1.
Strasbourg
–
Strasbourg is the capital and largest city of the Grand Est region of France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany in the region of Alsace. In 2014, the city proper had 276,170 inhabitants, Strasbourgs metropolitan area had a population of 773,347 in 2013, making it the ninth largest metro area in France and home to 13% of the Grand Est regions inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 915,000 inhabitants in 2014, Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, Strasbourgs historic city centre, the Grande Île, was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012. Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, the port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany. Before the 5th century, the city was known as Argantorati, a Celtic Gaulish name Latinized first as Argentorate, after the 5h century, the city became known by a completely different name Gallicized as Strasbourg. That name is of Germanic origin and means Town of roads, Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which forms the eastern border of the modern city. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres from. The natural courses of the two eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. This section of the Rhine valley is an axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself. The city is some 400 kilometres east of Paris, in spite of its position far inland, Strasbourgs climate is classified as Oceanic, with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, on average, snow falls 30 days per year. The highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C in August 2003. The lowest temperature recorded was −23.4 °C in December 1938. Nonetheless, the disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution
Strasbourg
Strasbourg
Strasbourg
Strasbourg
2.
Municipal Police (France)
–
The Municipal Police are the local police of towns and cities in France outside the capital. There are 18,000 municipal police officers in 3,500 communities, the Municipal Police are one of the three components of French policing, alongside the National Police and the National Gendarmerie, with about 145,000 police and 98,000 soldiers respectively. Municipal policing in departments of Paris, Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, and Val-de-Marne is the responsibility of Paris Police Prefecture, part of the National Police. Under Article 212 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the duties of the police include, safety, security, safety. Monitoring and regulation of traffic and the recording of traffic violations. Maintenance of law 78-6 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, assistance to citizens of the town. Reporting of crimes over which they have no jurisdiction, the municipal police may carry out arrests as part of the act and are required to deliver any perpetrator to an officer of the national police or the national gendarmerie. Approximately 18,000 municipal police officers provide about 13% of the total French law enforcement community, the municipal police may also incorporate the duties of the forest rangers and game wardens in rural areas. The French municipal police are under the authority of the Mayor. Although the word refers to the maintenance of order, the function mainly comprises the protection of citizens from disasters. To do so, municipalities are required to establish municipal police services and they are also vested with powers to oversee infringements of Article L. 126-3 of the Code of Construction and Housing. During the course of their duties they act under the authority of the mayor of the municipality, overall supervision and regulation of the municipal police is under the jurisdiction the Ministry of the Interior, which is empowered to carry out inspections by agencies such as the IGPN. Articles L 2212-5 and the L CGCT 2212-9, provide for inter-municipal police collaboration between municipalities or groups of municipalities, the police officers recruited through the municipal council are considered primarily available to every mayor in his hometown for local policing. They may also be required to be sworn in by the judge to provide services to the national police of neighbouring districts or to the gendarmerie in rural areas. The municipal police do not generally carry firearms, in some cities, all municipal police officers are permanently armed. French Municipal officers are armed each Municipal Police agency has different weapons meaning some Municipal Police may have revolvers while others have more modern handguns, Municipal Police also have rifles and shotguns as well for patrol needs. ↑ Note, Section 21 of the Criminal Procedure Code confers municipal police officers with the status of deputy judicial police officers, L 412-49 of the Code of Commons. L 412-51 of the Code of Commons 10, 412-53 of the Code of Commons Franck Denion, Police municipale, missions et moyens, Editions Territoriales, municipal police missions and means Territoriales Editions, June 2006
Municipal Police (France)
–
Police municipale
Peugeot car in
Antibes,
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur.
Municipal Police (France)
–
The Police municipale logo
Municipal Police (France)
–
Police municipale in
Allos,
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur.
Municipal Police (France)
–
Renault Scénic III in
Strasbourg,
Alsace.
3.
National Police (France)
–
The National Police, formerly the Sûreté nationale, is one of two national police forces and the main civil law enforcement agency of France, with primary jurisdiction in cities and large towns. The other main agency is the military Gendarmerie, with jurisdiction in smaller towns and rural. The National Police comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior and has about 145,699 employees, the National Police operates mostly in large cities and towns. The police is commanded by the director-general who is currently Jean-Marc Falcone, the director-general is directly in charge of the General Directorate of the National Police and the immediate subordinate of the Minister of the Interior. The main Sub-Directorates of the Judicial Police are, Sous-direction anti-terroriste SDAT, groupes dIntervention de la Police Nationale, Nine regional SWAT teams. Direction centrale de la police aux frontières, performs identity checks with La douane française, Inspection générale de la police nationale, headed by the Inspector General and responsible for internal affairs. In the Paris Area, these tasks are assigned to a dedicated service—the Inspection Générale des Services, direction centrale des compagnies républicaines de sécurité, riot police, motorway police, and mountain rescue, commonly referred to as the CRS. Service de coopération technique internationale de police, the Unité de Coordination de la Lutte Antiterroriste and its Recherche Assistance Intervention Dissuasion unit. The DCRI was placed directly under the Ministry of the Interior, the Corps de commandement corresponds approximately to the lower commissioned ranks of a military force, or to grades of inspector in a British-style civil police force. These ranks were previously known as inspecteurs if detectives or officiers de la paix if uniformed, all the ranks insignia may be worn either on the shoulders or on the chest. In the latter they are square-shaped, prior to 1995 two civilian corps existed in which plain-clothes officers were given the training and authority to conduct investigations. The closest Anglo-American equivalent is the detective, in 1951, a standardisation was performed on the RR51 pistol in 7. 65x17mm and on the MAS-38 and MAT-49 for sub-machine guns. In the 80s, a process to standardize revolvers was initiated, the 1970s also saw the introduction of assault rifles to fend off heavily armed organised crime and terrorism. In the 2000s, the police started switching to semi-automatic pistols, for some years, the standard sidearm in the National Police and the Gendarmerie Nationale was the PAMAS G1, which was French licensed and made. The weapons are planned to stay in service until the year 2022, for greater threats the police use slightly modified Ruger Mini-14s purchased in the 1970s. While the vast majority of vehicles are screen printed French brand, some vehicles are provided by Ford. Plain clothes officers or specialised branches use vehicles from a variety of builders, law enforcement in France Official site of the French National Police Official site of the French Ministry of Interior Unofficial site of the National Police
National Police (France)
–
Patch of the National Police.
National Police (France)
–
SP 2022, the present standard issued sidearm of French police officers.
National Police (France)
–
Peugeot 308
National Police (France)
–
Renault Megane III
4.
National Gendarmerie
–
The National Gendarmerie is one of two national police forces of France. It is a branch of the French Armed Forces placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior—with additional duties to the Ministry of Defense and its area of responsibility includes smaller towns and rural areas, while the Police Nationale—a civilian force—is in charge of cities and large towns. Due to its status, the Gendarmerie also fulfills a range of military. The Gendarmes also have a cybercrime division and it has a strength of more than 100,000 personnel as of 2014. The Gendarmerie is heir to the Maréchaussée, the oldest police force in France and it has influenced the culture and traditions of gendarmerie forces all around the world—and especially in the former French colonial empire. The Gendarmerie is the descendant of the Marshalcy of the ancien regime, more commonly known by its French title. During the Middle Ages, there were two Grand Officers of the Kingdom of France with police responsibilities, The Marshal of France, the marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years War, and some historians trace it back to the early twelfth century. Another organisation, the Constabulary, was under the command of the Constable of France, the constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. In 1415 the Maréchaussée fought in the Battle of Agincourt and their commander and his existence was rediscovered in 1934. Gallois de Fougières was then recorded as the first known gendarme to have died in the line of duty. Under King Francis I, the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary, the resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France. Unlike the former constabulary the new Maréchaussée was not a fully militarized force, in 1720, the Maréchaussée was officially attached to the Household of the King, together with the gendarmerie of the time, which was not a police force at all, but a royal bodyguard. English visitors to France saw their armed and uniformed patrols as royal soldiers with an oppressive role, despite their connection with the king, they were therefore perceived as a force favouring the reforms of the French National Assembly. As a result, the Maréchaussée Royale was not disbanded but simply renamed as the gendarmerie nationale and its personnel remained unchanged, and the functions of the force remained much as before. However, from this point, the gendarmerie, unlike the Maréchaussée became a military force. During the revolutionary period, the force responsible for policing was the National Guard. Although the Maréchaussée had been the police force of the ancien regime. In 1791 the newly named gendarmerie nationale was grouped into 28 divisions, in turn, two companies of gendarmes under the command of captains were based in each department
National Gendarmerie
–
Logo of the National Gendarmerie.
National Gendarmerie
–
A
Gendarme d'élite de la Garde Impériale.
National Gendarmerie
–
The
French Republican Guard is part of the National Gendarmerie and provides security as guards of honour during official ceremonies.
National Gendarmerie
–
Four Ile-de-France Departmental Gendarmes (two bikers) and one Republican Guard.
5.
Prefecture of Police of Paris
–
It is headed by the Prefect of Police. It is also in charge of emergency services, such as the Paris Fire Brigade, the Prefecture of Police also has limited security duties in the wider Île-de-France région. The prefecture is a building located in the Place Louis Lépine on the Île de la Cité. This building was built as a barracks for the Garde républicaine from 1863 to 1867 and was occupied by the Prefecture in 1871, as it is the capital of France, with government assemblies and offices and foreign embassies, Paris poses special issues of security and public order. Consequently, the government has been responsible for providing law enforcement. Disbanded at the start of the French Revolution in 1789, it was replaced by the current Prefecture of Police created by Napoléon I on February 17,1800. This means that Paris does not have its own police municipale, in Parisian slang, the police are sometimes known as the archers, a very old slang term in reference to the archers of the long-defunct Royal Watch. The jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police was initially the Seine département and its jurisdiction also included the communes of Saint-Cloud, Sèvres, Meudon, and Enghien-les-Bains, which were located in the Seine-et-Oise département. These four communes were added in the 19th century to the jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police in order to ensure protection of the imperial/royal residences located there. This territory made up of four départements is larger than the pre-1968 Seine département, the Prefecture of Police also has limited jurisdiction over the whole Île-de-France région for the coordination of law enforcement. As such, he coordinates the work of the departmental préfets of Île-de-France, the Prefect of Police can issue arrêtés defining rules pertaining to his field of competency. For instance, the rules of operation and security of Paris public parks are issued as joint arrêtés from the Mayor of Paris, the current Prefect of Police is Bernard Boucault. Until 1977, Paris had indeed no mayor and the police was essentially in the hands of the préfet de police. However, the powers of the mayor of Paris were increased at the expense of those of the Préfet de Police in 2002, notably for traffic and parking decisions. There is also a prefect of Paris, prefect for the region, whose services handle some tasks not devoted to the Police Prefect. Place Louis Lépine,1 rue de Lutèce,75004 Paris Tel,0154735373,0153715371,0140797979, the Prefecture of Police is divided into three sub-prefectures headed by prefects due to their importance. With four Administrative Directorates, General Police-Administrative police duties Medico-Legal Institute Traffic, Transport, veterinary Service Human Resources - Personnel, budget, equipment and police labor disputes. The office vanished at the start of the French Revolution and police was vested in the hands of the Paris Commune, reorganized by Napoléon Bonaparte in 1800, the Paris Police has been headed by the préfet de police since that time
Prefecture of Police of Paris
–
Logo
Prefecture of Police of Paris
–
Paris Police Headquarters at
Place Louis Lépine, 1 rue de Lutèce, 75004 Paris (métro
Cité).
Prefecture of Police of Paris
–
Renault Kangoo of the Prefecture of Police of Paris.
6.
Minister of the Interior (France)
–
The Ministry of the Interior in France is one of the most important French government cabinet positions. The Minister of Interior also take on the role of former Ministre des cultes and is consulted in the process of appointment of Catholic diocesan bishops. The Minister of Cults used to be a minister. While the ministry of the Interior supervises police forces, it does not supervise criminal enquiries, the Ministrys headquarters are located on the place Beauvau, facing the Élysée Palace. Place Beauvau is often used as a metonym for the ministry, the current Minister of the Interior is Matthias Fekl. List of Interior Ministers of France Official website
Minister of the Interior (France)
–
The entrance to the Ministry in
Place Beauvau is guarded by one gendarme (left) and one policewoman (right). Joint gendarmerie/police guard duty was seen as a way to bridge the differences between the services.
7.
Police
–
A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
Police
–
German State Police officer in
Hamburg, with the rank of Polizeihauptmeister mit Zulage (Confirmed Police Sergeant Major)
Police
–
The
hermandades of Medieval Spain were formed to protect pilgrims on
the road to
Santiago de Compostela.
Police
–
Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, founder of the first uniformed police force in the world.
Police
–
Patrick Colquhoun, founder of the
Thames River Police.
8.
French National Police
–
The National Police, formerly the Sûreté nationale, is one of two national police forces and the main civil law enforcement agency of France, with primary jurisdiction in cities and large towns. The other main agency is the military Gendarmerie, with jurisdiction in smaller towns and rural. The National Police comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior and has about 145,699 employees, the National Police operates mostly in large cities and towns. The police is commanded by the director-general who is currently Jean-Marc Falcone, the director-general is directly in charge of the General Directorate of the National Police and the immediate subordinate of the Minister of the Interior. The main Sub-Directorates of the Judicial Police are, Sous-direction anti-terroriste SDAT, groupes dIntervention de la Police Nationale, Nine regional SWAT teams. Direction centrale de la police aux frontières, performs identity checks with La douane française, Inspection générale de la police nationale, headed by the Inspector General and responsible for internal affairs. In the Paris Area, these tasks are assigned to a dedicated service—the Inspection Générale des Services, direction centrale des compagnies républicaines de sécurité, riot police, motorway police, and mountain rescue, commonly referred to as the CRS. Service de coopération technique internationale de police, the Unité de Coordination de la Lutte Antiterroriste and its Recherche Assistance Intervention Dissuasion unit. The DCRI was placed directly under the Ministry of the Interior, the Corps de commandement corresponds approximately to the lower commissioned ranks of a military force, or to grades of inspector in a British-style civil police force. These ranks were previously known as inspecteurs if detectives or officiers de la paix if uniformed, all the ranks insignia may be worn either on the shoulders or on the chest. In the latter they are square-shaped, prior to 1995 two civilian corps existed in which plain-clothes officers were given the training and authority to conduct investigations. The closest Anglo-American equivalent is the detective, in 1951, a standardisation was performed on the RR51 pistol in 7. 65x17mm and on the MAS-38 and MAT-49 for sub-machine guns. In the 80s, a process to standardize revolvers was initiated, the 1970s also saw the introduction of assault rifles to fend off heavily armed organised crime and terrorism. In the 2000s, the police started switching to semi-automatic pistols, for some years, the standard sidearm in the National Police and the Gendarmerie Nationale was the PAMAS G1, which was French licensed and made. The weapons are planned to stay in service until the year 2022, for greater threats the police use slightly modified Ruger Mini-14s purchased in the 1970s. While the vast majority of vehicles are screen printed French brand, some vehicles are provided by Ford. Plain clothes officers or specialised branches use vehicles from a variety of builders, law enforcement in France Official site of the French National Police Official site of the French Ministry of Interior Unofficial site of the National Police
French National Police
–
Patch of the National Police.
French National Police
–
SP 2022, the present standard issued sidearm of French police officers.
French National Police
–
Peugeot 308
French National Police
–
Renault Megane III
9.
French Gendarmerie
–
The National Gendarmerie is one of two national police forces of France. It is a branch of the French Armed Forces placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior—with additional duties to the Ministry of Defense and its area of responsibility includes smaller towns and rural areas, while the Police Nationale—a civilian force—is in charge of cities and large towns. Due to its status, the Gendarmerie also fulfills a range of military. The Gendarmes also have a cybercrime division and it has a strength of more than 100,000 personnel as of 2014. The Gendarmerie is heir to the Maréchaussée, the oldest police force in France and it has influenced the culture and traditions of gendarmerie forces all around the world—and especially in the former French colonial empire. The Gendarmerie is the descendant of the Marshalcy of the ancien regime, more commonly known by its French title. During the Middle Ages, there were two Grand Officers of the Kingdom of France with police responsibilities, The Marshal of France, the marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years War, and some historians trace it back to the early twelfth century. Another organisation, the Constabulary, was under the command of the Constable of France, the constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. In 1415 the Maréchaussée fought in the Battle of Agincourt and their commander and his existence was rediscovered in 1934. Gallois de Fougières was then recorded as the first known gendarme to have died in the line of duty. Under King Francis I, the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary, the resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France. Unlike the former constabulary the new Maréchaussée was not a fully militarized force, in 1720, the Maréchaussée was officially attached to the Household of the King, together with the gendarmerie of the time, which was not a police force at all, but a royal bodyguard. English visitors to France saw their armed and uniformed patrols as royal soldiers with an oppressive role, despite their connection with the king, they were therefore perceived as a force favouring the reforms of the French National Assembly. As a result, the Maréchaussée Royale was not disbanded but simply renamed as the gendarmerie nationale and its personnel remained unchanged, and the functions of the force remained much as before. However, from this point, the gendarmerie, unlike the Maréchaussée became a military force. During the revolutionary period, the force responsible for policing was the National Guard. Although the Maréchaussée had been the police force of the ancien regime. In 1791 the newly named gendarmerie nationale was grouped into 28 divisions, in turn, two companies of gendarmes under the command of captains were based in each department
French Gendarmerie
–
Logo of the National Gendarmerie.
French Gendarmerie
–
A
Gendarme d'élite de la Garde Impériale.
French Gendarmerie
–
The
French Republican Guard is part of the National Gendarmerie and provides security as guards of honour during official ceremonies.
French Gendarmerie
–
Four Ile-de-France Departmental Gendarmes (two bikers) and one Republican Guard.
10.
Marshal
–
Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Medieval Europe, during the last few centuries, it has been used for elevated offices, such as in military rank and civilian law enforcement. Marshal is an ancient loanword from Old French, which in turn is borrowed from Old Frankish *marhskalk, being still evident in Middle Dutch maerscalc, marscal and it is cognate with Old High German mar-scalc id. modern German Marschall. It originally and literally meant horse servant, from Germanic *marha- horse and this horse servant origin is retained in the current French name for farrier, maréchal-ferrant. The late Roman and Byzantine title of comes stabuli was adopted as a Latin analogue, which has become the French connétable and, derived from the French, finally, in Byzantium a marshal with elevated authority, notably a borderlands military command, is also known as an Exarch. In many countries, the rank of marshal, cf. field marshal, is the highest army rank, the equivalent navy rank is often admiral of the fleet. Marshals are typically, but not exclusively, appointed only in wartime, in many countries, especially in Europe, the special symbol of a marshal is a baton, and their insignia often incorporate batons. In some countries, the marshal is used instead of general in the higher air force ranks. The four highest Royal Air Force ranks are marshal of the Royal Air Force, air marshal, air marshal. The five-star rank of marshal of the Air Force is used by some Commonwealth, in the French Army and most National Armies modeled upon the French system, maréchal des logis is a cavalry term equivalent to sergeant. Some historical rulers have used special marshal titles to reward certain subjects, though not strictly military ranks, these honorary titles have been exclusively bestowed upon successful military leaders, such as the famous grand marshal of Ayacucho Antonio José de Sucre. Most famous are the Marshals of France, not least under Napoléon I, in England during the First Barons War the title Marshal of the Army of God was bestowed upon Robert Fitzwalter by election. Both the Soviet Union and Russia have army general as well as marshal in their rank system, the relationships between them is unresolved. Marshal of the Soviet Union Chief marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm is considered equivalent to the rank general of the army, which was used in the infantry. The function of the Marshal of the Court varies according to national tradition, often, the charge includes also the honorary privilege as chief of the protocol to announce formally the arrival of VIP guests at audiences, state dinners, and conferences in the monarchs premises. This office was made hereditary in the high nobility, e. g. the English Earl Marshal
Marshal
–
City Marshal of the City of London, on duty at the Lord Mayor's Show
Marshal
–
Marshal
Foch, circa 1920.
11.
Directorate-general of customs and indirect taxes
–
The agency acts as a coast guard, border guard, sea rescue organisation and a customs service. In addition, since 1995, the agency has replaced the Border Police in carrying out immigration control at border checkpoints, in particular at maritime borders. The Directorate-general is controlled by the Minister for the Budget, Public Accounts and it is normally known simply as la douane, individual officers being referred to as douaniers. The first French customs service was called the General Firm and operated under the monarchy, during the revolutionary period, a military customs service was formed, which provided a customs service but also fought in major wars such as the Franco-Prussian War and the First World War. Throughout the 19th Century armed units of douaniers served as frontier guards, customs personnel were divided into those employed in bureaux and those employed in brigades. The douaniers of the latter units wore blue uniforms with distinctive red trouser stripes and were former soldiers. The military customs service fought in the part of the Second World War but was disbanded in 1940 after the French defeat and was never reconstituted as a military service. Nonetheless small units of men from customs posts in French Indochina fought against the Japanese as guerilla units until the end of the war. The Musée national des douanes located in Bordeaux, France, presents the history of French customs, Service commun des laboratoires, providing scientific support in laboratories France is divided into 39 customs regions, which are grouped into 12 customs inter-regions. In 2010 the aircraft consisted of Reims-Cessna F406 maritime patrol aircraft. Two Reims-Cessna F406s operated out of Martinique and the rest were based in metropolitan France, from 2012 onwards eight Beechcraft King Air 350s replaced the F406s. In 2010 the customs had 3 offshore patrol boats,18 coastal patrol boats,18 surveillance patrol boats and 5 speed boats. Customs Agents are now armed with the 9mm SIG Sauer SP2022 pistols as the issued sidearm. The pistol was ordered to replace the PAMAS-G1 and several other pistols in service
Directorate-general of customs and indirect taxes
–
Renault Mégane of the Douanes
Directorate-general of customs and indirect taxes
–
Customs Agent 1, the "sky blue" pants with a "madder" band.
Directorate-general of customs and indirect taxes
–
Swift boat Noroit (DF12), a
Haize Hegoa type patrol boat of the French customs, moored in Saint-Malo
12.
Directorate-General of Customs and Indirect Taxes
–
The agency acts as a coast guard, border guard, sea rescue organisation and a customs service. In addition, since 1995, the agency has replaced the Border Police in carrying out immigration control at border checkpoints, in particular at maritime borders. The Directorate-general is controlled by the Minister for the Budget, Public Accounts and it is normally known simply as la douane, individual officers being referred to as douaniers. The first French customs service was called the General Firm and operated under the monarchy, during the revolutionary period, a military customs service was formed, which provided a customs service but also fought in major wars such as the Franco-Prussian War and the First World War. Throughout the 19th Century armed units of douaniers served as frontier guards, customs personnel were divided into those employed in bureaux and those employed in brigades. The douaniers of the latter units wore blue uniforms with distinctive red trouser stripes and were former soldiers. The military customs service fought in the part of the Second World War but was disbanded in 1940 after the French defeat and was never reconstituted as a military service. Nonetheless small units of men from customs posts in French Indochina fought against the Japanese as guerilla units until the end of the war. The Musée national des douanes located in Bordeaux, France, presents the history of French customs, Service commun des laboratoires, providing scientific support in laboratories France is divided into 39 customs regions, which are grouped into 12 customs inter-regions. In 2010 the aircraft consisted of Reims-Cessna F406 maritime patrol aircraft. Two Reims-Cessna F406s operated out of Martinique and the rest were based in metropolitan France, from 2012 onwards eight Beechcraft King Air 350s replaced the F406s. In 2010 the customs had 3 offshore patrol boats,18 coastal patrol boats,18 surveillance patrol boats and 5 speed boats. Customs Agents are now armed with the 9mm SIG Sauer SP2022 pistols as the issued sidearm. The pistol was ordered to replace the PAMAS-G1 and several other pistols in service
Directorate-General of Customs and Indirect Taxes
–
Renault Mégane of the Douanes
Directorate-General of Customs and Indirect Taxes
–
Customs Agent 1, the "sky blue" pants with a "madder" band.
Directorate-General of Customs and Indirect Taxes
–
Swift boat Noroit (DF12), a
Haize Hegoa type patrol boat of the French customs, moored in Saint-Malo
13.
Ministry of Agriculture (France)
–
The Ministry of Agriculture, Agrifood, and Forestry of France is the governmental body charged with regulation and policy, for agriculture, food, and forestry. The Ministrys headquarters are in the Hôtel de Villeroy, at 78 Rue de Varenne in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, adjacent to Hotel Matignon. Prior to 21 June 2012, the Ministrys remit was somewhat different, its title was Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Fisheries, Rural Affairs. The regional directorates for food, agriculture and forests oversee the implementation of policies for agriculture, food, aquaculture and their missions cover the content and organisation of agricultural education. They contribute to employment policy in the fields of farming, agri-food, forestry, the Minister of Agriculture, Food, Fishing and Rural Affairs is a cabinet member in the Government of France. Ministry of Agriculture Booklet in English
Ministry of Agriculture (France)
–
Ministry of Agriculture and Fishing, Hôtel de Villeroy, 78 rue de Varenne, Paris
14.
Wallis and Futuna
–
Though both French and Polynesian, Wallis and Futuna is distinct from the entity known as French Polynesia. Its land area is 142.42 km2 with a population of about 12,000, Mata-Utu is the capital and biggest city. Since 2003, Wallis and Futuna has been a French overseas collectivity, between 1961 and 2003, it had the status of a French overseas territory, though its official name did not change when the status changed. Polynesians settled the islands that would later be called Wallis and Futuna around the year 1000 AD/CE, the original inhabitants built forts and other identifiable ruins on the islands, some of which are still partially intact. Pierre Chanel, canonized as a saint in 1954, is a patron of the island of Futuna. The Wallis Islands are named after the British explorer, Samuel Wallis, on 5 April 1842, the missionaries asked for the protection of France after the rebellion of a part of the local population. On 5 April 1887, the Queen of Uvea signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate. The kings of Sigave and Alo on the islands of Futuna, the islands were put under the authority of the French colony of New Caledonia. In 1917, the three kingdoms were annexed to France and turned into the Colony of Wallis and Futuna. During World War II the islands’ administration was pro-Vichy until a Free French corvette from New Caledonia deposed the regime on 26 May 1942, units of the US Marine Corps landed on Wallis on 29 May 1942. In 1959, the inhabitants of the islands voted to become a French overseas territory, effective in 1961, in 2005, the 50th King of Uvea, Tomasi Kulimoetoke II, faced being deposed after giving sanctuary to his grandson who was convicted of manslaughter. The King claimed his grandson should be judged by tribal law rather than by the French penal system, there were riots in the streets involving the Kings supporters, who were victorious over attempts to replace the King. Two years later, Tomasi Kulimoetoke died on 7 May 2007, the state was in a six-month period of mourning. During this period, mentioning a successor was forbidden, on 25 July 2008, Kapiliele Faupala was installed as King despite protests from some of the royal clans. As an overseas collectivity of France, it is governed under the French constitution of 28 September 1958, the head of state is President François Hollande of France as represented by the Administrator-Superior Michel Jeanjean. The President of the Territorial Assembly is Petelo Hanisi since 11 December 2013, the Council of the Territory consists of three kings and three members appointed by the high administrator on the advice of the Territorial Assembly. The legislative branch consists of the unicameral Territorial Assembly or Assemblée territoriale of 20 seats, Wallis and Futuna elects one senator to the French Senate and one deputy to the French National Assembly. Justice is generally administered under French law by a tribunal of first instance in Mata-Utu, the Court of Appeal is in Nouméa, New Caledonia
Wallis and Futuna
–
Ruins of the
Talietumu fort
Wallis and Futuna
–
Flag
Wallis and Futuna
–
Lake Lalolalo on ʻUvea
15.
Conurbation
–
In most cases, a conurbation is a polycentric urbanised area, in which transportation has developed to link areas to create a single urban labour market or travel to work area. The term conurbation was coined in 1915 by Patrick Geddes in his book Cities In Evolution, the term as described is used in Britain, whereas the term in the United States is most closely equivalent to metropolitan area as used by the Census Bureau. It may consist of a city and its suburbs. A conurbation should also be contrasted with a megalopolis, where the areas are close but not physically contiguous. The cities and towns of Port Louis, Beau Bassin-Rose Hill, Curepipe, Quatre Bornes, Vacoas-Phoenix and other urbanized villages form a large, a large part of this conurbation is located in the district of Plaines Wilhems. This network of urban areas has a population of 530,920 as of 2011. Johannesburg, Ekurhuleni, and Tshwane are currently merging to form a region that comprises a population of 14.6 million people, the Mumbai Metropolitan Region consists of Mumbai and its satellite towns. Developing over a period of about 20 years, it consists of seven municipal corporations, the region has an area of 4,355 km² and with a population of 20,998,395, and is among the top ten most populated urban agglomerations in the world. It is linked together through the Mumbai Suburban Railway system and a network of roads. The population of the NCR region is 21.7 million, Dhaka has recently been linked with Narayanganj and Gazipur city such that there are no gaps between Dhaka and those two cities. The Klang Valley conurbation in the state of Selangor is composed of, Kuala Lumpur, the second largest conurbation by population in Malaysia is Greater Penang. Centred in George Town, the city of the state of Penang, the conurbation also includes the following towns in Penang. Lahore–Raiwind–Kala Shah Kaku, the second largest city in Pakistan with its towns of Kala Shah Kaku. Metro Manila, Philippines Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Region, comprising Ho Chi Minh City, Bình Dương, Đồng Nai, Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu, Tây Ninh, and Tân An. Hanoi Metropolitan Region, comprising Hanoi, Bắc Ninh, Thái Nguyên, Vĩnh Phúc, and Việt Trì. Qui Nhơn-Nha Trang-Da Lat Conurbation Belt, comprising Qui Nhơn, An Nhơn, Sông Cầu, Tuy Hòa, Vân Phong Bay, Ninh Hòa, Nha Trang, Dien Khánh, Cam Lâm, Cam Ranh, Trường Sa, Phan Rang, and Da Lat. Huế-Da Nang-Quảng Ngãi Conurbation Belt, comprising Huế, Hương Tra, Hương Thủy, Lăng Cô, Da Nang, Hòa Vang, Hoàng Sa, Hội An, Tam Kỳ, Chu Lai, Dung Quất, Sơn Tịnh and this area is colloquially known as the Area Metropolitana. The Flemish Diamond is the Flemish reference to a network of four areas in Belgium
Conurbation
–
Population tables of world cities
Conurbation
–
Greater London Urban Area Greater Manchester Urban Area
Conurbation
–
Greater Manchester Urban Area
Conurbation
–
West Midlands Urban Area West Yorkshire Urban Area
16.
Republican Guard (France)
–
The Republican Guard is part of the French Gendarmerie. It is responsible for providing guards of honor for the State, honor and security services for the highest national personalities and important foreign guests, Military ceremonies and guards of honour for fallen soldiers. The Guard however provides counter-sniper teams and SWAT teams, the Republican Guard also represents France at international events at home or abroad. The Republican Guard is twinned with the Red Guard of Senegal and its name derives from the Municipal Guard of Paris, established on 12 Vendémiaire XI by Napoleon Bonaparte. It distinguished itself in battles of historical significance, including Danzig and Friedland in 1807, Alcolea in 1808, in 1830, it was recreated, and again removed after the Revolution of 1848 in favor of the Civic Guard. June 1848 saw the creation of the Republican Guard of Paris, including an infantry regiment and it received its insignia July 14,1880. It took part in the First World War and saw its flag, during the Second World War, it reported to the police headquarters and took the name of Guard of Paris. Part of its staff rallied to General de Gaulle and the Guard was involved in the fightings alongside the FFI during the liberation of Paris. In 1952, the guard was renamed the Legion of the Republican Guard of Paris and took part in the Indochina War, in 1978, the guard took its current name of Republican Guard. President Giscard dEstaing gave it, on 11 November 1979, its new insignia, michele Alliot-Marie, Minister of Defence, said in October 2002, The Republican Guard has a popularity that transcends borders, it contributes to the splendour of the French military and France. These ceremonial functions are performed mainly by the first infantry regiment, detachments from the cavalry regiment reinforce the two infantry regiments in carrying out ceremonial and security duties in and around state buildings. These include the lining of both sides of the stairs of the Elysée or Matignon Palaces by dismounted cavalry on special occasions. These Republican Guards belong to the Cavalry Regiment and not to the units whose mission is to ensure the security of these palaces. Certain ceremonial duties in the form of guards are performed when state visits are made to the Paris museums or the Opera. Security missions Some guards are assigned to specific missions, Security of diplomatic bags entering and leaving the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. Safety of the Tour de France by the motorcycle squadron, the Republican Guard belongs to the French National Gendarmerie. As a historically Parisian organization, the guards wear the armorial bearings of the city on their uniforms and it consists of two infantry regiments and a horse cavalry regiment. It also has four musical formations, as well as display teams demonstrating prowess in horseback or motorcycle maneuvers, the Guard is commanded by a general de division
Republican Guard (France)
–
Republican guard in front of the
Elysée palace
Republican Guard (France)
–
Cavalry officer
Republican Guard (France)
–
Brazilian president
Lula reviewing the Republican Guard.
Republican Guard (France)
–
Guard counter-snipers (Observateurs-contre-tireurs)
17.
Firefighter
–
In some areas, they are also trained in Emergency Medical Services and operate ambulances in addition to being a firefighter. The fire service, or fire and rescue service, also known in countries as the fire brigade or fire department, is one of the three main emergency services. Firefighting and firefighters have become ubiquitous around the world, from wildlands to urban areas, according to Merriam-Websters Dictionary, the English word firefighter has been used since 1903. In urban areas across the world the population is protected by paid full time firefighters. The goals of firefighting are, As such, the skills required for operations are regularly practiced during training evaluations throughout a firefighters career. In the United States, the preeminent fire training and standards organization is the National Fire Protection Association, often initial firefighting skills are taught during a local, regional, or state approved fire academy. Depending on the requirements of a department, additional skills and certifications such as technical rescue, Firefighters work closely with other emergency response agencies, most particularly local and state police departments. The increasing role of firefighters in providing medical services also brings firefighters into common overlap with law enforcement. One example of this is a state law requiring all gunshot wounds to be reported to law enforcement agencies. Fire fighting has some skills, prevention, self-preservation, rescue, preservation of property, basic first aid. Firefighting is further broken down into skills which include size-up, extinguishing, ventilation, salvage, wildland firefighting includes size up, containment, extinguishment, and mop up. Search and Rescue, which has already mentioned, is performed early in any fire scenario and many times is in unison with extinguishing. Fire suppression systems have a record for controlling and extinguishing unwanted fires. Many fire officials recommend that every building, including residences, have sprinkler systems. Correctly working sprinklers in a residence greatly reduce the risk of death from a fire, with the small rooms typical of a residence, one or two sprinklers can cover most rooms. Other methods of prevention are by directing efforts to reduce known hazardous conditions or by preventing dangerous acts before tragedy strikes. Tools are generally carried at all times and are important for not only forcible entry, a self-contained breathing apparatus delivers air to the firefighter through a full face mask and is worn to protect against smoke inhalation, toxic fumes, and super heated gases. The PASS device sounds an alarm that can assist another firefighter, Firefighters often carry personal self-rescue ropes
Firefighter
–
A
U.S. Navy firefighter douses a fire during a
training drill in July 2008. He is equipped with a
fire hose with
fog nozzle,
breathing apparatus,
helmet and full structural firefighting kit.
Firefighter
–
Firefighters and
fire apparatus at the scene of a factory fire in
Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Firefighter
–
Firefighters frequently give fire prevention talks at schools and community events
Firefighter
–
Firemen's Memorial (Boston) by
John Wilson
18.
Mountain rescue
–
Mountain rescue refers to search and rescue activities that occur in a mountainous environment, although the term is sometimes also used to apply to search and rescue in other wilderness environments. This tends to include mountains with technical rope access issues, snow, avalanches, ice, crevasses, glaciers, alpine environments and high altitudes. The difficult and remote nature of the terrain in which mountain rescue often occurs has resulted in the development of a number of pieces of equipment. Helicopters are often used to quickly extract casualties, and search dogs may be deployed to find a casualty, Mountain rescue services may be paid professionals or volunteer professionals. Paid rescue services are likely to exist in places with a high demand such as the Alps, national parks with mountain terrain. These are frequently made up of climbers and guides. Often paid rescue services may work in co-operation with voluntary services, for instance, a paid helicopter rescue team may work with a volunteer mountain rescue team on the ground. Mountain rescue is often free, although in parts of the world rescue organizations may charge for their services. But there are exceptions, e. g. Switzerland. In more remote or less-developed parts of the world organized mountain rescue services are often negligible or non-existent, the main missions are search and rescue, avalanche response, first aid, surveillance of mountain areas, prevention of accidents, and public safety. In the five national parks of the Canadian Rockies, mountain rescue is solely the responsibility of Parks Canadas, however, parties should be self-reliant and not expect a search to begin until the next day. Search and rescue costs are paid for by park entrance fees. It is a part of the rescue system in the Czech Republic. The Gendarmerie Nationale and the Police nationale are in charge of mountain rescuing, −5 Peloton de Gendarmerie de Montagne, in the Massif central and Vosges areas. 90 per cent of interventions are made by air, the Polices Compagnie républicaine de sécurité are as well providing mountain search and rescue both in French Alps and Pyrenees alternatively with the PGHM. Switzerland have a dense network of alpine rescue and relief organisations. The Swiss Rega have two very distinctive characteristics, they can reach any place in Switzerland under 15 minutes, due to their 10 bases and this means an emergency physician will be on the flight to provide advanced treatment. The Swiss canton of Valais doesnt use the Rega, they have their own fleet, named Air Glacier
Mountain rescue
–
Helicopter rescue on
Mount Shasta in
California
Mountain rescue
–
Mountain rescue with a Helicopter in the Alps, where landing is not possible
Mountain rescue
–
Lowering a litter on a steep slope (training)
Mountain rescue
–
A mountain SAR rescue team of Alpini Meteomont,
Italy
19.
Forensics
–
Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence during the course of an investigation. In addition to their role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically be forensic, certain sections have developed over time to encompass the majority of forensically related cases, the word forensic comes from the Latin term forensis, meaning of or before the forum. The history of the term originates from Roman times, during which a charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story, the case would be decided in favor of the individual with the best argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two usages of the word forensic – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation. In modern use, the term forensics in the place of science can be considered correct. However, the term is now so closely associated with the field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word forensics with forensic science. The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment, Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However, ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow concepts in science that were developed centuries later. The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu, written in China by Song Ci in 1248, during the Song Dynasty. In one of the accounts, the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved by an investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location, flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed, methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt, as a precursor to the Polygraph test. In ancient India, some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice, similarly, in Ancient China, those accused of a crime would have rice powder placed in their mouths. In ancient middle-eastern cultures, the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly, in 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs, two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease. In the late 18th century, writings on these began to appear. Two examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the use of logic
Forensics
–
Forensic science
Forensics
–
Ambroise Paré 's surgical work laid the groundwork for the development of forensic techniques in the following centuries.
Forensics
–
Apparatus for the arsenic test, devised by
James Marsh.
Forensics
–
Fingerprints taken by
William Herschel 1859/60.
20.
SWAT
–
SWAT is a term for law enforcement units which use specialized or military equipment and tactics in the United States. In the United States as of 2005, SWAT teams were deployed 50,000 times every year, almost 80% of the time to search warrants. Other countries have developed their own police units that are also described as or compared to SWAT forces. SWAT units are equipped with specialized firearms including submachine guns, assault rifles, breaching shotguns, sniper rifles, riot control agents. The tactic worked and was soon to resolve other types of incidents involving heavily-armed criminals. The LAPD promoted what became known as SWAT teams for a variety of reasons, after the racially charged Watts Riots in Los Angeles in August 1965, the LAPD began considering tactics it could use when faced with urban unrest, rioting, or widespread violence. Daryl Gates, who led the LAPD response to the riots, would write that police at the time didnt face a single mob. New York University professor Christian Parenti has written that SWAT teams were originally conceived of as an urban counterinsurgency bulwark. Another reason for the creation of SWAT teams was the fear of lone or barricaded gunmen who might outperform police in a shootout, after the LAPDs establishment of its own SWAT team, many law enforcement agencies across the United States established their own specialized units under various names. At the time, the United Farm Workers union led by César Chavez was staging numerous protests in Delano, though the strike never turned violent, the Delano Police Department responded by forming ad-hoc SWAT-type units involving crowd and riot control, sniper skills and surveillance. Television news stations and print media carried live and delayed reportage of events across the United States. Personnel from the LAPD, having seen these broadcasts, contacted Delano, inspector Gates approved this idea, and he formed a small select group of volunteer officers. This first SWAT unit initially consisted of fifteen teams of four men each and these officers were given special status and benefits, and were required to attend special monthly training sessions. The unit also served as a security unit for police facilities during civil unrest, the LAPD SWAT units were organized as D Platoon in the Metro division. Early police powers and tactics used by SWAT teams were aided by legislation passed in 1967-8 with the help of Republican House representative Donald Santarelli. The legislation was promoted within the context of fears over the Civil Rights Movement, race riots, the Black Panther Party, and the emerging War on Drugs. The first significant deployment of the LAPDs SWAT unit was on December 9,1969, the raid was problematic from the start, leading to a shoot-out in which Daryl Gates phoned the Department of Defense, requesting and receiving permission to use a grenade launcher. The Panthers eventually surrendered, with four Panthers and four officers being injured, all six arrested Panthers were acquitted of the most serious charges brought against them, including conspiracy to murder police officers, because it was ruled that they acted in self-defense
SWAT
–
US FBI agents undergoing hostage rescue training and helicopter fast rope insertion training.
SWAT
–
U.S. Air Force 37th Training Wing's Emergency Services Team use a team lift technique to enter a target building during training at
Lackland Air Force Base, Texas on April 24, 2007.
SWAT
–
SWAT officers respond to the
2009 Fort Hood shooting.
SWAT
–
Marion County SWAT Team members during a training exercise.
21.
GIGN
–
Groupe dintervention de la Gendarmerie nationale, commonly abbreviated GIGN, is the elite law enforcement and special operations unit of the French National Gendarmerie. Its missions include counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, surveillance of national threats, protection of government officials, GIGN was established in 1974 following the Munich massacre. GIGN shares jurisdiction of French territory with the National Police special-response units, GIGN is headquartered in Versailles-Satory near Paris. Although most of its operations take place in France, the unit, as a component of the French Armed Forces, many of its missions are secret, and members are not allowed to be publicly photographed. Since its formation, GIGN has been involved in over 1,800 missions and rescued more than 600 hostages, the unit came into prominence following its successful assault on a hijacked Air France flight at Marseille Marignane airport in December 1994. GIGN was formed in 1973 in the wake of the Munich massacre and it became operational in March 1974, under the command of then-lieutenant Christian Prouteau and performed its first mission ten days later. Another unit was created simultaneously within the Gendarmerie parachute squadron in Mont-de-Marsan in southwest France, gIGNs initial complement was 15, later increased to 32 in 1976,78 by 1986, and 120 by 2005. On 1 September 2007, a reorganization took place. In effect, GSIGN was renamed GIGN and its former components became forces of the new GIGN which now reached a total complement of 380 operators. More than a simple name swap, the new organization aimed at, reinforcing command and control functions providing better integration through common selection, common training, improving the units capability to handle complex situations such as mass hostage-takings similar to the Beslan crisis. In 2009, the Gendarmerie, while remaining part of the French Armed Forces, was attached to the Ministry of the interior, under the new command structure, GIGN gendarmes can still be engaged in military operations outside of France due to their military status. Coordination between GIGN and RAID, the police elite team, is handled by a joint organization called Ucofi. A leader/follower protocol has been established for use when both units need to be engaged jointly, leadership belonging to the operating in its primary areas of responsibility. Since its creation, the group has taken part in over 1800 operations, liberated over 600 hostages and arrested over 1500 suspects, the two fatalities in action were sustained when dealing with armed deranged persons. Arrest of dangerous or deranged armed persons, surveillance and observation of criminals and terrorists. GIGN is currently organized in six forces, under two headquarters, Intervention force, Approx,100 men, serving as the main assault unit of the GIGN. It is divided into four platoons (French, sections, two of which are on permanent alert and these platoons are further divided into individual teams of operators. Two of the sections are specialized in high altitude jumps
GIGN
–
Boarding of the Pascal Paoli by the GIGN, on 28 September 2005. The ship had been occupied by the Corsican trade union STC.
22.
Paratroop
–
Paratroopers are military parachutists — military personnel trained in parachuting into an operation and usually functioning as part of an airborne force. Military parachutists and parachutes were first used on a large scale during World War II for troop distribution and transportation, Paratroopers are often used to seize strategic objectives such as airfields or bridges. They are used for tactical advantage as they can be inserted into the battlefield from the air and they jump out of airplanes using their parachutes to land safely on the ground. It is one of the three types of forced entry strategic techniques for entering a theater of war, the two are by land and sea. Another common use for paratroopers is to establish an airhead for landing other units and this doctrine was first practically applied to warfare by the Italians and the Soviets. During World War II, however, the two countries ground forces were overstretched, leaving their elite paratroopers to be employed as regular infantry. The first extensive use of paratroopers was by the Germans during World War II and later in the war also by the Americans, owing to the limited capacity of cargo aircraft of the period they rarely, if ever, jumped in groups much larger than 20 from one aircraft. In English language parlance, this load of paratroopers is called a stick, the terms come from the common use of white chalk on the sides of aircraft and vehicles to mark and update numbers of personnel and equipment being emplaned. In World War II, paratroopers most often used parachutes of a circular or round design and these parachutes could be steered to a small degree by pulling on the risers and suspension lines which attach to the parachute canopy itself. German paratroopers, whose harnesses had only a single riser attached at the back, today, paratroopers still use round parachutes, or round parachutes modified as to be more fully controlled with toggles. The parachutes are deployed by a static line. Mobility of the parachutes is often limited to prevent scattering of the troops when a large number parachute together. Some military exhibition units and special forces units use ram-air parachutes, many countries have one or several paratrooper units, usually associated to the national Army or Air Force, but in some cases to the Navy. Argentina was the first country on the continent of South America to use Paratroopers, the first paratroopers were issued jump helmets similar to that used by the British at the time, as the rest of the equipment slightly based on the Fallschirmjäger. The 4th Parachute Brigade is a unit of the Argentine Army specialised in airborne assault operations and it is based in Córdoba, Córdoba Province. The Rapid Deployment Force is based on this unit, the members of the unit wear Boina Rojas of the paratroopers with unit badges. During the Second World War the Australian Army formed the 1st Parachute Battalion, however, in the post-war period Australias parachute capability was primarily maintained by special forces units. In the 1970s and 1980s a parachute capability was revived, while a Parachute Battalion Group based on the 3rd Battalion
Paratroop
–
A British paratrooper from the
3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment comes in to land on a Spanish drop zone during Exercise Iberian Eagle.
Paratroop
–
Brazilian Army paratroopers.
Paratroop
–
U.S. Army paratroopers with the 82nd Airborne Division parachute from a C-130 Hercules aircraft during Operation Toy Drop 2007 at
Pope Air Force Base
Paratroop
–
Elite soldiers of Indian Army's 9 Para Commandos
23.
Riot control
–
Riot control refers to the measures used by police, military, or other security forces to control, disperse, and arrest people who are involved in a riot, demonstration, or protest. If a riot is spontaneous and irrational, actions which cause people to stop, however, these methods usually fail when there is severe anger with a legitimate cause, or the riot was planned or organized. Law enforcement officers or military personnel have long used less lethal weapons such as batons and whips to disperse crowds, since the 1980s, riot control officers have also used tear gas, pepper spray, rubber bullets, and electric tasers. In some cases, riot squads may also use Long Range Acoustic Devices, water cannons, armoured fighting vehicles, officers performing riot control typically wear protective equipment such as riot helmets, face visors, body armor, gas masks and riot shields. The first squad trained in techniques of riot control was formed in 1925 in colonial Shanghai as a response to the mismanaged riot of the May Thirtieth Movement. New policing methods, including combat pistol shooting, hand to hand combat skills, under Fairbairn, the SMP developed a myriad of riot control measures. These riot control techniques led to the introduction of Shanghais Reserve Unit - the first modern SWAT team, as a reserve unit, it was used to forcibly disband riots as well as to respond to high-level criminality like kidnappings and armed robberies. The skills developed in Shanghai have been adopted and adapted by both police forces and clandestine warfare units. For protection, officers performing riot control will often wear protective helmets and these are designed to protect the wearer from those dangers that come from direct melee and hurled objects such as bottles and bricks. The gear frequently worn by riot control officers protects the body with no vulnerable spots to exploit. For example, the worn by riot control officers have an additional outward-extending part that protects the back of the neck from assault. To provide even greater protection, the protective equipment often provides ballistic protection, if tear gas or other riot control agents are to be used, gas masks may also be worn. One of many additional concerns is to prevent people in the crowd from snatching officers side arms, in a very heavy crowd, the officer may not be able to see who is responsible for snatching a weapon, and may not even notice that it has happened. For this reason, riot police may have holsters with positive locking mechanisms or other means of retention. However, this can be a trade-off that increases the amount of time needed to draw the sidearm in an emergency, alternately, riot police may not carry sidearms at all. The initial choice of tactics determines the type of equipment used. The base choice is between lethal and less-than-lethal weaponry, the decision is based on the perceived level of threat and the existing laws, in many countries it is illegal to use lethal force to control riots in all but the most extreme circumstances. Special riot hand weapons include the wooden or rubber baton, the African sjambok, a leather or plastic whip, and the Indian lathi
Riot control
–
Rank of
Icelandic National Police officers in full riot gear during the
2008 Icelandic lorry driver protests.
Riot control
–
The centre of the
International Settlement of
Shanghai, 1928.
Riot control
–
Colombian Police armored riot control vehicle with water cannon ISBI
Riot control
–
Polish riot police squad in the 1930s, with opaque
riot shields and no helmet visors because
polycarbonate was not yet invented
24.
Mobile Gendarmerie
–
The Mobile Gendarmerie is a subdivision of the French National Gendarmerie whose main mission is to maintain public order and general security. Although the term mobile has been used at different times in the 19th century, the Mobile Gendarmerie is nicknamed la jaune because of its golden rank insignia, the traditional color of infantry in the French Army. The Mobile Gendarmerie is often mistaken with the National Polices CRS, as their missions are similar, still, many lawmakers were reluctant to create a force which - they thought - might become a new Praetorian guard. In 1921, it was decided to create Mobile Gendarmerie platoons in the Departmental Gendarmerie. In 1926, the formed the Garde Républicaine mobile, which became a separate branch in 1927. By 1940, the GRM was a force 21.000 strong, more than 6.000 GMR gendarmes fought in 1940 either in line Gendarmerie combat units or as detached personnel seconded to the Army. After the 1940 armistice, the Germans demanded that the GRM be disestablished, being attached to the cavalry branch of the Army, the Garde traded its companies for squadrons. After the Liberation, the Garde was disbanded and the GMR recreated under the new designation of Garde républicaine, in 1954, it acquired its present name of Gendarmerie mobile. During the post-war years, all new Gendarmes started their carrier in the Mobile Gendarmerie. In 2009, the Gendarmerie, while remaining part of the French Armed Forces, was attached to the Ministry of the interior, which already supervised the National Police, without changes to its missions. As a consequence of that change, the formal requisition process which the Ministry of the interior needed in order to use Mobile Gendarmerie forces is not used anymore. The territorial organisation of the GM is as follows,7 Zonal Gendarmerie Regions corresponding to the 7 metropolitan National Defense Zones,18 Mobile Gendarmerie Groupings including 1 armoured grouping based in Satory, near Versailles in the Paris area. 109 squadrons, each led by a major or a captain,1 National Gendarmerie Intervention Group with six metropolitan GIGN branches. Their missions include counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, surveillance of national threats, protection of government officials, GIGN is able to deploy a 200 men hostage rescue team to manage a major crisis. The Gendarmerie has a training facility, the National Gendarmerie forces training center, in Saint-Astier. Every squadron takes a two-week refresher training in riot-control techniques there every second year,18 to 20 of the 109 squadrons are permanently deployed on a rotational basis in the French overseas departments and territories. Until 2015, there used to be Reserve Mobile Gendarmerie squadrons but they were disestablished, since 2016, metropolitan France has been divided into 12 administrative regions and the Departmental Gendarmerie has followed this pattern with 13 Gendarmerie Regions. The general officer in charge of a region whose capital is also the seat of a Defense Zone heads all Mobile Gendarmerie forces of that region, the number of Zonal regions, which went down from 9 to 7 in 2000, was left unchanged in the 2016 reform
Mobile Gendarmerie
–
Squadron of Mobile Gendarmerie monitoring a demonstration in Paris. They are equipped with anti-riot shields and blue visor-fitted
SPECTRA helmet.
Mobile Gendarmerie
–
Using
tear gas
Mobile Gendarmerie
–
VXB VBRG of the Gendarmerie
Mobile Gendarmerie
–
Gendarmes mobiles equipped with
shields,
FAMAS and
gas mask.
25.
Water cannon
–
A water cannon is a device that shoots a high-velocity stream of water. Typically, a cannon can deliver a large volume of water. They are used in firefighting, large vehicle washing, riot control, most water cannons fall under the category of a fire monitor. Water cannons were first devised for use on fireboats, extinguishing fires on boats and buildings near the water was much more difficult and dangerous before fireboats were invented. The first fireboat deployed in Los Angeles was commissioned on 1 August 1919, the first fireboat in New York City was Marine 1, deployed 1 February 1891. There may have been other fireboats elsewhere even earlier, the first truck-mounted water cannon was used for riot control in Germany in the beginning of the 1930s. The most modern versions do not expose the operator to the riot, and are controlled remotely from within the vehicle by a joystick. The German-built WaWe 10.000 can carry 10,000 litres of water, use of water cannon in riot control contexts can lead to injury or death, with fatalities recorded in Indonesia, Zimbabwe, Turkey, and Ukraine. South Korea used water cannons containing capsaicin and fluorescent dyes for later screening, Water cannons in use during the 1960s, which were generally adapted fire trucks, would knock protesters down and on occasion, tear their clothes. On 30 September 2010, during a protest demonstration against the Stuttgart 21 project in Germany, dietrich Wagner, a retired engineer, suffered from the damage to his eyelids, a fracturing of a portion of the retinal bone, and damage to the retinas. The eye injuries thus inflicted on the man resulted in loss of eyesight. Graphic imagery was recorded of the event, sparking a debate about police brutality and proportionality in the use of state force. The presence of the media at riots has had a significant impact on water cannon use, there is much pressure on police departments to avoid bad publicity, and water cannon often play badly in the press. It is considered that this is a reason that they are not used more often in certain countries. In 1997, pink dye was added to the water used by South Korean and Indonesian police to disperse a riot. The implication is that they use this mark to make it easier to arrest rioters later. The United Kingdom, which had sold the water cannon to Indonesia, condemned this practice, most modern water cannons are also capable of adding tear gas to the stream. In 2004, Jaycor Tactical Systems was experimenting with additives that would allow electricity to be conducted through water and they have demonstrated delivery from a distance of up to twenty feet, but have not yet tested the device on people
Water cannon
–
Water cannon during a German demonstration, 2001
Water cannon
–
First German Police water cannon
Water cannon
–
WaWe 10.000 of
Hamburg Riot Police
Water cannon
–
Polish Police's Anti-Riot Detachment, filming a gathering. The film could later be presented during a trial as
evidence. A water cannon is seen in the background.
26.
Prefect
–
Prefect is a magisterial title of varying definition, but which, basically, refers to the leader of an administrative area. A prefects office, department, or area of control is called a prefecture, the words prefect and prefecture are also used, more or less conventionally, to render analogous words in other languages, especially Romance languages. They did have authority in their prefecture such as controlling prisons. The Praetorian prefect began as the commander of a generals guard company in the field. From the Emperor Diocletians tetrarchy they became the administrators of the four Praetorian prefectures, Praefectus urbi, or praefectus urbanus, city prefect, in charge of the administration of Rome. Praefectus vigilum, commander of the Vigiles, Praefectus aerarii, nobles appointed guardians of the state treasury. Praefectus aerarii militaris, prefect of the military treasury Praefectus annonae, Praefectus alae, commander of a cavalry unit. Praefectus cohortis, commander of a cohort, Praefectus fabrum, officer in charge of fabri, i. e. well-trained engineers and artisans. Praefectus legionis agens vice legati, equestrian acting legionary commander, Praefectus orae maritimae, official in charge with the control and defense of an important sector of sea coast. Praefectus socium, Roman officer appointed to a function in an ala sociorum. For some auxiliary troops, specific titles could even refer to their peoples, less important provinces though were entrusted to prefects, military men who would otherwise only govern parts of larger provinces. The most famous example is Pontius Pilate, who governed Judaea at a time when it was administered as an annex of Syria, septimius Severus, after conquering Mesopotamia, introduced the same system there too. Praefectus urbi, a prefect of the era who guarded the city during the annual sacrifice of the Latin. His former title was custos urbi, especially in Medieval Latin, præfectus was used to refer to various officers—administrative, military, judicial, etc. —usually alongside a more precise term in the vernacular. The term is used by the Roman Catholic Church, which based much of its canon law terminology on Roman law, the Roman Curia has the nine Prefects of all the Congregations as well as the two of the Papal Household and of the Economic Affairs of the Holy See. The title also attaches to the heads of some Pontifical Council, who are titled president. For example, the president of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue is also the prefect of the Commission for Religious Relations with Muslims, traditionally these Curial officials are Cardinals, hence often called Cardinal-Prefect or Cardinal-President. There was a custom that those who were not cardinals when they were appointed were titled Pro-Prefect or Pro-President, then these officials would be appointed prefect or president after their elevation to the Sacred College
Prefect
–
Prefect of the
Bouches-du-Rhône departement (France) during
Bastille Day ceremony.
Prefect
–
Saint Margaret attracts the attention of the Roman prefect, by
Jean Fouquet from an
illuminated manuscript
27.
Public order
–
Robertson maintains a crime is nothing more than an act that contravenes a law. Generally speaking, deviancy is criminalized when it is too disruptive and has proved uncontrollable through informal sanctions, Public order crime should be distinguished from political crime. Thus, public order crime includes consensual crime and victimless crime and it asserts the need to use the law to maintain order both in the legal and moral sense. Public order crime is now the term by proponents as against the use of the word victimless based on the idea that there are secondary victims that can be identified. In short, there are no clear, unequivocal definitions of consensus, harm, injury, offender, such judgments are always informed by contestable, epistemological, moral, and political assumptions. A vice squad is a police division whose focus is stopping public-order crimes like gambling, narcotics, prostitution, note that under English and Welsh law, a public order offence is a different category of crime related to disorderly conduct and other breaches of the peace. g. After all, society could deal with unpopular behaviour without invoking criminal or other legal processes and these decisions change over time as moral standards change. For example, Margaret Sanger who founded the first birth control clinic in New York City was accused of distributing obscene material, information about birth control is no longer considered obscene. This reflects a fundamental problem of legal consistency. People have the right to engage in some self-destructive activities, for all its carcinogenic qualities, tobacco is not a prohibited substance. Similarly, the consumption of alcohol can have severe physical consequences. Qualitatively, there is nothing to distinguish the forms of gambling deemed illegal, a side effect of turning too many people into criminals is that the concept of crime becomes blurred and genuine criminality becomes less unacceptable. A further perceptual problem emerges when laws remain in force but are not enforced. Thus, any deterrent message that the state might wish to send is distorted or lost. e. The use of the word implies that there are no injuries caused by these crimes and, if that is true. This has two consequences, Because these crimes take place in private, comprehensive law enforcement would consume an enormous amount of resources. g. Criminalization is intended as a pre-emptive, harm-reduction device, using the threat of punishment as a deterrent to those proposing to engage in the behaviour causing harm, the state becomes involved because the costs of not criminalizing outweigh the costs of criminalizing it. The process of criminalization should be controlled by the state because, even in policed societies, fear may inhibit reporting or co-operation in a trial
Public order
–
Criminology and
penology
28.
Demonstration (people)
–
Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations. Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent, or can begin as nonviolent, sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved. In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all, in other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups, or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot. Demonstrations are a form of activism, usually taking the form of a gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a associated with that opinion. Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint regarding a public issue, a demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate. There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements and these may include, Marches, in which a parade demonstrate while moving along a set route. Rallies, in which people gather to listen to speakers or musicians, picketing, in which people surround an area. Nudity, in which they protest naked - here the antagonist may give in before the demonstration happens to avoid embarrassment, Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible, topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent, government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. Protest marches and demonstrations are a nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence, some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of weapons which can provoke, destabilize
Demonstration (people)
–
Monday demonstrations in East Germany helped to bring down the
Berlin Wall.
Demonstration (people)
–
Demonstration in Canada against oil tankers, 1970
Demonstration (people)
–
Greece, 2013: a
working class political
protest calling for the
boycott of a
bookshop after an employee was fired, allegedly for her
labor rights political
activism
Demonstration (people)
–
American Civil Rights March on Washington, leaders marching from the
Washington Monument to the
Lincoln Memorial, August 28, 1963.
29.
Judiciary
–
The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes, in some nations, under doctrines of separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law or enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as Common Law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, the Judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws through the process of judicial review, Judges constitute a critical force for interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus de facto in common law countries creating the body of constitutional law. Budget of the judiciary in many transitional and developing countries is almost completely controlled by the executive, the latter undermines the separation of powers, as it creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary. The proper national wealth distribution including the government spending on the judiciary is subject of the constitutional economics and it is important to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary, the state, and the private. For instance, in France, the jurisprudence constante of the Court of Cassation or the Council of State is equivalent in practice with case law, in common law jurisdictions, courts interpret law, this includes constitutions, statutes, and regulations. They also make law based upon prior case law in areas where the legislature has not made law, for instance, the tort of negligence is not derived from statute law in most common law jurisdictions. The term common law refers to this kind of law, in civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law, but are prohibited from creating law, and thus do not issue rulings more general than the actual case to be judged. Jurisprudence plays a role to case law. State courts, which try 98% of litigation, may have different names and organization, trial courts may be called courts of common plea, appellate courts superior courts or commonwealth courts. The judicial system, whether state or federal, begins with a court of first instance, is appealed to an appellate court, and then ends at the court of last resort. In France, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the Council of State for administrative cases. In the Peoples Republic of China, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the National Peoples Congress. Other countries such as Argentina have mixed systems that include lower courts, appeals courts, a cassation court, in this system the Supreme Court is always the final authority, but criminal cases have four stages, one more than civil law does. On the court sits a total of nine justices and this number has been changed several times. Japans process for selecting judges is longer and more stringent than the process in the United States, assistant judges are appointed from those who have completed their training at the Legal Training and Research Institute located in Wako. Once appointed, assistant judges still may not qualify to sit alone until they have served for five years, Judges require ten years of experience in practical affairs, as a public prosecutor or practicing attorney
Judiciary
–
Justitia, symbol of the judiciary (statue at Shelby County Courthouse, Memphis, TN, United States)
30.
Search warrant
–
In most countries a search warrant cannot be issued in aid of civil process. The laws usually make an exception for hot pursuit, an officer following a criminal who has fled the scene of a crime has the right to enter a property where the criminal has sought shelter. This contrasts with authoritarian regimes, where police typically can search property, in the England and Wales, a local magistrate issues search warrants, which require that a constable provide evidence that supports the warrant application. Under Section 18a of PACE, a constable can conduct a search immediately without an inspectors authorisation and this subsection allows a constable to search the home of a suspect under arrest in their presence before they take the suspect to a police station. Under Section 32 of PACE, a constable who arrests a person who is on their own property or has just left their premises, Search warrants must be signed by a Sheriff after a petition from police. Gas company officials may enter a home to inspect, repair, or replace gas meters and this hearing is ex parte meaning only the crown is present. This fact obliges the police to include any facts that hurt their application. After a search the occupant will have a copy of the warrant, if these requirements are not met by the police the evidence found may become admissible against the accused at trial. Under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, most police searches require a warrant based on probable cause. Under the Fourth Amendment, searches must be reasonable and specific and this means that a search warrant must specify the object to search for and the place to search for it. Other items, rooms, outbuildings, persons, vehicles, etc. may require additional search warrants, to obtain a search warrant, an officer must prove to a magistrate or judge that probable cause exists based upon direct information or hearsay information. Police can seize property and persons under a search warrant. The standard for a warrant is lower than the quantum of proof required for a later conviction. In the United States, the issue of federal warrants is determined under Title 18 of the United States Code, the law has been restated and extended under Rule 41 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Federal search warrants may be prepared on Form AO93, Search, each state also enacts its own laws governing the issuance of search warrants. This doctrine is not actually an exception to the Fourth Amendment, balanced against the sovereigns interests at the border are the Fourth Amendment rights of entrants. This balance at international borders means that routine searches are reasonable there, certain cases dont require a search warrant, such as where a person in control of the object or property gives consent. Some commonly cited exigent circumstances are, hot pursuit of a felon, imminent destruction of evidence before a warrant can be obtained, emergency searches
Search warrant
–
Request for a search warrant dated December 11, 1905
31.
Probable cause
–
In United States criminal law, probable cause is the standard by which police authorities have reason to obtain a warrant for the arrest of a suspected criminal. The standard also applies to personal or property searches, Probable cause, in conjunction with a preponderance of the evidence, also refers to the standard by which a grand jury believes that a crime has been committed. The term comes from the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution, Probable in this case may relate to statistical probability or to a standard of common behavior. The context of the word here is not exclusive to community standards and does not predate statistics. A common definition is an amount of suspicion, supported by circumstances sufficiently strong to justify a prudent. Probable cause is a standard of evidence than a reasonable suspicion. Even hearsay can supply probable cause if it is from a source or supported by other evidence. In Brinegar v. United States, the U. S. ”In the criminal code of some European countries, notably Sweden, the concept of reasonable grounds for suspecting is used throughout the law dealing with police powers. The history of the United States use of cause and its integration in the Fourth Amendment has roots in English common law. This is the idea that someone has the right to defend their “castle” or home from unwanted “attacks” or intrusion, in the 1600s this saying started to apply legally to landowners to protect them from casual searches from government officials. The first was in Massachusetts in 1761 when a customs agent submitted for a new writ of assistance, in the case the lawyer for the merchants James Otis argued that writs of assistance violated the fundamentals of English Law and was unconstitutional. John Adams, a lawyer at the time who wrote the Massachusetts provision that the Fourth Amendment relied heavily on, was impacted by James Otis’s argument. A case against general warrants was Entick v. Carrington, in this case Lord Camden the chief judge said that general warrants were not the same as specific warrants and that parliament or case law could not authorize general warrants. Along with these statements Lord Camden also affirmed that the needs of the state were more important than the individuals rights and this upheld the ideology of the social contract while holding to idea that the government purpose was to protect the property of the people. He called for the government to seek reasonable mean in order to private property as well as a cause. Imposing a reasonable suspicion requirement, as urged by petitioner, would give parolees greater opportunity to anticipate searches, the court held that reasonableness, not individualized suspicion, is the touchstone of the Fourth Amendment. It has been proposed that Fourth Amendment rights be extended to probationers and parolees, there is not much that remains of the Fourth Amendment rights of probationers after waiving their right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. An essay called They Released Me from My Cage. But They Still Keep Me Handcuffed was written in response to the Samson decision, in the United States, use of a trained dog to smell for narcotics has been ruled in several court cases as sufficient probable cause
Probable cause
–
Constitution of the United States
Probable cause
–
Officer training a drug dog
32.
BMW R1100RT
–
The R1100RT is a BMW touring motorcycle with a twin-cylinder boxer engine. The R1100RT was released in 1996 as a successor to the R100RT, in addition to extensive changes to the full fairing, the engine power was increased significantly from 44 to 66 kW, and the capacity increased from 971 cc to 1085 cc. It has a bore of 99 mm, a stroke of 70.5 mm, top speed is 211 km/h, and the time to accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h is 3.9 seconds. The bike comes standard with a braking system and a regulated three-way catalytic converter. The chassis is constructed in three parts and consists of front and rear frame and a co-supporting ligands motor-gear unit, the suspension was formed on the front by a Telelever and the rear via a Paralever swingarm. The fuel tank holds 25.2 liters,6 liters reserve, the average fuel consumption is 4.7 liters per 100 km at a speed of 90 km/h or 5.6 liters at 120 km/h. The manufacturer recommends the use of petrol with a resistance of at least 95 octane. The front tyres have the dimensions 120/70 ZR17 and rear 160/60 ZR18, the bike weighs 285 kg in running order and has a maximum additional payload of 205 kg. In 2001, the R1100RT was superseded by the R1150RT, touring motorcycles with comparable equipment and motor characteristics are the Honda Pan-European, the Honda Gold Wing and the Triumph Trophy 1200
BMW R1100RT
–
BMW R1100RT
33.
Dacia Duster
–
The Dacia Duster is a compact sport utility vehicle produced jointly by the French manufacturer Renault and its Romanian subsidiary Dacia since 2010. It is also marketed as the Renault Duster in certain markets, such as India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Mexico, South Africa, Ukraine and it is also rebadged as the Nissan Terrano in Russia and India. It was officially launched at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show and is the model based on the Logan platform. In 2014, 40% of the Duster units sold worldwide were badged Dacia, a four-door double cab pick-up was launched at the end of 2015 in South America, marketed as the Renault Duster Oroch. An unrelated off-road vehicle, the ARO10 manufactured by Auto Romania, was sold as Dacia Duster in some markets during the 1980s and 1990s. The Duster was initially introduced in the ice racing version prepared for the Andros Trophy, the production version was revealed to the media on 8 December 2009, and was subsequently launched at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2010. Based on the B0 platform, the Duster measures 4.31 metres in length,1.82 metres in width and has 210 mm of ground clearance. Its luggage space has a volume of up to 475 litres, while with the rear benchseat folded and tipped forward, the Duster is offered with two-wheel drive or four-wheel-drive. In September 2013, the facelifted Dacia Duster was presented at the Frankfurt Motor Show, the exterior received important changes in the front with a new chromed grille and redesigned headlights, restyled roof bars, new 16-inch wheels and modest modifications in the rear. The interior was renewed, with design and features similar to those introduced the previous year on the new models in the Dacia line-up. A new TCe 1251.2 liter direct-injection turbo engine was introduced, the Dacia Duster features Bosch 8.1 ABS, as well as electronic brakeforce distribution and emergency brake assist. It also features electronic stability control as an option on certain versions, as well as understeer control and this option also allows torque to be transferred away from a spinning wheel in 4x4 mode to improve traction when diagonal wheel spin occurs. On the passive safety front, the Dacia Duster comes as standard with two front airbags and three-point seat belts with load limiters for the front seats. Depending on version, two lateral head/thorax airbags are fitted in addition to the driver and passenger front airbags to provide protection in the case of side impact. The pyrotechnic pretensioners for the front seats complete Dacia Dusters retention system, in 2011, the Duster was tested by the Euro NCAP, receiving a three-star rating. It was awarded 27 points for the occupant protection,38 points for the child occupant protection,10 points for the pedestrian protection. In the latter category, the rating was influenced by the lack of the speed limiter, the Renault Duster Oroch is a double cab pick-up version of the Duster. It was unveiled on 18 June 2015 at the Buenos Aires Motor Show and was previewed by a car at the 2014 São Paulo Motor Show
Dacia Duster
–
Dacia Duster
Dacia Duster
–
Dacia Duster interior
Dacia Duster
–
2013 Dacia Duster
Dacia Duster
–
Rear view
34.
Ford Focus
–
The Ford Focus is a sedan car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company since 1998. Ford began sales of the Focus to Europe in July 1998, in Europe, North and South America, and South Africa, the Focus replaced the various versions of the Ford Escort and Ford Laser sold in those markets. In Asia and Australasia, it replaced the Ford Laser, in designing the Ford Focus, a group of young designers used whats called the Third Age Suit in order to simulate the physical limitations of an elderly person. The suit, which restricts the movements, allowed for insights that were implemented into the cars design. Ford of Europe introduced the Focus in 1998 to the European market as a replacement for the Ford Escort. The decision to name the new car the Ford Focus was made in early 1998 and this eleventh hour dispute was resolved, however, and the car was launched with the name Focus. The Focus MK1 was awarded the 1999 European Car of the Year award, the Fusion name was eventually used on two different vehicle families - a utility version of the Fiesta in Europe, and on a mid-size sedan model in North America. Ford of North America began marketing the Focus in September 1999 for the 2000 model year as a surprise Christmas present for Fords CEO Jacques Nasser, the car was launched as a three-door hatchback, four-door sedan and five-door wagon, a five-door hatchback debuted in 2001. In 2002, Ford launched its highest performance version of the Focus and this original Focus RS was only available in Europe. Ford was said not to concern about losing money on the Focus so the company could sell gas guzzlers for big profits. Many industry insiders also view cars like the Focus as compliance cars because of their role in helping to bring down the fleet average fuel economy to meet current fuel-economy standards. The basic suspension design, which contributed much to the Mk 1s success, was carried over unchanged from its predecessor. Along with a 10 percent stiffer bodyshell, according to Ford this offers a better ride, the same body styles as the Mk 1 Focus were offered, though the saloon did not appear until mid-2005. A two-door coupé-cabriolet with a hardtop was added to the line-up in 2007. The Focus Mk 4 is larger and considerably heavier than its predecessor, it has a 25 mm increase in wheelbase, as a result, the interior and boot space have increased. New technologies include a KeyFree system, a windshield, adaptive front lighting, Bluetooth hands-free phones and voice control for audio, telephone. Stylistically, the Mk 2 features the design language found in the Mondeo. Although still recognisable as a Focus, the new car uses styling features from the abandoned B-Proposal for the original Focus which never reached production, in 2005, Ford released a MK. II version of Fords sports division of Focus, the Focus ST
Ford Focus
–
Ford Focus hatch (Europe)
Ford Focus
–
Ford Focus (first generation)
Ford Focus
–
Ford Focus (second generation, Europe)
Ford Focus
–
Ford Focus (North America second generation)
35.
Ford Galaxy
–
The Ford Galaxy is a large multi-purpose vehicle produced by Ford Europe. It was first introduced in June 1995, and since then has spanned three generations. From 2006, the Galaxy has been developed alongside the closely related Ford S-Max using the Ford Mondeos platform, the first Galaxy was designed as a joint venture product between Ford and the Volkswagen Group. Initially only the 2.0 litre inline-four petrol version used a Ford powerplant – this derived from the Ford I4 DOHC engine, in later years, this unit was supplemented by a 2.3 litre 16 valve version first seen in the facelifted Ford Scorpio. This engine was mounted as opposed to longitudinal mounting like in the Ford Scorpio. All of the VW Group sourced engines were supplied with Ford badges on the rocker covers, all automatic transmissions were VW Group AG4 boxes, but manual gearboxes on all engines were VXT75 five speeds. Originally there were three levels, the Aspen, the Ghia and the GLX. However, in 1999, Ford introduced the new LX and Zetec trim styles which replaced the Aspen, in August 2000, the Galaxy got an facelift, alongside its Volkswagen and Seat relations. It received further enhancements for the 2004MY, gaining an front end similar to the facelifted MK3 Mondeo, in 1999, the Mk I Ford Galaxy was rated in a Top Gear magazine survey as the least satisfying car in the United Kingdom. The second generation Galaxy was introduced at the 2006 Geneva Motor Show, the new Galaxy is larger than its predecessor, and is a four pillar vehicle of Ford design, with no Volkswagen Group content. No longer produced at the AutoEuropa plant in Portugal, Europes replacement Galaxy is assembled at a newly re equipped plant alongside the Mondeo in Genk, Belgium. With the S-Max catering to customers who require a sport oriented multi-purpose vehicle, due to its size, Ford was unable to design the Galaxy using a full Kinetic Design format. However, Ford states that the Mk III Galaxy has elements of Kinetic Design, such as its grille, large wheelarches. The vehicle has no spare wheel, instead an aerosol foam sealant is provided to seal punctures until a new tyre can be purchased and he describes the engine as not powerful enough and should have been left in the smaller cars. In the United Kingdom, the Mk II Galaxy was available in Edge, Zetec, in February 2008, Ford added the Titanium high level trim in common with the Focus, C-MAX, Kuga, Mondeo and S-MAX ranges. The Titanium model is specified to the level as the Ghia. At the same time, the availability of a 175 PS2.2 TDCi engine option was announced, the current trim levels available in the United Kingdom are Zetec, Titanium and Titanium X. The Ford Galaxy also comes with lots of such as Home Safe Lighting, Quickclear heated windscreen
Ford Galaxy
–
Ford Galaxy
Ford Galaxy
–
First generation
Ford Galaxy
–
Galaxy (1995−2000)
36.
Ford Transit
–
The Ford Transit is a range of light commercial vehicles produced by Ford since 1965. Sold primarily as a van, the Transit is also built as a passenger van, minibus, cutaway van chassis. Over eight million Transit have been sold, making it the third best-selling van of all time and have been produced across four basic platform generations, while initially designed for European consumption, the Transit is now produced in Asia, North America, and Europe for worldwide buyers. As of 2016, the Transit is the van in the United States. The Transit drives Fords 57 percent share of the van market in the US. Unlike the British-built Transit family, the first production Ford to wear the Transit badge was a van built in Fords Köln plant in Germany and it was introduced in 1953 as FK1000 with a 1. 3-litre inline-four engine from the contemporary Taunus. In 1955 the engine capacity was enlarged to 1.5 litres, from 1961, this vehicle was called the Ford Taunus Transit. Production of this model ceased in 1965, the German vehicle was not widely exported, and the Mark 1 tag has commonly been applied, retrospectively, to the 1965 to 1978 British model. Fords own historical look back at Transit production, published for the launch of the 1994 model and this article attempts to make mention of all the common naming systems. Transits have also produced in Fords Genk factory in Belgium. Transits were produced in Amsterdam for the market from the mid-1970s until the end of 1981. This factory had ample capacity, since the Ford Transcontinental produced there had little success, although the Transit sold well in the Netherlands, it was not enough to save the factory, which closed in December 1981. In a UK market segment then dominated by the Bedford CA, Fords Thames competitor, because of its restricted load area, Ford switched to a front-engined configuration, as did the 1950s by Bedford with their well-regarded CA series vans. Most of the Transits mechanical components were adapted from Fords car range of the time, another key to the Transits success was the sheer number of different body styles, panel vans in long and short wheelbase forms, pick-up truck, minibuses, crew-cabs to name but a few. The engines used in the UK were the Essex V4 for the version in 1.7 L and 2.0 L capacities. By using relatively short V-4 engines Ford were able to minimise the additional length necessitated to place the engine ahead of the driver. Another popular development under the bonnet was the equipping of the van with an alternator at time when the UK market competitors expected buyers to be content with a dynamo, a 43 bhp diesel engine sourced from Perkins was also offered. As this engine was too long to fit under the Transits stubby nose, the underpowered Perkins proved unpopular, and was replaced by Fords own York unit in 1974
Ford Transit
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2006–2011 Ford Transit (VM) 140 T330 van
Ford Transit
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1964 Ford Taunus Transit
Ford Transit
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Mark I long-wheelbase Ford Transit with twin rear wheels and widened arches
Ford Transit
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Mark I (UK numbering) Ford Transit Minibus post-facelift
37.
Iveco Daily
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The Iveco Daily is a large light commercial vehicle produced by Iveco since 1978, it was also sold as the Fiat Daily by Fiat until 1983. Unlike the more car-like unibody Fiat Ducato, the Daily uses a ladder frame typical of heavier commercial vehicles. The first series Daily was offered two models, the 35 and the 50. The larger one had load capacity up to 17 m³, in 1985, a turbodiesel version named TurboDaily was introduced. An Alfa Romeo badge engineered version was sold as the Alfa Romeo AR8, the Daily has no other connection with the Transit. The second generation was facelifted in 1996, it only slightly exterior-wise. The 59-12 and 59-13 models were launched, all-wheel-drive variants were also made available. The Turbodaily name was dropped as all came with Unijet technology. Two new versions were released, Agile, with automatic gearshift, and CNG, also two new load classes were introduced, Daily 65 and Daily 28. The Iveco Daily was made Van of the Year for the year 2000, originally there were models with three engine options, all of type 8140 of 2.8 liters. A variant was a diesel with 66 kW, but they rarely sold. Another had turbocharger, intercooler and 78 kW, the last variant gave 92 kW and had common rail injection. Shortly after receiving the largest engine variable geometry turbocharger and an output of 107 kW, at this time, the old 8140-engine was completely replaced. The motors up to 88 kW had five-speed gearbox, while the powerful engines also available with a six-speed gearbox. The model could also be obtained with electronic / hydraulic controlled manual gearbox, the fourth generation was designed by Giugiaro and arrived to markets in the middle of 2006. Its available as, Van, cabin cruiser, Combi, Minibus, Agile, the minibus is also commercialized with the Irisbus brand. Certain models with engines have been sold as the Iveco EcoDaily in some European markets. For the first time since the year 2000, a version of the Daily is available starting from 2007
Iveco Daily
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Iveco Daily
Iveco Daily
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First generation Iveco Daily.
Iveco Daily
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Second generation Iveco Daily
Iveco Daily
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Second generation Iveco Daily rear
38.
Land Rover Defender
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The Land Rover Defender is a British four-wheel-drive off-road utility vehicle developed from the original Land Rover Series launched in June 1948. In October 2013 Land Rover announced that production would end in December 2015 after a run of 67 years. Production finally ended on 29 January 2016 when the last Defender, H166 HUE, Jaguar Land Rover announced their intention to launch a replacement new Defender, which motoring journalists speculate will be quite different from the original version. The model was introduced in 1983 as Land Rover One Ten, the Ninety and One Ten replaced the earlier Land Rover Series, and at the time of launch, the only other Land Rover model in production was the Range Rover. In 1989, a model was brought out by Land Rover to be produced in parallel with the other two, the Land Rover Discovery. To avoid possible confusion, from 1991 the Ninety and the One Ten were renamed the Defender 90 and these carried front badges that said Defender, with a badge on the rear of the vehicle saying Defender 90 or Defender 110. The most recent model, from 2007-2016, still featured the space above the radiator for the badge but was blank, instead had Land Rover spelled across the leading edge of the bonnet in raised individual letters, in keeping with the Discovery and Freelander. At the rear was a new style of Defender badge with an underlining swoosh, on these last models there are no badges defining the wheelbase model of the vehicle. The 127-inch wheelbase Land Rover 127, available from 1985, was marketed with the name rendered numerically. Following the adoption of the Defender name, it became the Defender 130, production of the model now known as the Defender began in 1983 as the Land Rover 110, a name which reflected the 110-inch length of the wheelbase. The Land Rover 90, with 93-inch wheelbase, and Land Rover 127, with 127-inch wheelbase, outwardly, there is little to distinguish the post-1983 vehicles from the Series III Land Rover. A full-length bonnet, revised grille, plus the fitting of wheel arch extensions to cover wider-track axles are the most noticeable changes, initially the Land Rover was also available with a part-time 4WD system familiar to all derivatives produced since 1949. The part-time system failed to sell and was dropped from the options list by 1984. From 1984, wind-up windows were fitted, and a 2. 5-litre,68 horsepower diesel engine was introduced and this was based on the earlier 2. 3-litre engine, but had a more modern fuel-injection system as well as increased capacity. A low compression version of the 3. 5-litre V8 Range Rover engine transformed performance and it was initially available in the 110 with a four-speed transmission with integral transfer case, then later in conjunction with a high strength Santana five-speed transmission. This period saw Land Rover market the utility Land Rover as a recreational vehicle. While the basic pick-up, 4x4 and van versions were still working vehicles, the switch from leaf spring to coil spring suspension was a key part of the new models success. It offered improved off-road ability, load capacity, handling, from 1983, Land Rover introduced a third wheelbase to its utility line-up, a 127-inch wheelbase vehicle designed to accommodate larger, heavier loads than the 110
Land Rover Defender
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2007 Defender
Land Rover Defender
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Land Rover Defender 90, front, Italy
Land Rover Defender
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Land Rover Defender 90, rear, Italy
Land Rover Defender
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90, 110 & 127
39.
Nexter Systems
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Nexter Systems is a French government-owned weapons manufacturer, based in Roanne, Loire. The Nexter group is divided in smaller entities, with the main one being Nexter Systems. The company was nationalized in 1991, on 22 September 2006 GIAT became the core of the new company Nexter. For many years GIAT struggled to turn a profit, the company was operated at a loss. A2001 report by the Cour des Comptes and a 2002 report by the National Assembly described the situation as critical, not until April 2004 did the board of directors present the public with a financial statement showing a profit of several hundred million Euros. This was mainly due to increased sales, and the modernization of the Leclerc Main Battle Tank. In 2006, the THL-20 gun turret was selected by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited for use on the HAL Light Combat Helicopter, Nexter has a Joint Venture CTA International with BAE Systems to develop and manufacture case telescoped weapon systems and ammunition of 40 mm calibre. Nexter continues to produce several former GIAT small arms, cannon, one such weapon is the Wasp 58, a low cost, one man antiarmour/assault weapon system. In 2015, Nexter and Krauss-Maffei merged under a single structure, the new KNDS – KMW + Nexter Defense Systems -- will be the European leader of terrestrial defense with more than 6,000 employees. The supervisory board appointed the new CEO of Nexter Systems, Stéphane Mayer, and the chairman of the executive board of KMW, Frank Haun, as CEOs of the holding company
Nexter Systems
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Nexter exhibit
Nexter Systems
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Leclerc main battle tank
Nexter Systems
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VBCI
Nexter Systems
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Aravis
40.
Peugeot 306
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The Peugeot 306 is a small family car built by the French car manufacturer Peugeot from 1993 to 2002. Peugeot gave the 306 many updates and aesthetic changes to keep up with the competition, cabriolet and estate versions continued until 2002. Versions were built in Argentina by Sevel from 1996 to 2002, the 306 was developed between 1990 and 1992 for a launch at the beginning of 1993. It was a replacement for the Peugeot 309, concept versions of the 306 were first seen around the end of 1990, although the motoring press initially reported that it was going to replace the smaller 205. Mechanically, the 306 is virtually identical to the Citroën ZX, the 306, with its attractive Peugeot 205 derived Pininfarina styling, was a more successful car than its twin. The Citroën Berlingo and Peugeot Partner were also built on the same platform, the chassis used by the 306 and ZX was also used in the ZXs replacement, the Citroën Xsara. The first car being the Peugeot 104 based Citroën Visa and Citroën LNA, the policy continues today throughout the Peugeot and Citroën ranges. The entry level Peugeot 108, Citroën C1 and Toyota Aygo though are all based on the same Toyota design, the 306 was released in March 1993 as a 3- and 5-door hatchback, with saloon and cabriolet models being introduced a year later. The Phase 1 model was known as the N3 in Australia, a bewildering array of different model types were offered during the life of the Phase 1 model, including Genoa, XSS, XT, XRdt and XLd. Later were added various models, such as the S16, XSi and GTI-6. All variants of the 306, with the exception of the GTI-6, the initial petrol engines used were proven four-cylinder units, which had gained a solid reputation in Peugeot models such as the 205,309 and 405. At first, all models were powered by derivatives of the TU series 8-valve engine. The 1.1 was dropped quickly, but the 1.4 and particularly the 1.6 variants sold well, three larger-capacity units were available, but restricted to automatic and performance models. These engines were developments of the larger XU series units which had used in the 205 GTi 1.9. A1.8 litre version powered cars with manual and automatic transmission, while two versions of the 2.0 litre engine in 8- and 16-valve guises powered the XSi. In Australia, the engines available were the 1.8 and 2. 0L engines. Peugeot had an excellent reputation for its engines, and the 306 was originally offered with the XUD series diesel engine in both normally aspirated and turbocharged forms. This engine was initially a 1769cc unit, but its capacity was enlarged to 1905cc
Peugeot 306
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Peugeot 306
Peugeot 306
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Phase 1
Peugeot 306
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Peugeot 306 rear
41.
Peugeot 307
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The Peugeot 307 is a small family car produced by the French manufacturer Peugeot since 2001, following the Peugeot 306 which ceased production in 2002. The 307 was presented as the 307 Prométhée prototype, at the 2000 Mondial de lAutomobile, the production hatchback versions were introduced to the European markets on 26 April 2001, as a successor to the Peugeot 306. The 307 was also sold in Australia, New Zealand, Asia, in Brazil the 307 is sold with 1.6 and 2.0 flex engines. The 307 makes use of a reworked 306 platform, that can also be found on the Citroën Xsara as well as the 1991 Citroën ZX, however, the car is larger than the 306 in every direction. The 307 continued the companys styling first seen on the Peugeot 206 and its height is 1,510 mm, which is in the middle of the spectrum between small family cars and compact MPVs. Some consider the 307 as a low compact MPV rather than a small family car, because of its height. One advertisement for the 307, which was first in 2001, featured the hit song from 1987, So Strong. In an report from Top Gear Magazine, the new Peugeot 3071.6 16v TU5 JP4 went head to head with its competitors, the Ford Focus 1. 6L I4 Zetec-SE and Honda Civic 1.6 VTEC. The Peugeot received high praise in all areas of the road test, the Peugeot won the road test, followed by the Ford, then the Honda. In June 2005, the 307 was revised to meet the onslaught of rivals which had been launched since the introduction of the 307 four years earlier in 2001. The front of the car was restyled featuring mildly revised lights, a new bonnet, the 307 was launched as a 3- and 5-door hatchback, though in June 2002, the 307 range was expanded, with the introduction of a se estate car, the 307sw. It features a third row of removable seats so it is more flexible due to its MPV like configuration. Unlike the previous model, there was no saloon version, but one was designed for emerging markets, such as China, the 307 CC, a cabriolet with a retractable hardtop, was launched in August 2003, to compete against the new European coupé cabriolets. In 2004, a saloon version of the 307 was launched in China. The 307 is produced for the Chinese market by the Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën Automobile and this model was also built in Argentina between May 2006 and November 2010. 1.4 HDi 70 HP1.6 L DV6 HDi diesel I4, 90–110 PS, the Citroën C4 Hybride HDi was announced at the same time. However, June 2005 saw a facelift within the model and reliability increased,2006 /2007 models were referenced as a lot more reliable and trustworthy. The Peugeot 307 WRC, a World Rally Car based on the 307 CC and it has three WRC victories to its name, but saw its competition life cut short at the end of 2005 by PSAs decision to withdraw both Citroën and Peugeot from top-level rallying
Peugeot 307
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Peugeot 307
Peugeot 307
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A red Peugeot 307 CC, a coupé cabriolet with a folding steel roof
Peugeot 307
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Pre-facelift Peugeot 307 sw (station wagon/estate)
Peugeot 307
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Peugeot 307 sedan
42.
Peugeot 308
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The Peugeot 308 is a small family car produced by the French car manufacturer Peugeot. It was unveiled on 5 June 2007, and launched in September 2007 and its development code was Project T7, and is the first car of the X08 generation of Peugeot models. The 308 features a range of petrol and diesel engine options, in March 2011, the 308 received a facelift and it premiered at the Geneva Motor Show. A second generation was unveiled in 2013 and it was awarded as the 2014 European Car of the Year. Launched as the replacement for the Peugeot 307 in most international markets, the new vehicle was based upon the old 307’s chassis and its coefficient of drag is 0.29, and it has a five-star Euro NCAP rating. Following the 2011 facelift, the drag-factor was reduced to 0.28, the 308 is manufactured in France at the Mulhouse and Sochaux factories. It is also manufactured in Kaluga, Russia, for the market, since 2010. The 307 remains in production for several countries, especially those that prefer saloon bodies, the 308 is available as a 5-door hatchback, with a 3-door limited to a few markets. In 2010, Peugeot announced the return of a GTI model, the 308 SW is available in a 5 or 7 seat versions. A further variation of the X08 chassis used by the 308 is an SUV or an MPV named 3008, a cabriolet with a retractable hardtop known as the 308 CC replaced the Peugeot 307 CC in the spring of 2009. The roof folds into the boot in 20 seconds, and at up to speeds of 7.5 mph, with the roof up the boot space capacity is 465 litres but this reduces to 266-litres with the roof down. In September 2011 Peugeot has presented for the Chinese market a four-door sedan version of the 308, the interior is identical to the European model. The engine range includes two petrol 1.6 16V110 hp and 143 hp 2.0 16V, the trunk has a volume of 502 liters. The Peugeot 308 sedan, sold at 160.000 units in 3 years, joins the Peugeot 408 in China, a C-segment car with a slightly higher price. A facelifted 308 was released in May 2011 following the launch at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show with a new front end. Peugeot also launched the 308 e-HDI micro-hybrid model with stop-start technology, a system to recover energy during deceleration, a full hybrid 3008 was also announced at the same time. The version produced in South America is assembled with this facelift, the facelift was also given to 308 SW and 308 CC. Bosch announced in 2007 that it is supplying hybrid diesel-electric technology to Peugeot for the 308, Peugeot presented a 2+2 coupé concept car development of the 308, the 308 RCZ, at the 2007 Frankfurt Motor Show
Peugeot 308
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2014 Peugeot 308 Hatchback
Peugeot 308
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Peugeot 308 (T7)
Peugeot 308
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Peugeot 308 interior
Peugeot 308
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Peugeot 308 CC
43.
Peugeot Expert
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The Citroën Jumpy is a light commercial vehicle produced at Sevel Nord since 1994, now in its second generation. The Jumpy was later rebadged from 1995 and sold as the Peugeot Expert —, all three models were facelifted in 2004, before being replaced by new second generation models in January 2007. These 2007 onwards models again all share the design and engineering. The second generation received a facelift in 2012, and from 2013. Commercial versions will debut later, retaining the Peugeot Expert and Citroën Jumpy names, in 2016, the Fiat Scudo was replaced by a second generation of Fiat Talento, which is a rebadged Renault Trafic. Citroën released the first generation Jumpy in June 1994, opting to rename the model Dispatch in English-speaking markets such as the United Kingdom, Peugeot and Fiat followed with rebadged models in July 1995 and February 1996, respectively. The vans differ little technically and visually, being an example of badge engineering. They share mechanicals and body structure with the Sevel Nord Eurovans minivans, the Citroën Evasion, Fiat Ulysse, Lancia Zeta, the engines available throughout the models do differ, with the Fiat getting its own engines separate from those fitted to the Citroën and Peugeot. The Fiat Scudo replaced the Fiat 900T,1 Only for Scudo Combinato The second generation gained an increase in cargo space and more body styles over the older generation. It was launched in November 2006, with deliveries beginning in principal markets in January 2007, the new Citroën is available in 90 bhp,120 bhp and 136 bhp versions with the option of 4 diesel engines or one petrol/gasolene engine. The Peugeot Expert II was launched in January 2007, with the addition of a people-carrier Tepee model, the Fiat Scudo is a medium sized van, larger than the Fiat Doblò, and smaller than the Ducato vans. The Combinato version, which is a basic Scudo van with rear seats, in May 2011, the PSA/Fiat joint venture was reported by Reuters to have ended in 2017. The model received a facelift in 2011, which changed the grille. From 2013, Toyota began sales of a version called Toyota ProAce. At the 2016 Geneva Motor Show Citroën, Peugeot and Toyota revealed their latest generation of their respective vans, commercial variants have been released in 2016 under the Citroën Jumpy, Peugeot Expert and Toyota ProAce names. Jumpy links Citroën World Jumpy at Citroenet
Peugeot Expert
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2004–2006 Citroën Jumpy
Peugeot Expert
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1994–2004 Citroën Jumpy
Peugeot Expert
Peugeot Expert
44.
Renault Espace
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The Renault Espace is a mid-size luxury crossover from Renault. Generations 1–3 were sold under the Renault brand but manufactured by Matra, the Renault Grand Espace is a long-wheelbase version with increased rear leg room and boot size. The name Espace means space in French, the car is often considered to be the first MPV, but previous vehicles had similar designs. In February 2012, the Espace was retired in the United Kingdom, the Espaces design was originally conceived in the 1970s by the British designer Fergus Pollock, who was working for Chrysler UK, at its design centre at Whitley in Coventry. Later, Matra, which was affiliated with Simca, the then French subsidiary of Chrysler, was involved in partnership in the design, the Espace was originally intended to be sold as a Talbot, and to be a replacement for the Matra Rancho leisure activity vehicle. Early prototypes used Simca parts, and hence featured a grille reminiscent of the Simca 1307. In 1978, six years before the Espace went into production, Chrysler UK and Simca were sold to the French company PSA Peugeot Citroën, which phased out Simca within a decade because of falling sales. PSA decided the Espace was too expensive and too risky a design to put into production, so it was given to Matra, the Matra concept became the Renault Espace. The design featured a body mounted on a warm-galvanised steel chassis, using the same technique. The introduction of the Espace required the relatively small factory to cease the production of the Murena to make room for the Espace, the Espace was eventually launched by Renault in July 1984. After a slow start - a mere nine Espaces were sold in the first month - consumers realised the benefits of the MPV concept and it was sold in the United Kingdom from August 1985. In 1984, American Motors Corporation announced it would begin to market the front-wheel-drive Espace in the United States, the minivan was exhibited to consumers at the 1985 Chicago Auto Show, but AMCs negotiations with Matra continued over the vehicles import pricing. Plans for the Espace to be launched in the U. S. ended with the purchase of AMC by Chrysler. In 2004, BBCs motoring show Top Gear set up a race between two Espaces, a Toyota Previa, a Toyota MasterAce, a Mitsubishi Space Wagon, the Espaces came first and second. Building upon its success, the Espace was revamped in 1988 with most of the Talbot/Simca content being replaced by equivalent Renault parts, the chassis and mechanical components of the car remained largely unchanged. Along with the changes in design, a four-wheel drive version called Quadra was also introduced, a heavily revised Espace was launched in 1991, adopting the Renault family look, to replace the Talbot–themed styling of the original. This was essentially a re-skin of the car, with a new dashboard. In an episode of Top Gear, then–presenter Jeremy Clarkson referred to this generation as probably the best of the MPVs, however, he went on to say but thats like saying, Oh good, Ive got syphilis, the best of the sexually transmitted diseases
Renault Espace
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Renault Espace
Renault Espace
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Espace I
Renault Espace
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Renault Espace rear
Renault Espace
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Renault Espace MK1 facelift
45.
Renault Kangoo
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The Renault Kangoo and the Kangoo Express are a range of leisure activity vehicles and light commercial vehicles respectively, produced by the French manufacturer Renault since 1997. As of June 2016, the variant, the Renault Kangoo Z. E. is the worlds top selling all electric light utility vehicle, with global sales of 23,219 units. The Kangoo is manufactured at the MCA plant in Maubeuge, France, the version for the ASEAN markets was assembled by the Malaysian Tan Chong Euro Cars in its Segambut plant. The first generation model was sold by Nissan in Latin America and Europe as the Nissan Kubistar until late 2009. In September 2012, Mercedes-Benz launched its version of the Kangoo, the first generation Kangoo was introduced in October 1997. It was facelifted in March 2003, resulting in a Phase II model, the rear windows and seats of the Kangoo could be removed, producing the panel van Kangoo Express. The Kangoo became popular with the mobility-impaired and wheelchair users due to its height and accessibility, both the Kangoo and Kangoo Express were available in four-wheel drive versions and a lengthened version was also available, with an increased cargo area. A pickup truck version was sold in the Swedish market, in some countries, such as Malaysia, the Kangoo was assembled by Nissan with a third row of 3 seats. A badge-engineered version of the Kangoo panel van was sold as the Nissan Kubistar, the Kangoo BreakUp was a four-wheel drive concept car announced in 2002 and previewed the 2003 facelift design, together with a pick-up style rear. It was powered by 1.6 L engine producing 82 kW, the 4WD version of the Kangoo was introduced in 2002, and was marketed under the model name Trekka. It should not be confused with the Skoda powered New Zealand built utility vehicle named Trekka and this still allowed the Kangoo Trekka to run in front wheel drive in most conditions, saving fuel. Working in combination with the ATC, the Kangoo Trekka also featured an electronically controlled ASR traction control system which could brake the front wheels to arrest traction loss, the suspension was similar to the standard Kangoo, only strengthened and raised to provide more ground clearance and wheel travel. These changes gave the Kangoo Trekka a 400 mm fording depth and 28 degree hill climbing capability. The Kangoo Trekka was marketed in the United Kingdom with a choice of two engines, the 1.6 L16 valve petrol engine and the 1.9 L dCi common-rail turbodiesel, in 2005, these models were priced at £12,600 and £13,600 respectively. The diesel produced a peak torque of 180 N·m and returned over 7 L/100 km on the fuel consumption test. The petrol engine had a 0 to 60 mph time of 14.3 seconds, and a combined fuel consumption of 9 L/100 km. The interior of the Kangoo Trekka was spartan, and the bench seat could be folded forward to provide a 2.5 m3 loading area. The New Renault Kangoo and New Renault Kangoo Express are the new light commercial vehicles in Renaults lineup
Renault Kangoo
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Renault Kangoo
Renault Kangoo
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Kangoo I
Renault Kangoo
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Pre-facelift Renault Kangoo rear
Renault Kangoo
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2003 Renault Kangoo facelift
46.
Renault Mascott
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The Renault Master is an upper-medium size van produced by the French manufacturer Renault since 1980, now in its third generation. It replaced the earlier Saviem SG3 light trucks, Opel has sold versions of the second and third series vans as the Opel Movano in Continental Europe and Vauxhall Movano in the United Kingdom. All three generations have been designed and manufactured by Renault, irrespective of the brand, over its lifetime several different body styles have been available, from the standard van to bigger models with an increased load area, height, and longer-wheelbases with an LWB prefix. Panel vans are common, but pickups are also available. Heavier-duty models of the Master was also sold by Renault Trucks as the B-series, later as the Messenger, the original Renault Master was launched in September 1980. Originally launched with the 2.5 L Fiat-Sofim diesel engine, in rare cases the Master was sold with a 2.0 L or 2.2 L Renault petrol engine. In 1990, a larger version of the Sofim diesel replaced the earlier version. The smaller Renault Trafic was also launched in 1980 resulting in a range of light commercial vehicles. The Master was distinctively styled with the door design and unusual round door handles similar to those of the Fiat Ritmo/Strada. The van was manufactured at Renaults then new SoVAB Batilly plant in northeastern France, an alternative heavier duty version which appeared almost identical, was sold by Renault Trucks as the Renault B70 to B120. It first appeared as the 70 PS B70 and as the 80 PS B80 in late 1982 and it was a light truck with a Renault Master I body on a separate chassis, rear wheel-drive and rear dual wheels. The B-series was offered with a range of body options. As the Master both carried manufacturers plates from Renaults automobile division, RVIs production numbers appeared to plummet as the SG2 and it was thus decided in 1982 to transfer the new, heavier B-series range to RVI. More powerful versions were added, incorporating turbochargers and intercooling. Although a 4x4 version of the B90 took part in the Paris Dakar Rally in 1987, the version of the B90 4x4 truck was unveiled in 1990 only. In 1993, the B series had a change and was renamed Messenger. The Master used the Renault S-Type engine in S9U and S8W/S9W versions, the G-Type engine, displacements available included 2.2,2.5, and 2.8 litres with a range of power outputs. The van received a major facelift in Q42003, with the headlight area being heavily restyled
Renault Mascott
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Renault Master
Renault Mascott
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First generation
Renault Mascott
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Renault Master rear
Renault Mascott
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1992-1999 Renault Messenger B120 flatbed
47.
Renault Master
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The Renault Master is an upper-medium size van produced by the French manufacturer Renault since 1980, now in its third generation. It replaced the earlier Saviem SG3 light trucks, Opel has sold versions of the second and third series vans as the Opel Movano in Continental Europe and Vauxhall Movano in the United Kingdom. All three generations have been designed and manufactured by Renault, irrespective of the brand, over its lifetime several different body styles have been available, from the standard van to bigger models with an increased load area, height, and longer-wheelbases with an LWB prefix. Panel vans are common, but pickups are also available. Heavier-duty models of the Master was also sold by Renault Trucks as the B-series, later as the Messenger, the original Renault Master was launched in September 1980. Originally launched with the 2.5 L Fiat-Sofim diesel engine, in rare cases the Master was sold with a 2.0 L or 2.2 L Renault petrol engine. In 1990, a larger version of the Sofim diesel replaced the earlier version. The smaller Renault Trafic was also launched in 1980 resulting in a range of light commercial vehicles. The Master was distinctively styled with the door design and unusual round door handles similar to those of the Fiat Ritmo/Strada. The van was manufactured at Renaults then new SoVAB Batilly plant in northeastern France, an alternative heavier duty version which appeared almost identical, was sold by Renault Trucks as the Renault B70 to B120. It first appeared as the 70 PS B70 and as the 80 PS B80 in late 1982 and it was a light truck with a Renault Master I body on a separate chassis, rear wheel-drive and rear dual wheels. The B-series was offered with a range of body options. As the Master both carried manufacturers plates from Renaults automobile division, RVIs production numbers appeared to plummet as the SG2 and it was thus decided in 1982 to transfer the new, heavier B-series range to RVI. More powerful versions were added, incorporating turbochargers and intercooling. Although a 4x4 version of the B90 took part in the Paris Dakar Rally in 1987, the version of the B90 4x4 truck was unveiled in 1990 only. In 1993, the B series had a change and was renamed Messenger. The Master used the Renault S-Type engine in S9U and S8W/S9W versions, the G-Type engine, displacements available included 2.2,2.5, and 2.8 litres with a range of power outputs. The van received a major facelift in Q42003, with the headlight area being heavily restyled
Renault Master
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Renault Master
Renault Master
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First generation
Renault Master
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Renault Master rear
Renault Master
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1992-1999 Renault Messenger B120 flatbed
48.
Renault Trafic
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The Renault Trafic is a light commercial vehicle produced by the French automaker Renault since 1981. It is also marketed as the Nissan Primastar and Opel/Vauxhall Vivaro in Europe, previous versions of the Renault Trafic have been sold by Chevrolet and the original generation is now sold in India by Tata Motors. Vauxhall confirmed that the next-generation Vivaro would be produced at the GM Manufacturing Luton plant starting in 2013, the original Renault Trafic was sold from 1980 to 2000, and was somewhat revised and updated during its lifetime. The 1721 cc OHC engine replaced the 1647 cc OHV in the mid 1980s, which fitted under the shorter grille, the diesel and 2.1 petrol carried on with the extended grille. In 1990, the Trafic underwent a major facelift with a rounder shape and a plastic bumper. In 1995, the Mk1 Trafic got its final facelift, with new grille, new lights, large double rear-view mirrors. This version was sold as the Opel Arena from 1997. The chassis and cab of the 1980s models were used as the vehicle by Winnebago Industries to build the Winnebago LeSharo from 1983. For the chassis and cab version to meet United States safety and emission requirements, the Mk1 Trafic became popular for professional conversion into budget family motorhomes due to the flexibility of the design and the generous internal space for what was a relatively small van. Popular converters were Auto-Sleepers and Holdsworth, other motorhome builders using the Trafic Mk1 as a base include Elddis, Eriba, and Autostar. From 1997 to 2000, the Renault Trafic was marketed as the Chevrolet Trafic, for South America, the vehicle was made in the Argentinian facility at Santa Isabel, Córdoba, for the Mercosur. In Brazil, it was badged as Chevrolet Trafic and after as Renault Trafic, a pickup version was sold as the Renault Trafic Rodeo. The second Trafic resulted from a joint venture between German Opel, Japanese Nissan, and French Renault and it is also sold as an Opel Vivaro, Vauxhall Vivaro, and Nissan Primastar. Manufactured by GM Manufacturing Luton at its plant in Luton—beside Primastar, in an agreement between Renault and Nissan, versions of the van are also manufactured at Nissans plant in Barcelona, Spain. In particular, high roof versions for Vauxhall, Renault, the van exists in several versions, from a three-seater with all the rear space available for loads, to a nine-seater. Its name is based on the French word for trade or traffic, the van was designed by Renault in Paris, and both Renault and Opel versions are manufactured by Opel at their plant in Luton. In 2012, UK production of the Vivaro totalled 36,982 and 16,483 for the Renault Trafic, a mild facelift in 2006 has the orange indicators swapped for clear ones more integrated into the headlamp housings. On the Opel model, the indicators moved from the front bumpers, up into the headlamp housings, the Nissan Primastar was also launched in 2001, and is available in panel van, combi, bus, and chassis cab configurations
Renault Trafic
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Renault Trafic
Renault Trafic
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First generation
Renault Trafic
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Renault Trafic first generation (facelift) 4x4 version. The 4x4 has the rear axle set further forward than the FWD.
Renault Trafic
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Renault Trafic first generation (facelift) with high-roof body
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Renault Twingo
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The Renault Twingo is a city car manufactured and marketed by the French automaker Renault. The first-generation Twingo debuted at the Paris Motor Show in September 1992, Renault launched the second-generation Twingo in the summer of 2007—and the third generation debuted at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show and receiving its formal market launch in September 2014. Twingo is a portmanteau of the words twist, swing and tango, the original Twingo was launched in April 1993, was sold in Europes LHD markets until June 2007 and received intermediate restylings in 1998,2000 and 2004. Designed under the direction of Patrick Le Quément, Renaults chief designer, the car derived from a series of concepts developed through the W60 project when Gaston Juchet was Renaults chief designer. The project was aimed at replacing the Renault 4 with a minivan model, Le Quément chose a Jean-Pierre Ploué design to develop the production version. He included an unconventional front-end layout resembling a smile, the interior equipment was mounted on a central console to free space. Renault had participated in the 1981-1984 Mono-Box ECO2000 car project along with PSA Peugeot-Citroën, the Twingo I electronic centrally-mounted instrument panel had a speedometer, fuel gauge, clock, odometer and trip recorder controlled via a stalk-located button. A strip of warning lights was located behind the steering wheel, the rear seat featured a sliding mechanism to enable either increased boot space or rear seat legroom. The boot parcel shelf was attached to the inside of the tailgate, all engines were replaced with an 8-valve 1. 15-litre 60 hp unit. A 16-valve 75 hp version was added in 2000, the car retailed at a price of 55, 000FF. In June 1994, new colours introduced along with minor interior changes. Four months later, the Twingo Easy model was launched, with an automatic gearbox. In September 1995, the first of many special Twingo editions launched, in July 1996, a new 1149cc engine was fitted to replace the previous engine from the Renault 5. Also, various improvements made including the addition of a brake light. Two years later, the Twingo underwent its first major restyling revisions to the interior, the front and rear lights were revised, along with the front orange indicator lights being merged into the headlamp housing. Two months later, the top-of-the-range Twingo Initiale model launched, in September 2000, the Twingo underwent its second major restyling. Additions included larger 14 wheels, revised door trims with larger door pockets, december 2000 brought a new 1.2 litre 16v engine launched, with 75 hp. In April 2001, a new semi automatic gearbox launched, called Quickshift, additional revisions followed in September 2002, including new interior trims and wheel covers
Renault Twingo
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Renault Twingo
Renault Twingo
Renault Twingo
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Twingo I
Renault Twingo
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Interior of the 1998–2000 Twingo I
