minister who, according to that tradition. Notes M. ^ Names in bold are the used in social denomination. Brazil federal courts Tribunal de Justiça List of Ministers of the Supreme Federal Court Official website Photo 360° of Supreme Federal Court - GUIABSB
9.
Law of Brazil
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Brazilian law derives from Portuguese, French, Italian and German Civil law and is based on statutes and, partly and more recently, súmula vinculante. The Federal Constitution, in force since October 21,1988, is the law of the country and is characterized by its rigid written form. The Constitution organizes the country as a Federative Republic, formed by the union of the states and municipalities. The 26 federate states have powers to adopt their own Constitutions and their autonomy, however, is limited by the principles established in the Federal Constitution. The powers of the Union, as defined within the Constitution, are the Executive, the Legislative and the Judiciary, which are independent and harmonious amongst themselves. The head of the Executive is the President of the Republic, the Judicial powers are vested upon the Federal Supreme Court, the Superior Court of Justice, the Regional Federal Courts and Federal Judges. There are also specialized courts to deal with electoral, labor, the Judiciary is organized into federal and state branches. Municipalities do not have their own systems, and must, therefore, resort to state or federal justice systems. The judicial system consists of several courts, the apex is the Federal Supreme Court and is the guardian of the Constitution. The Superior Court of Justice is responsible for upholding federal legislation, state-level justice in Brazil consists of state courts and judges. The legislative process begins, in terms, with a bill of law in one of the Congress Houses, either the Chamber of Deputies or the Federal Senate. Once the bill is voted on, it can either be rejected or forwarded to the other house, there the bill can be rejected, approved or amended to be then returned to the Originating House. Depending on the object of the bill, it is forwarded for the sanction or veto. If the bill is vetoed, the members of the National Congress of Brazil can override such veto, for centuries, as a Portuguese colony, Law enforced in Brazil was the Law of Portugal. Famous students of Brazilian colonial era, among them many revolutionaries, graduated from the important Portuguese University of Coimbra, located in Central Portugal. With the Independence of Brazil and the rise of the Empire, it was necessary to create a independent judiciary, in 1827, the first law schools in Brazil were founded, the Academies of Law and Social Sciences in São Paulo and Olinda. Brazilian law is derived from Portuguese civil law and is related to the Roman-Germanic legal tradition. This means that the system is based on statutes, although a recent constitutional reform has introduced a mechanism similar to the stare decisis
10.
Rio de Janeiro
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Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, is the second-most populous municipality in Brazil and the sixth-most populous in the Americas. The metropolis is anchor to the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazils third-most populous state. Part of the city has designated as a World Heritage Site, named Rio de Janeiro. Founded in 1565 by the Portuguese, the city was initially the seat of the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, later, in 1763, it became the capital of the State of Brazil, a state of the Portuguese Empire. Rio stayed the capital of the pluricontinental Lusitanian monarchy until 1822 and this is one of the few instances in history that the capital of a colonising country officially shifted to a city in one of its colonies. Rio de Janeiro has the second largest municipal GDP in the country, the home of many universities and institutes, it is the second-largest center of research and development in Brazil, accounting for 17% of national scientific output according to 2005 data. The Maracanã Stadium held the finals of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, the city is divided into 33 administrative regions. Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502, by a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabrals fleet, allegedly the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci participated as observer at the invitation of King Manuel I in the same expedition. The region of Rio was inhabited by the Tupi, Puri, Botocudo, in 1555, one of the islands of Guanabara Bay, now called Villegagnon Island, was occupied by 500 French colonists under the French admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon. Consequently, Villegagnon built Fort Coligny on the island when attempting to establish the France Antarctique colony, Rio de Janeiro was the name of Guanabara Bay. Until early in the 18th century, the city was threatened or invaded by several, mostly French, pirates and buccaneers, such as Jean-François Duclerc, on 27 January 1763, the colonial administration in Portuguese America was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The kingdoms capital was transferred to the city, which, thus, as there was no physical space or urban structure to accommodate hundreds of noblemen who arrived suddenly, many inhabitants were simply evicted from their homes. The first printed newspaper in Brazil, the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, from the colonial period until the first independent decades, Rio de Janeiro was a city of slaves. There was an influx of African slaves to Rio de Janeiro, in 1819. In 1840, the number of slaves reached 220,000 people, the Port of Rio de Janeiro was the largest port of slaves in America. As a political center of the country, Rio concentrated the political-partisan life of the Empire and it was the main stage of the abolitionist and republican movements in the last half of the 19th century. Rio continued as the capital of Brazil after 1889, when the monarchy was replaced by a republic, until the early years of the 20th century, the city was largely limited to the neighbourhood now known as the historic city centre, on the mouth of Guanabara Bay. Expansion of the city to the north and south was facilitated by the consolidation and electrification of Rios streetcar transit system after 1905, though many thought that it was just campaign rhetoric, Kubitschek managed to have Brasília built, at great cost, by 1960
11.
Minas Gerais
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Minas Gerais is a state in the north of Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product, Minas Gerais is the state with the largest number of Brazilian presidents. With an area of 586,528 square kilometres —larger than Metropolitan France—it is the fourth most extensive state in Brazil. In the south, the tourist points are the mineral spas, such as Caxambu, Lambari, São Lourenço, Poços de Caldas, São Thomé das Letras, Monte Verde. The landscape of the State is marked by mountains, valleys, in the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls are the attractions. Some of Brazils most famous caverns are located there, in recent years, the state has emerged as one of the largest economic forces of Brazil, exploring its great economic potential. Two interpretations are given for the origin of the name Minas Gerais and it comes from Minas dos Matos Gerais, the former name of the colonial province. Another explanation is that this ignores the two large geographical spaces which conformed the state in its history, the region of the mines, and these corresponded to the areas of Sertão which were farther and hard to access from the mining spots. The confusion comes from the fact that the term Gerais is taken as an adjective to Minas in the first version, Minas Gerais is in the north of the southeastern subdivision of Brasil, which also contains the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It borders on Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and it also shares a short boundary with the Distrito Federal. Minas Gerais is situated between 14°1358 and 22°5400 S latitude and between 39°5132 and 51°0235 W longitude and it is larger in area than Metropolitan France or Spain. Minas Gerais features some of the longest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, the state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Emeralds found in location are comparable to the best Colombia-origin emeralds. Each region of the state has a character, geographically. The central and eastern area of the state is hilly and rocky, around Lagoa Santa and Sete Lagoas a typical Karst topography with caves and lakes is found. Some of the mountains are almost entirely iron ore, which led to extensive mining, recent advances in environmental policy helped to put limits to mining. Vale do Aços largest cities are Ipatinga, Coronel Fabriciano and Timóteo, now that mining is restricted large areas of forest are being removed for timber, charcoal and to clear land for cattle ranching
12.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
13.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
14.
John VI of Portugal
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John VI, nicknamed the Clement, was King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves from 1816 to 1822. Although the United Kingdom over which he ruled ceased to exist de facto beginning in 1822, after the recognition of Brazilian independence under the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro of 1825, he continued as King of Portugal and the Algarves until his death in 1826. Under the same treaty, he became titular Emperor of Brazil for life, while his son. Born in Lisbon in 1767, the son of Maria I and Peter III of Portugal and he only became heir to the throne when his older brother José, Prince of Brazil, died of smallpox in 1788 at the age of 27. Before his accession to the Portuguese throne, John VI bore the titles Duke of Braganza and Duke of Beja, from 1799, he served as prince regent of Portugal, due to the mental illness of his mother, Queen Maria I. In 1816, he succeeded his mother as monarch of the Portuguese Empire, with no change in his authority. One of the last representatives of absolute monarchy in Europe, he lived during a turbulent period, throughout his period of rule, major powers, such as Spain, France and Great Britain, continually intervened in Portuguese affairs. His marriage was no less conflictual, as his wife, Carlota Joaquina of Spain and he lost Brazil when his son Pedro declared independence, and his other son Miguel led a rebellion that sought to depose him. According to recent scholarly research, his death may well have been caused by arsenic poisoning, João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos Rafael was born 13 May 1767, during the reign of his grandfather, Joseph I of Portugal. He was the son of the future Queen Maria I, Josephs daughter, and her husband. At the time of Johns birth they were, respectively, Princess of Brazil and he was ten years old when his grandfather died and his mother ascended to the throne. His childhood and youth were lived quietly, as he was a mere infante in the shadow of his elder brother José, Prince of Brazil and 14th Duke of Braganza, the heir-apparent to the throne. Folklore has John as a rather uncultured youth, but according to Jorge Pedreira e Costa, still, a French ambassador of the time painted him in unfavorable colors, seeing him as hesitant and dim. The record of this period of his life is too vague for historians to form any definitive picture, little is known of the substance of his education. He surely received instruction in religion, law, French, and etiquette, and would presumably have learned history through reading the works of Duarte Nunes de Leão and João de Barros. In 1785, Henrique de Meneses, 3rd Marquis of Louriçal, arranged a marriage between John and the Infanta Carlota Joaquina of Spain, daughter of King Charles IV of Spain, like her betrothed, Carlota was a junior member of a royal family. Fearing a new Iberian Union, some in the Portuguese court viewed the marriage to a Spanish infanta unfavorably and she endured four days of testing by the Portuguese ambassadors before the marriage pact was confirmed. Because John and Carlota were related, and because of the brides youth, after being confirmed, the marriage capitulation was signed in the throne room of the Spanish court with great pomp and with the participation of both kingdoms
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Civil Police of Rio de Janeiro State
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The Civil Police of Rio de Janeiro State is the police force responsible for criminal investigations in Rio de Janeiro - Brazil. Formed in 1808, it is subordinated to the government and directed by a Chief of Police. Each Police Station is directed by a Police Delegate helped by Adjunctive Police Delegates, chiefs of police groups, the CORE, formed in 1969, is a SWAT-style unit within the Civil Police of Rio de Janeiro. It is a service which use highly trained policemen in dangerous tasks that Police have to face daily. Civil Police CORE Civil Police Museum Brazilian Federal Police Brazilian Intelligence Agency Official website November operations Civil Police in Alemão restraint -2010 CORE - Special operations
16.
Brazilian military government
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The Brazilian military government was the authoritarian military dictatorship that ruled Brazil from April 1,1964 to March 15,1985. The military revolt was fomented by Magalhães Pinto, Adhemar de Barros, and Carlos Lacerda, Governors of Minas Gerais, São Paulo, the coup was also supported by the Embassy and State Department of the United States. S. government. The regime adopted nationalism, economic development, and Anti-Communism as its guidelines, the dictatorship reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, with the so-called Brazilian Miracle, even as the regime censored all media, tortured and banished dissidents. Brazilian Presidential elections of 1984 were won by opposition civilian candidates, in 1979 Figueiredo passed the Amnesty Law for political crimes committed for and against the regime. Since the 1988 Constitution was passed and Brazil returned to full democracy, Brazils political crisis stemmed from the way in which the political tensions had been controlled in the 1930s and 1940s during the Vargas Era. Each of these structural changes forced a realignment in society and caused a period of political crisis, period of right-wing military dictatorship marked the transition between populist era and the current period of democratization. The Brazilian Armed Forces acquired great political clout after the Paraguayan War, the politicization of the Armed Forces was evidenced by the Proclamation of the Republic, which overthrew the Empire, or within Tenentismo and the Revolution of 1930. While Kubitschek proved to be friendly to capitalist institutions, Goulart promised far-reaching reforms, expropriated business interests, the old hard-line army officers, seeing a chance to impose their positivist economic program, convinced the loyalists that Goulart was a communist menace. After the Presidency of Juscelino Kubitschek, the right wing opposition elected Jânio Quadros, Quadros campaign symbol was a broom, with which the president would sweep away the corruption. In the last days of August 1961, Quadros tried to break the impasse by resigning from the presidency, the Vice-president, João Goulart, member of PTB and active in politics since Vargas Era, at that time was outside the country visiting China PRC. At that time Brazils President and Vice President were elected from different party tickets, some military top brass tried to prevent Goulart from assuming the Presidency, accusing him of being communist, but the legalist campaign in support of Goulart was already strong. The core of Brazilian populism—economic nationalism—was no longer appealing to the middle classes, on April 1,1964, after a night of conspiracy, rebel troops made their way to Rio de Janeiro, considered a legalist bastion. São Paulos and Rio de Janeiros generals were convinced to join the coup, to prevent a civil war, and in knowledge that the USA would openly support the army, the President fled first to Rio Grande do Sul, and then went to exile in Uruguay. These ships had positioned off the coast of Rio de Janeiro in case Brazilian troops required military assistance during the 1964 coup. A document from Gordon in 1963 to US president John F. Kennedy also describes the ways João Goulart should be put down, and his fears of a communist intervention supported by the Soviets or by Cuba. Washington immediately recognized the new government in 1964, and hailed the coup détat as one of the forces that had allegedly staved off the hand of international communism. American mass media outlets like Henry Luces TIME also gave positive remarks about the dissolution of political parties, the victory of the hard-liners dragged Brazil into what political scientist Juan J. Linz called an authoritarian situation. However, because the hard-liners could not ignore the opinions of their colleagues or the resistance of society
17.
Secret police
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Secret police organisations are often utilised for the purposes of policing the activities of dissidents, and weakening opposition organisations. Secret police forces are only to the executive branch of the government. They operate entirely or partially in secrecy, that is, most or all of their operations are obscure and hidden from the general public, secret police agencies have often been used as an instrument of political repression. States where the secret police wield significant power are sometimes referred to as states or counterintelligence states. Despite such overview, there exists the possibility of domestic-security agencies acting unlawfully. In some cases, certain police agencies are accused of being secret police, for example, political groups and civil liberties organizations in the United States have at various times accused the Federal Bureau of Investigation of being secret police. Which government agencies may be classed or characterized, in whole or part, secret police organizations can exist at sub-national levels in a political unit in which entrenched leadership is largely unaccountable. A single secret service has the weapons to arrogate to itself complete political power and it may therefore pose a potential threat to the central political authority. In dictatorships, a relative of the dictator often heads the secret police. For example, Saddam Hussein, as head of the State Internal Security Department placed his secret police under the authority of his first cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid. In addition, secret police have a tendency to view potential political enemies as concrete threats. In some cases, a dictator may manufacture such enemies for the purpose of directing national output toward a common goal, the tactics of investigation and intimidation used by secret police enable them to accrue so much power that they usually operate with little or no practical restraint. Secret police may open mail, tap telephone lines, use techniques to trick, blackmail. Secret police are notorious for raiding homes between midnight and dawn, to people suspected of dissent. People apprehended by the police are often arbitrarily arrested and detained without due process. While in detention, arrestees may be tortured or subjected to inhumane treatment, suspects may not receive a public trial, and instead may be convicted in a kangaroo court-style show trial, or by a secret tribunal. Secret police known to have used these approaches in history include the police of East Germany. Secret police have used by many types of governments
18.
Government of Brazil
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The seat of the federal government is located in Brasília. This has led to Brasília commonly being used as a metonym for the government of Brazil. Brazil is a presidential constitutional republic, based on representative democracy. The federal government has three independent branches, executive, legislative, and judicial, the Federal Constitution is the supreme law of Brazil. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of Brazil and it provides the framework for the organization of the Brazilian government and for the relationship of the federal government to the states, to citizens, and to all people within Brazil. Executive power is exercised by the executive, headed by the President, the President is both the head of state and the head of government. Legislative power is vested upon the National Congress, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Federal Senate, one-third are elected after a four-year period, and two-thirds are elected after the next four-year period, and the Chamber of Deputies, which has 513 seats. Federal deputies are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, there are no limits on the number of terms one may serve for either chamber. The seats are allotted proportionally to each states population, but each state is eligible for a minimum of eight seats, the result is a system weighted in favor of smaller states that are part of the Brazilian federation. Currently 15 political parties are represented in Congress, since it is common for politicians to switch parties, the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. To avoid that, the Supreme Federal Court ruled in 2007 that the belongs to the parties. Brazilian courts function under civil law adversarial system, the Judicial branch is organized in states and federal systems with different jurisdictions. The judges of the courts of first instance take office after public competitive examination, the second instance judges are promoted among the first instance judges. The Justices of the courts are appointed by the President for life. All the judges and justices must be graduated in law, Brazilian judges must retire at the age of 70. The national territory is divided into five Regions, which are composed of two or more states, the Judiciary subsections have federal courts of first instance and each Region has a Federal Regional Tribunal as a court of second instance. There are two national superior courts that grant writs of certiorari in civil and criminal cases, the Superior Justice Tribunal, there are parallel courts for labor law, electoral law and military law. The STF grants Extraordinary Appeals when judgements of second instance courts violate the constitution, the STF is the last instance for the writ of habeas corpus and for reviews of judgments from the STJ
19.
Highway
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A highway is any public road or other public way on land. It is used for roads, but also includes other public roads and public tracks, It is not an equivalent term to controlled-access highway, or a translation for autobahn, autoroute. In North American and Australian English, major such as controlled-access highways or arterial roads are often state highways. Other roads may be designated county highways in the US and Ontario and these classifications refer to the level of government that maintains the roadway. In British English, highway is primarily a legal term, everyday use normally implies roads, while the legal use covers any route or path with a public right of access, including footpaths etc. The term has led to several related derived terms, including highway system, highway code, highway patrol, the term highway exists in distinction to waterway. Major highways are named and numbered by the governments that typically develop. Australias Highway 1 is the longest national highway in the world at over 14,500 km or 9,000 mi, China has the worlds largest network of highways followed closely by the United States of America. Some highways, like the Pan-American Highway or the European routes, some major highway routes include ferry services, such as U. S. Route 10, which crosses Lake Michigan. Traditionally highways were used by people on foot or on horses, later they also accommodated carriages, bicycles and eventually motor cars, facilitated by advancements in road construction. In the 1920s and 1930s, many nations began investing heavily in progressively more modern highway systems to spur commerce and these features are typically present on highways built as motorways. The general legal definition deals with right of use not the form of construction, the status of highway on most older roads has been gained by established public use while newer roads are typically dedicated as highways from the time they are adopted. In England and Wales, a highway is also known as The Queens Highway. The core definition of a highway is modified in various legislation for a number of purposes, scots law is similar to English law with regard to highways but with differing terminology and legislation. What is defined in England as a highway will often in Scotland be what is defined by s, Highways generally have a route number designated by the state and federal departments of transportation. Smaller roads may be termed byways, modern highway systems developed in the 20th century as the automobile gained popularity. The worlds first limited access road was constructed on Long Island New York in the United States known as the Long Island Motor Parkway or the Vanderbilt Motor Parkway, construction of the Bonn–Cologne autobahn began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by the mayor of Cologne, Konrad Adenauer. In the USA, the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 enacted a fund to create a highway system
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Patrolling
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Small groups or individual units are deployed from a larger formation to achieve a specific objective and then return. The tactic of patrolling may be applied to troops, armoured units, naval units. The duration of a patrol will vary from a few hours to weeks depending on the nature of the objective. There are several different types of each with a different objective. The most common is to collect information by carrying out a reconnaissance patrol, such a patrol may try to remain clandestine and observe an enemy without themselves being detected. Other reconnaissance patrols are overt, especially those that interact with the civilian population, a combat patrol is a group with sufficient size and resources to raid or ambush a specific enemy. It primarily differs from an attack in that the aim is not to hold ground, a clearing patrol is a brief patrol around a newly occupied defensive position in order to ensure that the immediate area is secure. Clearing patrols are often undertaken on the occupation of a location, a standing patrol is a static patrol, probably known as an OP/LP in US and NATO terminology. Standing patrols are usually small static patrols intended to provide early warning, security or to guard some geographical feature, a reconnaissance patrol is a patrol, usually small whose main mission is the gathering of information. Generally speaking recce patrols tend to avoid contact, although it is not unknown for recon patrols to fight for information, a screening patrol combines a number of patrols to screen a large area. This type of patrol is used by armored formations in desert theaters, a screen is generally composed of a number of static observation posts. List of military tactics Observation post Combat Lessons WWII, Patrolling Patrolling magazine, 75th Ranger Regiment Association
21.
Mounted police
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Mounted police are police who patrol on horseback or camelback. Some mounted police units are trained in search and rescue due to the ability to travel where vehicles cannot. Poor roads and extensive rural areas made horse-mounted police a necessity in European states until the early 20th century, notable examples included the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Mexican Rurales, the British South African Police, the Turkish/Cypriot Zapiteh and the caballeria of the Spanish Civil Guard. Tack used by mounted police is similar to standard riding tack, high-traction horseshoes made of speciality metals or fitted with rubber soles are typically used in urban areas in place of standard steel horseshoes, which are prone to slip on pavement. Rubber soled shoes also produce less noise than steel shoes and jar the hoof less, horses working in riot control wear facial armor, made of perspex so that the animals can still see. The New South Wales Mounted Police is a section of the New South Wales Police Force. Currently they have a strength of 36 officers and around 38 mounts and their duties include traffic and crowd management, patrols, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police is a well-known mounted police force, although horses are no longer in use operationally. However, horses are used in the Musical Ride as well as by several provincial and municipal police detachments. The Royal Oman Police have both horse and camel mounted troopers, the United States Border Patrol had 200 horses in 2005. Most of these are employed along the U. S. -Mexico border, in Arizona, these animals are fed special processed feed pellets so that their wastes do not spread non-native plants in the national parks and wildlife areas they patrol. Philadelphias mounted police unit was disbanded in 2004, but reinstated in 2011 with four horses from the unit of Newark. List of mounted police forces Mounted search and rescue Police dog Police paddock Informational site for mounted police officers List of mounted search and rescue units Mounted Police in France
22.
Crowd control
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Crowd control is a public security practice where large crowds are managed to prevent the outbreak of crowd crushes, affray, fights involving drunk and disorderly people or riots. Crowd crushes in particular can cause many hundreds of fatalities, crowd control can involve privately hired security guards as well as police officers. Crowd control is used at large, public gatherings like street fairs, music festivals, stadiums. At some events, security guards and police use metal detectors and sniffer dogs to prevent weapons, materials such as stanchions, crowd control barriers, fences and decals painted on the ground can be used to direct a crowd. Keeping the crowd comfortable and relaxed is also essential, so things like awnings, cooling fans, for controlling riots and demonstrations, see riot control. Specific products that are used to implement line management and public guidance in high traffic areas include retractable belt systems, post and rope systems are also popular, especially in banks and theaters. A crowd controller is also name for a bouncer or doorman
23.
Military Firefighters Corps
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In Brazil, the Military Firefighters Corps is a military organization with the mission of civil defense, firefighting, and search and rescue inside the States of the Federation. Since 1915, it has been a Military reserve force and a force of the Brazilian Army. The Military Firefighter Corps is part of the National Public Security, members of the Corps, like the members of the Military Police, are designated as being part of the military of the States by the Federal Constitution. Each State has its own Military Firefighters Corps, with different structures, rules, the first organization of firefighters was created by Emperor Pedro II in 1856. Initially the Corps was not of a military character and it was only in 1880 that the Corps was militarized and it adopted a military hierarchy. With the Proclamation of the Republic in 1889, the States that were better off were able to constitute their own Firefighters Corps. In 1915 Federal legislation authorized the incorporation of the forces of the states into the Brazilian Army. In 1917 the Brigade of Police and the Firefighters Corps of the Federal Capital were officially considered part of the military reserve, in this period the Firefighters Corps, as members of the military forces of the States, fought in the main conflicts that resulted in present-day Brazil. In 1967 the Inspectorate General of Military Police was created, reporting to the Ministry of War, with the end of the Military Government and the institution of a new Constitution in 1988, the States were granted autonomy to administer their security forces as best suited them. The majority opted to separate the Firefighters Corps from the Military Police, the term Military was inserted in 1990 to distinguish the Military Firefighters Corps from organizations of civilian and voluntary firefighters. Starting 2013, the MFC also has full operational duties over the private firefighting academies in order to combat corruption in the civil fire services. In all of Brazil, the Emergency telephone number of the Military Firefighters Corps is one, nine, the Gymnastic belt is one of the essential elements of the uniforms of the Military Firefighters Corps, which has been used with few modifications, since 1887. At first the belt was reinforced, made of cotton and leather, today it is not as strong and only serves as a ceremonial item
24.
National Public Security Force
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It is an agency that was created during the administration of President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, a concept developed by then Minister of Justice, Márcio Thomaz Bastos. The National Force is composed by men of the Brazilian Military Police of the states of Brazil. Law enforcement officers receive initially 100 hours of education, divided in ten days of training. They are classes in, human rights, control of riots, ostensive policing, crisis management. Urgency, that can be answered, as his quota is effective and not demobilizable. On different occasions, the National Force was called in the state of Espírito Santo as well as in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, primarily to help containing rebellions inside prisons. The Federal Government agreed to send a contingent of about 500 men and 52 vehicles to patrol 19 critical points within the state, the NSPF was called into action in the states of Santa Catarina, Minas Gerais and Bahia in 2013, and in Pernambuco in 2014. In these cases, the force provided stricted security measures in these states and it reinforced local police work in Teresina, Piaui, in 2015. In 2016, aside from security duties in the 2016 Summer Olympic Games in Rio, detachments of the force were deployed to Rio Grande do Sul, policing in Brazil Brazilian Federal Police Military police Military of Brazil Brazilian Civil Police Batalhão de Operações Policiais Especiais Complexo do Alemão massacre
25.
Brazilian Army
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The Brazilian Army is the land arm of the Brazilian Armed Forces. The Brazilian Army has fought in several conflicts, mostly in South America during the 19th century. In the 20th century, it fought on the Allied side at World War I, most of its commanders were mercenaries and Portuguese officers loyal to Dom Pedro. During the 1850s and early 1860s, the Army along with Navy, entered in action against Argentinian and Uruguayan forces, the Brazilian success with such Gun Diplomacy, eventually lead to a shock of interests with another country with similar aspirations, the Paraguay in December,1864. On May 1,1865, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina signed the Triple Alliance to defend themselves against aggression from Paraguay, which was ruled by the dictator Francisco López. López troops, after invading Brazilian territory through the state of Mato Grosso, many slaves had been incorporated into the Brazilian forces to face the increasingly serious situation. As a result of their performance during the conflict, the Armed Forces developed a strong sense against slavery. After five years of a terrible warfare, the Alliance led by Brazil defeated Lopez, in November 1889, after a long attrition with the monarchical regime deepened by the abolition of slavery, the army imposes the republic through a coup détat. During World War I the Brazilian government sent three small groups to Europe soon after declaring war upon Central Powers in October 1917. The first two units were from the army, one consisted of staff and the other of a sergeants-officers corps. In this period, the Army defeated the Constitutionalist Revolt in 1932, the Army also helped to formalize the dictatorship in 1937. In August 1942, after German and Italian submarines sunk Brazilian merchant ships, popular mobilization forced the Brazilian government to war on Fascist Italy. In July 1944, after almost two years of pressure and negotiations with US authorities, an expeditionary force was sent to join the Allied forces in the Italian campaign. With the defeat of right wing totalitarian regimes in World War II, Vargas is removed by the head of the army, General Dutra, who in 1946 won the Election dispute against Air Marshall, Eduardo Gomes. After the Vargas suicide, due to a crisis, army sectors led by Marshal Lott, ensured the inauguration of Juscelino Kubitscheks Term. This coup was the first of a series of coups détat in South America that replaced democratically elected governments with military regimes and these dictatorships dominated South America until the 1980s. Internationally, in 1965 the Brazilian Army joined forces with US Marines intervening in the Dominican Republic, in the mid 1970s, despite the dissent annulled, the leftist guerrillas defeated and the legal opposition tamed, repression was not reduced. In the destructive earthquake that occurred in Haiti on January 12,2010, the Brazilian Army has now about 1.250 troops in Haiti and will send 900 more until March 2010, to help the reconstruction of that country
26.
Provost (military police)
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Provosts are military police whose duties are policing solely within the Armed Forces, as opposed to Gendarmerie duties in the civilian population. However, many countries use their gendarmerie for provost duties, as with all official terms, some countries have specific official terminology which differs from the exact linguistic meaning. The head of the police is commonly referred to as the Provost Marshal. This ancient title was given to an officer whose duty it was to ensure that the army of the king did no harm to the citizenry. Not all military organizations are concerned with all of these areas. These personnel are generally not front-line combatants but, especially when directing military convoys, some MPs, such as the US MP Corps, are used as the primary defense force in rear area operations. In many countries, military forces have separate prisons and judicial systems, the military possibly also has its own interpretation of criminal justice. In the Australian Army, the Royal Australian Corps of Military Police also performs the role of a communications network in the front battle zone. The military police of the Austrian Bundesheer is called Kommando Militärstreife & Militärpolizei, the Belgian Armys Military Police Group performs military police duties on behalf of all four components of the Belgian military. The group is headed by a lieutenant-colonel and numbers 188 members in five MP companies, Military police duties in Belgium have always included enforcement of military discipline, managing road traffic and wartime handling of prisoners of war. In 2003, duties relating to refugees and deserters in wartime were transferred from the then disbanded Gendarmerie Nationale to the MPs, members of the former 4 and 6 MP Companies were folded into the new MP Group, along with some Gendarmes previously assigned MP-related duties. Belgian MPs are identified by black armbands with the letters MP in white block letters, worn on the left arm. Each branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces, however, has its own provost force, Polícia do Exército in the Army, Polícia da Marinha in the Navy, and Polícia da Aeronáutica in the Air Force. They have the power to arrest anyone who is subject to the Code of Service Discipline, regardless of position or rank under the National Defence Act. If in fact a crime is committed on or in relation to DND property or assets, MP have the power to arrest and charge the offender, military or civilian, under the Criminal Code. It is important to note though that the purpose of the CFMP is not to replace the job of a police officer. MP also have the power to enforce the Provincial Highway Traffic Act on all military bases in Canada contrary to the Government Property Traffic Regulations, unlike military police in many other countries, the Republic of China Military Police are a separate branch of the ROC Armed Forces. The ROCMP are also charged with the defense of Taipei, the capital of the Republic of China, the Sotilaspoliisi are the military police of the Finnish Defence Forces
27.
Brazilian Armed Forces
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The Brazilian Armed Forces is the unified military organization comprising the Brazilian Army, the Brazilian Navy and the Brazilian Air Force. With no serious external or internal threats, the forces are searching for a new role. They are expanding their presence in the Amazon under the Northern Corridor program, in 1994 Brazilian troops joined United Nations peacekeeping forces in five countries. Brazilian soldiers have been in Haiti since 2004 leading the United Nations Stabilization Mission, the Brazilian military, especially the army, has become more involved in civic-action programs, education, health care, and constructing roads, bridges, and railroads across the nation. Although the 1988 constitution preserves the external and internal roles of the armed forces, thus, the new charter changed the manner in which the military could exercise its moderating power. All military branches are part of the Ministry of Defence, the Brazilian Navy which is the oldest of the Brazilian Armed Forces, includes the Brazilian Marine Corps and the Brazilian Naval Aviation. 19–45 years of age for military service, conscript service obligation –9 to 12 months. South America is a relatively peaceful continent in which wars are an event, as a result. Additionally, Brazil has no contested territorial disputes with any of its neighbours and neither does it have rivalries, like Chile, however, Brazil is the only country besides China and Russia that has land borders with 10 or more nations. Moreover, Brazil has 16,880 kilometers of borders and 7,367 km of coastline to be patrolled and defended. Overall, the Armed Forces have to defend 8.5 million km2 of land and patrol 4.4 million km2 of territorial waters – or Blue Amazon, in order to achieve this mission properly, significant quantities of both manpower and funding have to be made available. Since 1648 the Brazilian Armed Forces have been relied upon to fight in defense of Brazilian sovereignty, the Brazilian military has also four times intervened militarily to overthrow the Brazilian government. It has built a tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping missions such as in Haiti, below a list of some of the historical events in which the Brazilian Armed Forces took part, First Battle of Guararapes, Decisive Brazilian victory that helped end Dutch occupation. Due to this battle, the year 1648 is considered as the year of the foundation of the Brazilian Army. Luso-Brazilian invasion, Was an armed conflict between the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves and the partisans of José Artigas over the Banda Oriental, Brazilian War of Independence, Series of military campaigns that had as objective to cement Brazilian sovereignty and end Portuguese resistance. Confederation of the Equator, Was a short-lived rebellion that occurred in the region of Brazil during that nations struggle for independence from Portugal. Ragamuffin War, Was a Republican uprising that began in southern Brazil, in the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina in 1835. The rebels, led by generals Bento Gonçalves da Silva and Antônio de Sousa Neto with the support of the Italian fighter Giuseppe Garibaldi, platine War, The Brazilian Empire and its allies went to war against the dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas of the Argentine Confederation
28.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
29.
Brazilian Navy
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The Brazilian Navy is the naval service branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces, responsible for conducting naval operations. The Brazilian Navy is the largest navy in South America and in Latin America, the navy was involved in Brazils war of independence from Portugal. Most of Portugals naval forces and bases in South America were transferred to the independent country. By the 1880s the Brazilian Imperial Navy was the most powerful in South America, the Brazilian Navy participated in both World War I and World War II, engaging in anti-submarine patrols in the Atlantic. Other roles include, Conducting national maritime policy Implementing and enforcing laws and regulations with respect to the sea, the origins of the Brazilian Navy date back to the Portuguese naval forces based in Brazil. The transfer of the Portuguese monarchy to Brazil in 1808 during the Napoleonic wars also resulted in the transfer of a part of the structure, personnel. These became the core of the Navy of Brazil, the Brazilian Navy came into being with the independence of the country. The Brazilian-born Captain Luís da Cunha Moreira was chosen as the first minister of the Navy on October 28,1822, british naval officer Lord Thomas Alexander Cochrane was made the commander of the Brazilian Navy and received the rank of First Admiral. At that time, the fleet was composed of one ship of the line, four frigates, the Secretary of Treasury Martim Francisco Ribeiro de Andrada created a national subscription to generate capital in order to increase the size of the fleet. Contributions were sent from all over Brazil, even Emperor Pedro I acquired a merchant brig at his own expense and donated it to the Navy. The navy fought in the north and also south of Brazil where it had a role in the independence of the country. After the suppression of the revolt in Pernambuco in 1824 and prior to the Cisplatine War, starting with 38 ships in 1822, eventually the navy had 96 modern warships of various types with over 690 cannons. Brazil lost the war and in 1828 had to accept the independence of Uruguay, during the 58-year reign of Pedro II the Brazilian Navy achieved its greatest strength in relation to navies around the world. The Arsenal, Navy department, and the Naval Jail were improved, Brazil quickly modernized its fleet acquiring ships from foreign sources while also constructing ships locally. Brazils Navy substituted the old smoothbore cannons for new ones with rifled barrels, improvements were also made in the Arsenals and naval bases, which were equipped with new workshops. Ships were constructed in the Naval Arsenal of Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Recife, Santos, Niterói, during the 1850s the State Secretary, the Accounting Department of the Navy, the Headquarters of the Navy and the Naval Academy were reorganized and improved. New ships were purchased and the ports administrations were better equipped, the Imperial Mariner Corps was definitively regularized and the Marine Corps was created, taking the place of the Naval Artillery. The Service of Assistance for Invalids was also established, along with schools for sailors
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Brazilian Air Force
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The Brazilian Air Force is the air branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces and one of the three national uniformed services. The FAB was formed when the Army and Navy air branch were merged into a military force initially called National Air Forces in 1941. Both air branches transferred their equipment, installations and personnel to the new force, the Brazilian Air Force is the largest air force in the Southern hemisphere and the second largest in the Americas after the United States Air Force. Together with these events the Brazilian strategists were also influenced by the theories of Giulio Douhet, Billy Mitchell and Hugh Montague Trenchard. The first public manifest to create a military air service came up in 1928 when an army Major called Lysias Rodrigues wrote an article called An urgent need. Two years later the French Military Mission, working for the Brazilian Army, the idea got more support when a group of Brazilian airmen came from Italy in 1934 and explained the advantages of having a military aviation unified. Also, the Spanish Revolution and the first movements of World War II at the end of the thirties showed the importance of Air power for military strategies, one of the main supporters of the plan to create an independent air arm was the then-president Getúlio Vargas. He organized a study group early in 1940 and the structure of the Ministry of Aeronautics was established the end of that year. This new governmental agency was responsible for the all aspects of the civil and military aviation including infrastructure, formally, the Ministry of Aeronautics was founded on January 20,1941 and so its military branch called National Air Forces, changed to Brazilian Air Force on May,22. The Army and Navy air branches were extinguished and all personnel, aircraft, installations, the Brazilian Air force made important contributions to the Allied war effort in World War II, especially as part of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force on the Italian front. From mid-1942 until the end of the war, the FAB also patrolled the Atlantic, on 31 July 1943 it claimed the German submarine U-199, which was located on the surface, off Rio de Janeiro, at 23°54′S 42°54′W. Two Brazilian aircraft, a PBY Catalina and a Lockheed Hudson, the Catalina, named Ärará, was captained by 2º Ten. -Av. Alberto M. Torres, and hit U-199 with depth charges, forty-nine of the crew were killed, although twelve Germans managed to escape, including the captain. This was possible due to the Catalina’s crew, who threw a lifeboat to the survivors, 1º Grupo de Aviação de Caça, which saw action in Italy, was formed on December 18,1943. The group had 350 men, including 43 pilots, the group was divided into four flights, Red, Yellow, Blue, and Green. The CO of the group and some officers were not attached to any specific flight, unlike the BEFs Army component, the 1º GAVCA had personnel who were experienced Brazilian Air Force pilots. One of them was Alberto M. Torres, who had piloted a PBY Catalina that had sunk U-199, the group trained for combat in Panama, where 2º Ten. -Av. Dante Isidoro Gastaldoni was killed in a training accident, on May 11,1944, the group was declared operational and became active in the air defense of the Panama Canal Zone
31.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
32.
Police brutality
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Police brutality is one of several forms of police misconduct which involves undue violence by police members. Widespread police brutality exists in countries and territories, even those that prosecute it. Although illegal, it can be performed under the color of law, the term police brutality was in use in the American press as early as 1872, when the Chicago Tribune reported on the beating of a civilian under arrest at the Harrison Street Police Station. Cases of police brutality appear to have been frequent then, with the bludgeoning of citizens by patrolmen armed with nightsticks or blackjacks. Portions of the population may perceive the police to be oppressors, in addition, there is a perception that victims of police brutality often belonging to relatively powerless groups, such as minorities, the disabled, the young, and the poor. After facing federal trial, two of the four officers were convicted and received 32 months prison sentence, the case was widely seen as a key factor in the reform of the Los Angeles Police Department. According to data released by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, between 2003 and 2009 at least 4,813 people died in the process of being arrested by local police. Of the deaths classified as law enforcement homicides,2,876 deaths occurred of which 1,643 or 57. 1% of the people who died were people of color, Police brutality entails serious violations of the human rights to life and physical security. In accordance with human rights law, victims have a right to forcibly resist police brutality where absolutely necessary to prevent serious and irreparable harm. Notably, police brutality entailing extrajudicial killings, torture and inhuman treatment may be resisted, incidents of police brutality in Austria seem to be largely influenced and triggered by racism and prejudice against foreign nationals and ethnic minorities within the community. This underlying issue has continued to be present and relevant when examining cases of police brutality within Austria, for example, in Vienna there tends to be an association made between Viennas drug problem and the citys African migrants. This has led to the existence of cultural stereotypes which have then led to the racial profiling of African migrants. There have been a number of highly publicised incidents in Austria where police have either tortured, publicly humiliated, the most notorious of these incidents occurred in the late 1990s, however recent reports in 2015 show that police are still treating civilians in this way. 24 April 1996, Mr Jevremovic, a Serbian Romani man and he escaped, and later a large group of police came into his home without a warrant, and violently beat him and his wife before taking them both into custody. May 1996, Marcus Omofuma, an Illegal Nigerian immigrant, was being deported from Vienna when the officers taped him to his chair like a mummy and he suffocated whilst in police custody. November 1998, Dr C, a black Austrian citizen, was stopped by police after reversing his car into a street and was asked Why are you driving the wrong way. He was beaten unconscious and handcuffed, Police continued beating him after he regained consciousness. After he was arrested, he spent 11 days in hospital recovering,28 July 2015, A 27-year-old man, suspected of being a pickpocket, was handcuffed and violently thrown into the ground whilst under police custody
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Political corruption
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Political corruption is the use of powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is related to their official duties, is done under color of law or involves trading in influence. Forms of corruption vary, but include bribery, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, Corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and human trafficking, though is not restricted to these activities. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents, the activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, some political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another, in some cases, government officials have broad or ill-defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually, a state of unrestrained political corruption is known as a kleptocracy, literally meaning rule by thieves. Some forms of corruption – now called institutional corruption – are distinguished from bribery, a similar problem of corruption arises in any institution that depends on financial support from people who have interests that may conflict with the primary purpose of the institution. In politics, corruption undermines democracy and good governance by flouting or even subverting formal processes and it violates a basic principle of republicanism regarding the centrality of civic virtue. More generally, corruption erodes the institutional capacity of government if procedures are disregarded, resources are siphoned off, Corruption undermines the legitimacy of government and such democratic values as trust and tolerance. Recent evidence suggests that variation in the levels of corruption amongst high-income democracies can vary depending on the level of accountability of decision-makers. Evidence from fragile states also shows that corruption and bribery can adversely impact trust in institutions, although some claim corruption reduces costs by cutting bureaucracy, the availability of bribes can also induce officials to contrive new rules and delays. Openly removing costly and lengthy regulations are better than allowing them to be bypassed by using bribes. Where corruption inflates the cost of business, it distorts the playing field, shielding firms with connections from competition. Corruption also generates economic distortion in the sector by diverting public investment into capital projects where bribes. Officials may increase the complexity of public sector projects to conceal or pave the way for such dealings. In Nigeria, for example, more than $400 billion was stolen from the treasury by Nigerias leaders between 1960 and 1999, University of Massachusetts Amherst researchers estimated that from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 Sub-Saharan countries totaled $187bn, exceeding those nations external debts. In the case of Africa, one of the factors for this behavior was political instability, and this encouraged officials to stash their wealth abroad, out of reach of any future expropriation. In contrast, Asian administrations such as Suhartos New Order often took a cut on business transactions or provided conditions for development, through investment, law and order
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Brazilian Intelligence Agency
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In 1995 President Fernando Henrique Cardoso placed a civilian at the head of the SAE and subsequently created ABIN. Like many other Latin American nations, Brazil faces the challenge of having to overcome a history of involvement by the military. This had once again undermined the attempt to reduce the influence of the military on Brazilian intelligence agencies, however, successive governments have taken a number of steps to reduce the influence of the armed forces and related intelligence agencies in domestic politics. The relationships between groups and government in Brazil, so closely intertwined for decades, is evolving. The focus of intelligence appears to be moving slowly from managing internal dissent to focusing on external threats. The agencys motto is Intelligence for the defense of society, of the democratic Rule of Law, Brazilian Federal Police National Public Security Force Military of Brazil Ministry of Defence of Brazil ABIN Official site ABIN Official site
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Crime in Brazil
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Crime in Brazil involves an elevated incidence of violent and non-violent crimes. Brazil is an importer of cocaine, as well as part of the international drug routes. Arms and marijuana employed by criminals are mostly locally produced, in 2015, Brazil had a murder rate of 25.2 per 100,000 population. There were a total of 50,108 murders in Brazil in 2015, another study has the 2015 murder rate at 32.4 per 100,000, with 64,357 homicides. List of the Brazilian state capitals by homicide rate, Murders increased during the late-2000s, bucking this trend are the two largest cities. In 2008 Rio de Janeiro registered the lowest murder rate in 18 years, while São Paulo is now approaching the 10 murders per 100,000 mark, a notable example is the municipality of Diadema. Total murders set new records in the three years from 2009 to 2011, surpassing the record set in 2003. 2003 still holds the record for murders per 100,000 in Brazil, police records post significantly lower numbers than the health ministry. More than 500,000 people were killed by firearms in Brazil between 1979 and 2003, according to a 2005 UN report, nearly half of those who died from gun violence during those years were aged between 15 and 24. Carjacking is common, particularly in major cities, local citizens and visitors alike are often targeted by criminals, especially during public festivals such as the Carnaval. Pickpocketing and bag snatching are common, thieves operate in outdoor markets, in hotels and on public transport. A crime trend known as “arrastões” occur when many perpetrators act together, simultaneously mug pedestrians, sunbathers, shopping mall patrons, arrastões and random robberies may occur during big events, soccer games, or during peak beach hours. Corruption in Brazil is a social problem. Brazil scored 38 on the 2016 Corruption Perceptions Index, tying with India and Bosnia and Herzegovina, Corruption was cited among many issues that provoked the 2013 protests in Brazil. Corruption is an offense and yet is an important part of Brazils politics. For years, embezzlement and corruption have been involved in Brazilian elections, between 10 and 15 women are murdered per day in Brazil. A government sponsored study found that 41,532 women were murdered in Brazil between 1997 and 2007, in 2012, 8% of all homicide victims were female. However, this is far below the male victimization rate
36.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
37.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
38.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
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History of Brazil
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The history of Brazil starts with indigenous people in Brazil. Europeans arrived in Brazil at the opening of the 16th century, the first European to colonize Brazil was Pedro Álvares Cabral on April 22,1500 under the sponsorship of the Kingdom of Portugal. From the 16th to the early 19th century, Brazil was a colony, the countrys borders were only finalized in the early 20th century. On September 7,1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal, a military coup in 1889 established the First Brazilian Republic. The country has seen a dictatorship during Vargas Era and a period of rule under Brazilian military government. When Portuguese explorers arrived in Brazil, the region was inhabited by hundreds of different types of Jiquabu tribes, the dating of the origins of the first inhabitants, who were called Indians by the Portuguese, is still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. For this reason, very little is known about the history of Brazil before 1500, archaeological remains indicate a complex pattern of regional cultural developments, internal migrations, and occasional large state-like federations. At the time of European discovery, the territory of current day Brazil had as many as 2,000 tribes, the indigenous peoples were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the Natives were living mainly on the coast, initially, the Europeans saw the natives as noble savages, and Europeans began having children with the Native people right away. Tribal warfare, cannibalism and the pursuit of brazilwood for its treasured red dye convinced the Portuguese that they should Christianize the natives. But the Portuguese, like the Spanish in their South American possessions, had brought diseases with them. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and influenza killed tens of thousands of indigenous people, the diseases spread quickly along the indigenous trade routes, and whole tribes were likely annihilated without ever coming in direct contact with Europeans. There are so many theories regarding who was the first European to set foot on the now called Brazil. In April 1500, Brazil was claimed for Portugal on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral, the Portuguese encountered stone-using natives divided into several tribes, many of whom shared the same Tupi–Guarani language family, and fought among themselves. Until 1529 Portugal had very little interest in Brazil mainly due to the profits gained through commerce with India, China. The system was a failure - only four lots were successfully occupied Pernambuco, São Vicente, Captaincy of Ilhéus, the captaincies gradually reverted to the Crown and became provinces and eventually states of the country. At first, settlers tried to enslave the natives as labor to work the fields, the initial exploration of Brazils interior was largely due to para-military adventurers, the bandeirantes, who entered the jungle in search of gold and Native slaves. However colonists were unable to sustainably enslave Natives, and Portuguese land owners soon turned to import millions of slaves from Africa, mortality rates for slaves in sugar and gold enterprises were dramatic, and there were often not enough females or proper conditions to replenish the slave population indigenously
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Indigenous peoples in Brazil
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Unlike Christopher Columbus, who thought he had reached the East Indies, the Portuguese, most notably Vasco da Gama, had already reached India via the Indian Ocean route when they reached Brazil. At the time of European contact, some of the people were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering. The indigenous population was killed by European diseases, declining from a pre-Columbian high of millions to some 300,000. However, the number could be higher if the urban indigenous populations are counted in all the Brazilian cities today. A somewhat dated linguistic survey found 188 living indigenous languages with 155,000 total speakers, on January 18,2007, FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition Brazil has now surpassed New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted people, in the last IBGE census,817,000 Brazilians classified themselves as indigenous. Questions about the settlement of the Americas has produced a number of hypothetical models. The origins of indigenous people are still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. A migrant wave would have some time after initial entry to reach present-day Brazil. An analysis of Amerindian Y-chromosome DNA indicates specific clustering of much of the South American population, according to an autosomal genetic study from 2012, Native Americans descend of at least three main migrant waves from East Asia. Most of it is traced back to an ancestral population. However, those who speak Inuit languages from the Arctic inherited almost half of their ancestry from a second East Asian migrant wave, and those who speak Na-dene, on the other hand, inherited a tenth of their ancestry from a third migrant wave. The initial settling of the Americas was followed by a rapid expansion southwards, by the coast, with gene flow later. One exception to this are the Chibcha speakers, whose ancestry comes from both North and South America, linguistic studies have backed up genetic studies, with ancient patterns having been found between the languages spoken in Siberia and those spoken in the Americas. Two 2015 autosomal DNA genetic studies confirmed the Siberian origins of the Natives of the Americas, however an ancient signal of shared ancestry with the Natives of Australia and Melanesia was detected among the Natives of the Amazon region. The migration coming out of Siberia would have happened 23000 years ago, following a rapid movement throughout the Americas, limited gene flow in South America resulted in a marked phylogeographic structure of populations, which persisted through time. All of the ancient mitochondrial lineages detected in this study were absent from modern data sets, to investigate this further, we applied a novel principal components multiple logistic regression test to Bayesian serial coalescent simulations. The analysis supported a scenario in which European colonization caused a loss of pre-Columbian lineages
