1.
Strasbourg
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Strasbourg is the capital and largest city of the Grand Est region of France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany in the region of Alsace. In 2014, the city proper had 276,170 inhabitants, Strasbourgs metropolitan area had a population of 773,347 in 2013, making it the ninth largest metro area in France and home to 13% of the Grand Est regions inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 915,000 inhabitants in 2014, Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, Strasbourgs historic city centre, the Grande Île, was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012. Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, the port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany. Before the 5th century, the city was known as Argantorati, a Celtic Gaulish name Latinized first as Argentorate, after the 5h century, the city became known by a completely different name Gallicized as Strasbourg. That name is of Germanic origin and means Town of roads, Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which forms the eastern border of the modern city. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres from. The natural courses of the two eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. This section of the Rhine valley is an axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself. The city is some 400 kilometres east of Paris, in spite of its position far inland, Strasbourgs climate is classified as Oceanic, with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, on average, snow falls 30 days per year. The highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C in August 2003. The lowest temperature recorded was −23.4 °C in December 1938. Nonetheless, the disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution
2.
Municipal Police (France)
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The Municipal Police are the local police of towns and cities in France outside the capital. There are 18,000 municipal police officers in 3,500 communities, the Municipal Police are one of the three components of French policing, alongside the National Police and the National Gendarmerie, with about 145,000 police and 98,000 soldiers respectively. Municipal policing in departments of Paris, Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, and Val-de-Marne is the responsibility of Paris Police Prefecture, part of the National Police. Under Article 212 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the duties of the police include, safety, security, safety. Monitoring and regulation of traffic and the recording of traffic violations. Maintenance of law 78-6 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, assistance to citizens of the town. Reporting of crimes over which they have no jurisdiction, the municipal police may carry out arrests as part of the act and are required to deliver any perpetrator to an officer of the national police or the national gendarmerie. Approximately 18,000 municipal police officers provide about 13% of the total French law enforcement community, the municipal police may also incorporate the duties of the forest rangers and game wardens in rural areas. The French municipal police are under the authority of the Mayor. Although the word refers to the maintenance of order, the function mainly comprises the protection of citizens from disasters. To do so, municipalities are required to establish municipal police services and they are also vested with powers to oversee infringements of Article L. 126-3 of the Code of Construction and Housing. During the course of their duties they act under the authority of the mayor of the municipality, overall supervision and regulation of the municipal police is under the jurisdiction the Ministry of the Interior, which is empowered to carry out inspections by agencies such as the IGPN. Articles L 2212-5 and the L CGCT 2212-9, provide for inter-municipal police collaboration between municipalities or groups of municipalities, the police officers recruited through the municipal council are considered primarily available to every mayor in his hometown for local policing. They may also be required to be sworn in by the judge to provide services to the national police of neighbouring districts or to the gendarmerie in rural areas. The municipal police do not generally carry firearms, in some cities, all municipal police officers are permanently armed. French Municipal officers are armed each Municipal Police agency has different weapons meaning some Municipal Police may have revolvers while others have more modern handguns, Municipal Police also have rifles and shotguns as well for patrol needs. ↑ Note, Section 21 of the Criminal Procedure Code confers municipal police officers with the status of deputy judicial police officers, L 412-49 of the Code of Commons. L 412-51 of the Code of Commons 10, 412-53 of the Code of Commons Franck Denion, Police municipale, missions et moyens, Editions Territoriales, municipal police missions and means Territoriales Editions, June 2006
3.
National Police (France)
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The National Police, formerly the Sûreté nationale, is one of two national police forces and the main civil law enforcement agency of France, with primary jurisdiction in cities and large towns. The other main agency is the military Gendarmerie, with jurisdiction in smaller towns and rural. The National Police comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior and has about 145,699 employees, the National Police operates mostly in large cities and towns. The police is commanded by the director-general who is currently Jean-Marc Falcone, the director-general is directly in charge of the General Directorate of the National Police and the immediate subordinate of the Minister of the Interior. The main Sub-Directorates of the Judicial Police are, Sous-direction anti-terroriste SDAT, groupes dIntervention de la Police Nationale, Nine regional SWAT teams. Direction centrale de la police aux frontières, performs identity checks with La douane française, Inspection générale de la police nationale, headed by the Inspector General and responsible for internal affairs. In the Paris Area, these tasks are assigned to a dedicated service—the Inspection Générale des Services, direction centrale des compagnies républicaines de sécurité, riot police, motorway police, and mountain rescue, commonly referred to as the CRS. Service de coopération technique internationale de police, the Unité de Coordination de la Lutte Antiterroriste and its Recherche Assistance Intervention Dissuasion unit. The DCRI was placed directly under the Ministry of the Interior, the Corps de commandement corresponds approximately to the lower commissioned ranks of a military force, or to grades of inspector in a British-style civil police force. These ranks were previously known as inspecteurs if detectives or officiers de la paix if uniformed, all the ranks insignia may be worn either on the shoulders or on the chest. In the latter they are square-shaped, prior to 1995 two civilian corps existed in which plain-clothes officers were given the training and authority to conduct investigations. The closest Anglo-American equivalent is the detective, in 1951, a standardisation was performed on the RR51 pistol in 7. 65x17mm and on the MAS-38 and MAT-49 for sub-machine guns. In the 80s, a process to standardize revolvers was initiated, the 1970s also saw the introduction of assault rifles to fend off heavily armed organised crime and terrorism. In the 2000s, the police started switching to semi-automatic pistols, for some years, the standard sidearm in the National Police and the Gendarmerie Nationale was the PAMAS G1, which was French licensed and made. The weapons are planned to stay in service until the year 2022, for greater threats the police use slightly modified Ruger Mini-14s purchased in the 1970s. While the vast majority of vehicles are screen printed French brand, some vehicles are provided by Ford. Plain clothes officers or specialised branches use vehicles from a variety of builders, law enforcement in France Official site of the French National Police Official site of the French Ministry of Interior Unofficial site of the National Police
4.
National Gendarmerie
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The National Gendarmerie is one of two national police forces of France. It is a branch of the French Armed Forces placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior—with additional duties to the Ministry of Defense and its area of responsibility includes smaller towns and rural areas, while the Police Nationale—a civilian force—is in charge of cities and large towns. Due to its status, the Gendarmerie also fulfills a range of military. The Gendarmes also have a cybercrime division and it has a strength of more than 100,000 personnel as of 2014. The Gendarmerie is heir to the Maréchaussée, the oldest police force in France and it has influenced the culture and traditions of gendarmerie forces all around the world—and especially in the former French colonial empire. The Gendarmerie is the descendant of the Marshalcy of the ancien regime, more commonly known by its French title. During the Middle Ages, there were two Grand Officers of the Kingdom of France with police responsibilities, The Marshal of France, the marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years War, and some historians trace it back to the early twelfth century. Another organisation, the Constabulary, was under the command of the Constable of France, the constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. In 1415 the Maréchaussée fought in the Battle of Agincourt and their commander and his existence was rediscovered in 1934. Gallois de Fougières was then recorded as the first known gendarme to have died in the line of duty. Under King Francis I, the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary, the resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France. Unlike the former constabulary the new Maréchaussée was not a fully militarized force, in 1720, the Maréchaussée was officially attached to the Household of the King, together with the gendarmerie of the time, which was not a police force at all, but a royal bodyguard. English visitors to France saw their armed and uniformed patrols as royal soldiers with an oppressive role, despite their connection with the king, they were therefore perceived as a force favouring the reforms of the French National Assembly. As a result, the Maréchaussée Royale was not disbanded but simply renamed as the gendarmerie nationale and its personnel remained unchanged, and the functions of the force remained much as before. However, from this point, the gendarmerie, unlike the Maréchaussée became a military force. During the revolutionary period, the force responsible for policing was the National Guard. Although the Maréchaussée had been the police force of the ancien regime. In 1791 the newly named gendarmerie nationale was grouped into 28 divisions, in turn, two companies of gendarmes under the command of captains were based in each department
5.
Paris Police Prefecture
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It is headed by the Prefect of Police. It is also in charge of emergency services, such as the Paris Fire Brigade, the Prefecture of Police also has limited security duties in the wider Île-de-France région. The prefecture is a building located in the Place Louis Lépine on the Île de la Cité. This building was built as a barracks for the Garde républicaine from 1863 to 1867 and was occupied by the Prefecture in 1871, as it is the capital of France, with government assemblies and offices and foreign embassies, Paris poses special issues of security and public order. Consequently, the government has been responsible for providing law enforcement. Disbanded at the start of the French Revolution in 1789, it was replaced by the current Prefecture of Police created by Napoléon I on February 17,1800. This means that Paris does not have its own police municipale, in Parisian slang, the police are sometimes known as the archers, a very old slang term in reference to the archers of the long-defunct Royal Watch. The jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police was initially the Seine département and its jurisdiction also included the communes of Saint-Cloud, Sèvres, Meudon, and Enghien-les-Bains, which were located in the Seine-et-Oise département. These four communes were added in the 19th century to the jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police in order to ensure protection of the imperial/royal residences located there. This territory made up of four départements is larger than the pre-1968 Seine département, the Prefecture of Police also has limited jurisdiction over the whole Île-de-France région for the coordination of law enforcement. As such, he coordinates the work of the departmental préfets of Île-de-France, the Prefect of Police can issue arrêtés defining rules pertaining to his field of competency. For instance, the rules of operation and security of Paris public parks are issued as joint arrêtés from the Mayor of Paris, the current Prefect of Police is Bernard Boucault. Until 1977, Paris had indeed no mayor and the police was essentially in the hands of the préfet de police. However, the powers of the mayor of Paris were increased at the expense of those of the Préfet de Police in 2002, notably for traffic and parking decisions. There is also a prefect of Paris, prefect for the region, whose services handle some tasks not devoted to the Police Prefect. Place Louis Lépine,1 rue de Lutèce,75004 Paris Tel,0154735373,0153715371,0140797979, the Prefecture of Police is divided into three sub-prefectures headed by prefects due to their importance. With four Administrative Directorates, General Police-Administrative police duties Medico-Legal Institute Traffic, Transport, veterinary Service Human Resources - Personnel, budget, equipment and police labor disputes. The office vanished at the start of the French Revolution and police was vested in the hands of the Paris Commune, reorganized by Napoléon Bonaparte in 1800, the Paris Police has been headed by the préfet de police since that time
6.
Minister of the Interior (France)
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The Ministry of the Interior in France is one of the most important French government cabinet positions. The Minister of Interior also take on the role of former Ministre des cultes and is consulted in the process of appointment of Catholic diocesan bishops. The Minister of Cults used to be a minister. While the ministry of the Interior supervises police forces, it does not supervise criminal enquiries, the Ministrys headquarters are located on the place Beauvau, facing the Élysée Palace. Place Beauvau is often used as a metonym for the ministry, the current Minister of the Interior is Matthias Fekl. List of Interior Ministers of France Official website
7.
Police
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A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
8.
Marshal
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Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Medieval Europe, during the last few centuries, it has been used for elevated offices, such as in military rank and civilian law enforcement. Marshal is an ancient loanword from Old French, which in turn is borrowed from Old Frankish *marhskalk, being still evident in Middle Dutch maerscalc, marscal and it is cognate with Old High German mar-scalc id. modern German Marschall. It originally and literally meant horse servant, from Germanic *marha- horse and this horse servant origin is retained in the current French name for farrier, maréchal-ferrant. The late Roman and Byzantine title of comes stabuli was adopted as a Latin analogue, which has become the French connétable and, derived from the French, finally, in Byzantium a marshal with elevated authority, notably a borderlands military command, is also known as an Exarch. In many countries, the rank of marshal, cf. field marshal, is the highest army rank, the equivalent navy rank is often admiral of the fleet. Marshals are typically, but not exclusively, appointed only in wartime, in many countries, especially in Europe, the special symbol of a marshal is a baton, and their insignia often incorporate batons. In some countries, the marshal is used instead of general in the higher air force ranks. The four highest Royal Air Force ranks are marshal of the Royal Air Force, air marshal, air marshal. The five-star rank of marshal of the Air Force is used by some Commonwealth, in the French Army and most National Armies modeled upon the French system, maréchal des logis is a cavalry term equivalent to sergeant. Some historical rulers have used special marshal titles to reward certain subjects, though not strictly military ranks, these honorary titles have been exclusively bestowed upon successful military leaders, such as the famous grand marshal of Ayacucho Antonio José de Sucre. Most famous are the Marshals of France, not least under Napoléon I, in England during the First Barons War the title Marshal of the Army of God was bestowed upon Robert Fitzwalter by election. Both the Soviet Union and Russia have army general as well as marshal in their rank system, the relationships between them is unresolved. Marshal of the Soviet Union Chief marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm is considered equivalent to the rank general of the army, which was used in the infantry. The function of the Marshal of the Court varies according to national tradition, often, the charge includes also the honorary privilege as chief of the protocol to announce formally the arrival of VIP guests at audiences, state dinners, and conferences in the monarchs premises. This office was made hereditary in the high nobility, e. g. the English Earl Marshal
9.
Directorate-General of Customs and Indirect Taxes
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The agency acts as a coast guard, border guard, sea rescue organisation and a customs service. In addition, since 1995, the agency has replaced the Border Police in carrying out immigration control at border checkpoints, in particular at maritime borders. The Directorate-general is controlled by the Minister for the Budget, Public Accounts and it is normally known simply as la douane, individual officers being referred to as douaniers. The first French customs service was called the General Firm and operated under the monarchy, during the revolutionary period, a military customs service was formed, which provided a customs service but also fought in major wars such as the Franco-Prussian War and the First World War. Throughout the 19th Century armed units of douaniers served as frontier guards, customs personnel were divided into those employed in bureaux and those employed in brigades. The douaniers of the latter units wore blue uniforms with distinctive red trouser stripes and were former soldiers. The military customs service fought in the part of the Second World War but was disbanded in 1940 after the French defeat and was never reconstituted as a military service. Nonetheless small units of men from customs posts in French Indochina fought against the Japanese as guerilla units until the end of the war. The Musée national des douanes located in Bordeaux, France, presents the history of French customs, Service commun des laboratoires, providing scientific support in laboratories France is divided into 39 customs regions, which are grouped into 12 customs inter-regions. In 2010 the aircraft consisted of Reims-Cessna F406 maritime patrol aircraft. Two Reims-Cessna F406s operated out of Martinique and the rest were based in metropolitan France, from 2012 onwards eight Beechcraft King Air 350s replaced the F406s. In 2010 the customs had 3 offshore patrol boats,18 coastal patrol boats,18 surveillance patrol boats and 5 speed boats. Customs Agents are now armed with the 9mm SIG Sauer SP2022 pistols as the issued sidearm. The pistol was ordered to replace the PAMAS-G1 and several other pistols in service
10.
French Ministry for the Economy and Finance
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The exact name of the ministry has changed over time, and has included the terms economy, industry, finances, or employment through history. By delegation of the Prime Minister, he also the Public Services. He is responsible with their colleagues for Health, Youth and Sport and for Labour, Labour Relations, see, http, //www. minefi. gouv. fr/directions_services/sircom/ministere/organigramme_mbcpfp. htm The Ministry of Finance is situated in Bercy, in the 12th arrondissement of Paris. The building extends to the Seine River, where there is an embarcadero with fast river boats for faster liaisons to other government agencies and that is why the French media often refer to it as simply Bercy. The sentence the Bercy Fortress refers to the Ministry as a department with obtuse civil servants. That is emphasized by the look of the building. For evident practical reasons, the two share the building and some common services that were under the former ministry of Economy, Finances
11.
Ministry of Ecology
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The Ministry of the Environment, Energy and Marine Affairs is an agency of the Government of France, centred on a cabinet member who is often referred to as the Minister of Ecology. Since April 2014, the position is occupied by socialist Ségolène Royal, the ministry is headquartered in La Grande Arche in La Défense and also, in the Tour Pascal and Tour Sequoia, in Puteaux/ La Défense, near Paris. There is also a Delegate Minister for Transport, Sea and Fishing located in the same place and this position is currently occupied by Frédéric Cuvillier. From 1974 to 1977, the position was renamed Minister of Quality of Life, in 1978 this became Minister of the Environment and Way of Life. The current position title features the expression sustainable development, in due to the influence of the Green party. An Environmental Charter was included in the French Constitution in 2004 and this Ministry is responsible for State Environmental Policy, Transportation, Sea, and Housing Policy. The Ministry distributes funds to Research Agencies or Councils, in 2009, the Minister of Housing and City reported to the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development, Transport and Housing. This post became the Minister of Housing, in 2012, the minister was Cécile Duflot. In May 2012 the Ayrault government established the Le Ministère de lÉgalité des Territoires et du Logement managed by the ecologist Cécile Duflot, previously it was called the Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and Sea. It also had called the Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and Town. It also once operated as the Ministry for Ecology, Sustainable Development, another occasion, it was the Ministry of Ecology and Sustainable Development. It also had been the Ministry of Country Planning and Environment, Ministry of Country Planning and Environment Ministry for Ecology, Sustainable Development and Spatial Planning
12.
Ministry of Agriculture (France)
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The Ministry of Agriculture, Agrifood, and Forestry of France is the governmental body charged with regulation and policy, for agriculture, food, and forestry. The Ministrys headquarters are in the Hôtel de Villeroy, at 78 Rue de Varenne in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, adjacent to Hotel Matignon. Prior to 21 June 2012, the Ministrys remit was somewhat different, its title was Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Fisheries, Rural Affairs. The regional directorates for food, agriculture and forests oversee the implementation of policies for agriculture, food, aquaculture and their missions cover the content and organisation of agricultural education. They contribute to employment policy in the fields of farming, agri-food, forestry, the Minister of Agriculture, Food, Fishing and Rural Affairs is a cabinet member in the Government of France. Ministry of Agriculture Booklet in English
13.
Wallis and Futuna
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Though both French and Polynesian, Wallis and Futuna is distinct from the entity known as French Polynesia. Its land area is 142.42 km2 with a population of about 12,000, Mata-Utu is the capital and biggest city. Since 2003, Wallis and Futuna has been a French overseas collectivity, between 1961 and 2003, it had the status of a French overseas territory, though its official name did not change when the status changed. Polynesians settled the islands that would later be called Wallis and Futuna around the year 1000 AD/CE, the original inhabitants built forts and other identifiable ruins on the islands, some of which are still partially intact. Pierre Chanel, canonized as a saint in 1954, is a patron of the island of Futuna. The Wallis Islands are named after the British explorer, Samuel Wallis, on 5 April 1842, the missionaries asked for the protection of France after the rebellion of a part of the local population. On 5 April 1887, the Queen of Uvea signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate. The kings of Sigave and Alo on the islands of Futuna, the islands were put under the authority of the French colony of New Caledonia. In 1917, the three kingdoms were annexed to France and turned into the Colony of Wallis and Futuna. During World War II the islands’ administration was pro-Vichy until a Free French corvette from New Caledonia deposed the regime on 26 May 1942, units of the US Marine Corps landed on Wallis on 29 May 1942. In 1959, the inhabitants of the islands voted to become a French overseas territory, effective in 1961, in 2005, the 50th King of Uvea, Tomasi Kulimoetoke II, faced being deposed after giving sanctuary to his grandson who was convicted of manslaughter. The King claimed his grandson should be judged by tribal law rather than by the French penal system, there were riots in the streets involving the Kings supporters, who were victorious over attempts to replace the King. Two years later, Tomasi Kulimoetoke died on 7 May 2007, the state was in a six-month period of mourning. During this period, mentioning a successor was forbidden, on 25 July 2008, Kapiliele Faupala was installed as King despite protests from some of the royal clans. As an overseas collectivity of France, it is governed under the French constitution of 28 September 1958, the head of state is President François Hollande of France as represented by the Administrator-Superior Michel Jeanjean. The President of the Territorial Assembly is Petelo Hanisi since 11 December 2013, the Council of the Territory consists of three kings and three members appointed by the high administrator on the advice of the Territorial Assembly. The legislative branch consists of the unicameral Territorial Assembly or Assemblée territoriale of 20 seats, Wallis and Futuna elects one senator to the French Senate and one deputy to the French National Assembly. Justice is generally administered under French law by a tribunal of first instance in Mata-Utu, the Court of Appeal is in Nouméa, New Caledonia
14.
Conurbation
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In most cases, a conurbation is a polycentric urbanised area, in which transportation has developed to link areas to create a single urban labour market or travel to work area. The term conurbation was coined in 1915 by Patrick Geddes in his book Cities In Evolution, the term as described is used in Britain, whereas the term in the United States is most closely equivalent to metropolitan area as used by the Census Bureau. It may consist of a city and its suburbs. A conurbation should also be contrasted with a megalopolis, where the areas are close but not physically contiguous. The cities and towns of Port Louis, Beau Bassin-Rose Hill, Curepipe, Quatre Bornes, Vacoas-Phoenix and other urbanized villages form a large, a large part of this conurbation is located in the district of Plaines Wilhems. This network of urban areas has a population of 530,920 as of 2011. Johannesburg, Ekurhuleni, and Tshwane are currently merging to form a region that comprises a population of 14.6 million people, the Mumbai Metropolitan Region consists of Mumbai and its satellite towns. Developing over a period of about 20 years, it consists of seven municipal corporations, the region has an area of 4,355 km² and with a population of 20,998,395, and is among the top ten most populated urban agglomerations in the world. It is linked together through the Mumbai Suburban Railway system and a network of roads. The population of the NCR region is 21.7 million, Dhaka has recently been linked with Narayanganj and Gazipur city such that there are no gaps between Dhaka and those two cities. The Klang Valley conurbation in the state of Selangor is composed of, Kuala Lumpur, the second largest conurbation by population in Malaysia is Greater Penang. Centred in George Town, the city of the state of Penang, the conurbation also includes the following towns in Penang. Lahore–Raiwind–Kala Shah Kaku, the second largest city in Pakistan with its towns of Kala Shah Kaku. Metro Manila, Philippines Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Region, comprising Ho Chi Minh City, Bình Dương, Đồng Nai, Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu, Tây Ninh, and Tân An. Hanoi Metropolitan Region, comprising Hanoi, Bắc Ninh, Thái Nguyên, Vĩnh Phúc, and Việt Trì. Qui Nhơn-Nha Trang-Da Lat Conurbation Belt, comprising Qui Nhơn, An Nhơn, Sông Cầu, Tuy Hòa, Vân Phong Bay, Ninh Hòa, Nha Trang, Dien Khánh, Cam Lâm, Cam Ranh, Trường Sa, Phan Rang, and Da Lat. Huế-Da Nang-Quảng Ngãi Conurbation Belt, comprising Huế, Hương Tra, Hương Thủy, Lăng Cô, Da Nang, Hòa Vang, Hoàng Sa, Hội An, Tam Kỳ, Chu Lai, Dung Quất, Sơn Tịnh and this area is colloquially known as the Area Metropolitana. The Flemish Diamond is the Flemish reference to a network of four areas in Belgium
15.
Republican Guard (France)
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The Republican Guard is part of the French Gendarmerie. It is responsible for providing guards of honor for the State, honor and security services for the highest national personalities and important foreign guests, Military ceremonies and guards of honour for fallen soldiers. The Guard however provides counter-sniper teams and SWAT teams, the Republican Guard also represents France at international events at home or abroad. The Republican Guard is twinned with the Red Guard of Senegal and its name derives from the Municipal Guard of Paris, established on 12 Vendémiaire XI by Napoleon Bonaparte. It distinguished itself in battles of historical significance, including Danzig and Friedland in 1807, Alcolea in 1808, in 1830, it was recreated, and again removed after the Revolution of 1848 in favor of the Civic Guard. June 1848 saw the creation of the Republican Guard of Paris, including an infantry regiment and it received its insignia July 14,1880. It took part in the First World War and saw its flag, during the Second World War, it reported to the police headquarters and took the name of Guard of Paris. Part of its staff rallied to General de Gaulle and the Guard was involved in the fightings alongside the FFI during the liberation of Paris. In 1952, the guard was renamed the Legion of the Republican Guard of Paris and took part in the Indochina War, in 1978, the guard took its current name of Republican Guard. President Giscard dEstaing gave it, on 11 November 1979, its new insignia, michele Alliot-Marie, Minister of Defence, said in October 2002, The Republican Guard has a popularity that transcends borders, it contributes to the splendour of the French military and France. These ceremonial functions are performed mainly by the first infantry regiment, detachments from the cavalry regiment reinforce the two infantry regiments in carrying out ceremonial and security duties in and around state buildings. These include the lining of both sides of the stairs of the Elysée or Matignon Palaces by dismounted cavalry on special occasions. These Republican Guards belong to the Cavalry Regiment and not to the units whose mission is to ensure the security of these palaces. Certain ceremonial duties in the form of guards are performed when state visits are made to the Paris museums or the Opera. Security missions Some guards are assigned to specific missions, Security of diplomatic bags entering and leaving the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. Safety of the Tour de France by the motorcycle squadron, the Republican Guard belongs to the French National Gendarmerie. As a historically Parisian organization, the guards wear the armorial bearings of the city on their uniforms and it consists of two infantry regiments and a horse cavalry regiment. It also has four musical formations, as well as display teams demonstrating prowess in horseback or motorcycle maneuvers, the Guard is commanded by a general de division
16.
Fire
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Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition, at a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. The flame is the portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen, if hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame, Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration, which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning. Fire is an important process that affects ecological systems around the globe, the positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. The negative effects of fire hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution. If fire removes protective vegetation, heavy rainfall may lead to an increase in soil erosion by water and this is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a liquid will start burning only if the fuel. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not consumed, when added, in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily. Without gravity, a fire rapidly surrounds itself with its own products and non-oxidizing gases from the air. Because of this, the risk of fire in a spacecraft is small when it is coasting in inertial flight, of course, this does not apply if oxygen is supplied to the fire by some process other than thermal convection. Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron, consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the rate of combustion. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas. This light has a continuous spectrum, complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine produces a flame
17.
Mountain rescue
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Mountain rescue refers to search and rescue activities that occur in a mountainous environment, although the term is sometimes also used to apply to search and rescue in other wilderness environments. This tends to include mountains with technical rope access issues, snow, avalanches, ice, crevasses, glaciers, alpine environments and high altitudes. The difficult and remote nature of the terrain in which mountain rescue often occurs has resulted in the development of a number of pieces of equipment. Helicopters are often used to quickly extract casualties, and search dogs may be deployed to find a casualty, Mountain rescue services may be paid professionals or volunteer professionals. Paid rescue services are likely to exist in places with a high demand such as the Alps, national parks with mountain terrain. These are frequently made up of climbers and guides. Often paid rescue services may work in co-operation with voluntary services, for instance, a paid helicopter rescue team may work with a volunteer mountain rescue team on the ground. Mountain rescue is often free, although in parts of the world rescue organizations may charge for their services. But there are exceptions, e. g. Switzerland. In more remote or less-developed parts of the world organized mountain rescue services are often negligible or non-existent, the main missions are search and rescue, avalanche response, first aid, surveillance of mountain areas, prevention of accidents, and public safety. In the five national parks of the Canadian Rockies, mountain rescue is solely the responsibility of Parks Canadas, however, parties should be self-reliant and not expect a search to begin until the next day. Search and rescue costs are paid for by park entrance fees. It is a part of the rescue system in the Czech Republic. The Gendarmerie Nationale and the Police nationale are in charge of mountain rescuing, −5 Peloton de Gendarmerie de Montagne, in the Massif central and Vosges areas. 90 per cent of interventions are made by air, the Polices Compagnie républicaine de sécurité are as well providing mountain search and rescue both in French Alps and Pyrenees alternatively with the PGHM. Switzerland have a dense network of alpine rescue and relief organisations. The Swiss Rega have two very distinctive characteristics, they can reach any place in Switzerland under 15 minutes, due to their 10 bases and this means an emergency physician will be on the flight to provide advanced treatment. The Swiss canton of Valais doesnt use the Rega, they have their own fleet, named Air Glacier
18.
Forensic science
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Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence during the course of an investigation. In addition to their role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically be forensic, certain sections have developed over time to encompass the majority of forensically related cases, the word forensic comes from the Latin term forensis, meaning of or before the forum. The history of the term originates from Roman times, during which a charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story, the case would be decided in favor of the individual with the best argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two usages of the word forensic – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation. In modern use, the term forensics in the place of science can be considered correct. However, the term is now so closely associated with the field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word forensics with forensic science. The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment, Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However, ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow concepts in science that were developed centuries later. The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu, written in China by Song Ci in 1248, during the Song Dynasty. In one of the accounts, the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved by an investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location, flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed, methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt, as a precursor to the Polygraph test. In ancient India, some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice, similarly, in Ancient China, those accused of a crime would have rice powder placed in their mouths. In ancient middle-eastern cultures, the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly, in 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs, two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease. In the late 18th century, writings on these began to appear. Two examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the use of logic
19.
SWAT
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SWAT is a term for law enforcement units which use specialized or military equipment and tactics in the United States. In the United States as of 2005, SWAT teams were deployed 50,000 times every year, almost 80% of the time to search warrants. Other countries have developed their own police units that are also described as or compared to SWAT forces. SWAT units are equipped with specialized firearms including submachine guns, assault rifles, breaching shotguns, sniper rifles, riot control agents. The tactic worked and was soon to resolve other types of incidents involving heavily-armed criminals. The LAPD promoted what became known as SWAT teams for a variety of reasons, after the racially charged Watts Riots in Los Angeles in August 1965, the LAPD began considering tactics it could use when faced with urban unrest, rioting, or widespread violence. Daryl Gates, who led the LAPD response to the riots, would write that police at the time didnt face a single mob. New York University professor Christian Parenti has written that SWAT teams were originally conceived of as an urban counterinsurgency bulwark. Another reason for the creation of SWAT teams was the fear of lone or barricaded gunmen who might outperform police in a shootout, after the LAPDs establishment of its own SWAT team, many law enforcement agencies across the United States established their own specialized units under various names. At the time, the United Farm Workers union led by César Chavez was staging numerous protests in Delano, though the strike never turned violent, the Delano Police Department responded by forming ad-hoc SWAT-type units involving crowd and riot control, sniper skills and surveillance. Television news stations and print media carried live and delayed reportage of events across the United States. Personnel from the LAPD, having seen these broadcasts, contacted Delano, inspector Gates approved this idea, and he formed a small select group of volunteer officers. This first SWAT unit initially consisted of fifteen teams of four men each and these officers were given special status and benefits, and were required to attend special monthly training sessions. The unit also served as a security unit for police facilities during civil unrest, the LAPD SWAT units were organized as D Platoon in the Metro division. Early police powers and tactics used by SWAT teams were aided by legislation passed in 1967-8 with the help of Republican House representative Donald Santarelli. The legislation was promoted within the context of fears over the Civil Rights Movement, race riots, the Black Panther Party, and the emerging War on Drugs. The first significant deployment of the LAPDs SWAT unit was on December 9,1969, the raid was problematic from the start, leading to a shoot-out in which Daryl Gates phoned the Department of Defense, requesting and receiving permission to use a grenade launcher. The Panthers eventually surrendered, with four Panthers and four officers being injured, all six arrested Panthers were acquitted of the most serious charges brought against them, including conspiracy to murder police officers, because it was ruled that they acted in self-defense
20.
GIGN
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Groupe dintervention de la Gendarmerie nationale, commonly abbreviated GIGN, is the elite law enforcement and special operations unit of the French National Gendarmerie. Its missions include counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, surveillance of national threats, protection of government officials, GIGN was established in 1974 following the Munich massacre. GIGN shares jurisdiction of French territory with the National Police special-response units, GIGN is headquartered in Versailles-Satory near Paris. Although most of its operations take place in France, the unit, as a component of the French Armed Forces, many of its missions are secret, and members are not allowed to be publicly photographed. Since its formation, GIGN has been involved in over 1,800 missions and rescued more than 600 hostages, the unit came into prominence following its successful assault on a hijacked Air France flight at Marseille Marignane airport in December 1994. GIGN was formed in 1973 in the wake of the Munich massacre and it became operational in March 1974, under the command of then-lieutenant Christian Prouteau and performed its first mission ten days later. Another unit was created simultaneously within the Gendarmerie parachute squadron in Mont-de-Marsan in southwest France, gIGNs initial complement was 15, later increased to 32 in 1976,78 by 1986, and 120 by 2005. On 1 September 2007, a reorganization took place. In effect, GSIGN was renamed GIGN and its former components became forces of the new GIGN which now reached a total complement of 380 operators. More than a simple name swap, the new organization aimed at, reinforcing command and control functions providing better integration through common selection, common training, improving the units capability to handle complex situations such as mass hostage-takings similar to the Beslan crisis. In 2009, the Gendarmerie, while remaining part of the French Armed Forces, was attached to the Ministry of the interior, under the new command structure, GIGN gendarmes can still be engaged in military operations outside of France due to their military status. Coordination between GIGN and RAID, the police elite team, is handled by a joint organization called Ucofi. A leader/follower protocol has been established for use when both units need to be engaged jointly, leadership belonging to the operating in its primary areas of responsibility. Since its creation, the group has taken part in over 1800 operations, liberated over 600 hostages and arrested over 1500 suspects, the two fatalities in action were sustained when dealing with armed deranged persons. Arrest of dangerous or deranged armed persons, surveillance and observation of criminals and terrorists. GIGN is currently organized in six forces, under two headquarters, Intervention force, Approx,100 men, serving as the main assault unit of the GIGN. It is divided into four platoons (French, sections, two of which are on permanent alert and these platoons are further divided into individual teams of operators. Two of the sections are specialized in high altitude jumps
21.
Research and Intervention Brigade
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A Research and Intervention Brigade, commonly abbreviated BRI, often called Anti-Gang Brigade, is a unit of the French National Police. BRIs specialise in serious cases such as armed robbery and kidnappings. They typically attempt to catch offenders in the act after monitoring their activities and they use a mix of traditional techniques and modern technology to collect and archive data about banditry. There are now more than 15 BRI units, located in Frances major cities, the first of them, the Paris BRI, was created in 1964. In 1972, in the wake of the Munich massacre, it was decided that BRI-PP would, as an additional task, BRI-BAC, when activated, is reinforced by other specialised units of the Préfecture de police. In the last two cases, BRI-BAC and the National Polices RAID operated together as part of the National Police Intervention Force, the first BRI, BRI-PP was created in Paris in 1964. Initially set up as a new section in one of the PPs Directorate of Judiciary Police brigades, BRI became a brigade in 1967. The BRI method was innovative enough so that it was copied all around France. All BRI units - including Paris BRI-PP, Judiciary police work with an emphasis on flagrante delicto cases, all BRIs can set up special response teams in case of a terrorist attack. Paris BRI when activated as BRI-BAC, crisis response in hostage, the BRIs are primarily judiciary police units and, contrary to RAID, their members operate in plain clothes for most missions. Hoods are used to ensure anonymity during some of these missions, besides the Paris BRI, there are a dozen regional BRI units and two National unit, BRI-N based in Nanterre and in charge of assisting when inquiries are conducted at the national level
22.
Paratrooper
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Paratroopers are military parachutists — military personnel trained in parachuting into an operation and usually functioning as part of an airborne force. Military parachutists and parachutes were first used on a large scale during World War II for troop distribution and transportation, Paratroopers are often used to seize strategic objectives such as airfields or bridges. They are used for tactical advantage as they can be inserted into the battlefield from the air and they jump out of airplanes using their parachutes to land safely on the ground. It is one of the three types of forced entry strategic techniques for entering a theater of war, the two are by land and sea. Another common use for paratroopers is to establish an airhead for landing other units and this doctrine was first practically applied to warfare by the Italians and the Soviets. During World War II, however, the two countries ground forces were overstretched, leaving their elite paratroopers to be employed as regular infantry. The first extensive use of paratroopers was by the Germans during World War II and later in the war also by the Americans, owing to the limited capacity of cargo aircraft of the period they rarely, if ever, jumped in groups much larger than 20 from one aircraft. In English language parlance, this load of paratroopers is called a stick, the terms come from the common use of white chalk on the sides of aircraft and vehicles to mark and update numbers of personnel and equipment being emplaned. In World War II, paratroopers most often used parachutes of a circular or round design and these parachutes could be steered to a small degree by pulling on the risers and suspension lines which attach to the parachute canopy itself. German paratroopers, whose harnesses had only a single riser attached at the back, today, paratroopers still use round parachutes, or round parachutes modified as to be more fully controlled with toggles. The parachutes are deployed by a static line. Mobility of the parachutes is often limited to prevent scattering of the troops when a large number parachute together. Some military exhibition units and special forces units use ram-air parachutes, many countries have one or several paratrooper units, usually associated to the national Army or Air Force, but in some cases to the Navy. Argentina was the first country on the continent of South America to use Paratroopers, the first paratroopers were issued jump helmets similar to that used by the British at the time, as the rest of the equipment slightly based on the Fallschirmjäger. The 4th Parachute Brigade is a unit of the Argentine Army specialised in airborne assault operations and it is based in Córdoba, Córdoba Province. The Rapid Deployment Force is based on this unit, the members of the unit wear Boina Rojas of the paratroopers with unit badges. During the Second World War the Australian Army formed the 1st Parachute Battalion, however, in the post-war period Australias parachute capability was primarily maintained by special forces units. In the 1970s and 1980s a parachute capability was revived, while a Parachute Battalion Group based on the 3rd Battalion
23.
Riot control
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Riot control refers to the measures used by police, military, or other security forces to control, disperse, and arrest people who are involved in a riot, demonstration, or protest. If a riot is spontaneous and irrational, actions which cause people to stop, however, these methods usually fail when there is severe anger with a legitimate cause, or the riot was planned or organized. Law enforcement officers or military personnel have long used less lethal weapons such as batons and whips to disperse crowds, since the 1980s, riot control officers have also used tear gas, pepper spray, rubber bullets, and electric tasers. In some cases, riot squads may also use Long Range Acoustic Devices, water cannons, armoured fighting vehicles, officers performing riot control typically wear protective equipment such as riot helmets, face visors, body armor, gas masks and riot shields. The first squad trained in techniques of riot control was formed in 1925 in colonial Shanghai as a response to the mismanaged riot of the May Thirtieth Movement. New policing methods, including combat pistol shooting, hand to hand combat skills, under Fairbairn, the SMP developed a myriad of riot control measures. These riot control techniques led to the introduction of Shanghais Reserve Unit - the first modern SWAT team, as a reserve unit, it was used to forcibly disband riots as well as to respond to high-level criminality like kidnappings and armed robberies. The skills developed in Shanghai have been adopted and adapted by both police forces and clandestine warfare units. For protection, officers performing riot control will often wear protective helmets and these are designed to protect the wearer from those dangers that come from direct melee and hurled objects such as bottles and bricks. The gear frequently worn by riot control officers protects the body with no vulnerable spots to exploit. For example, the worn by riot control officers have an additional outward-extending part that protects the back of the neck from assault. To provide even greater protection, the protective equipment often provides ballistic protection, if tear gas or other riot control agents are to be used, gas masks may also be worn. One of many additional concerns is to prevent people in the crowd from snatching officers side arms, in a very heavy crowd, the officer may not be able to see who is responsible for snatching a weapon, and may not even notice that it has happened. For this reason, riot police may have holsters with positive locking mechanisms or other means of retention. However, this can be a trade-off that increases the amount of time needed to draw the sidearm in an emergency, alternately, riot police may not carry sidearms at all. The initial choice of tactics determines the type of equipment used. The base choice is between lethal and less-than-lethal weaponry, the decision is based on the perceived level of threat and the existing laws, in many countries it is illegal to use lethal force to control riots in all but the most extreme circumstances. Special riot hand weapons include the wooden or rubber baton, the African sjambok, a leather or plastic whip, and the Indian lathi
24.
Mobile Gendarmerie
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The Mobile Gendarmerie is a subdivision of the French National Gendarmerie whose main mission is to maintain public order and general security. Although the term mobile has been used at different times in the 19th century, the Mobile Gendarmerie is nicknamed la jaune because of its golden rank insignia, the traditional color of infantry in the French Army. The Mobile Gendarmerie is often mistaken with the National Polices CRS, as their missions are similar, still, many lawmakers were reluctant to create a force which - they thought - might become a new Praetorian guard. In 1921, it was decided to create Mobile Gendarmerie platoons in the Departmental Gendarmerie. In 1926, the formed the Garde Républicaine mobile, which became a separate branch in 1927. By 1940, the GRM was a force 21.000 strong, more than 6.000 GMR gendarmes fought in 1940 either in line Gendarmerie combat units or as detached personnel seconded to the Army. After the 1940 armistice, the Germans demanded that the GRM be disestablished, being attached to the cavalry branch of the Army, the Garde traded its companies for squadrons. After the Liberation, the Garde was disbanded and the GMR recreated under the new designation of Garde républicaine, in 1954, it acquired its present name of Gendarmerie mobile. During the post-war years, all new Gendarmes started their carrier in the Mobile Gendarmerie. In 2009, the Gendarmerie, while remaining part of the French Armed Forces, was attached to the Ministry of the interior, which already supervised the National Police, without changes to its missions. As a consequence of that change, the formal requisition process which the Ministry of the interior needed in order to use Mobile Gendarmerie forces is not used anymore. The territorial organisation of the GM is as follows,7 Zonal Gendarmerie Regions corresponding to the 7 metropolitan National Defense Zones,18 Mobile Gendarmerie Groupings including 1 armoured grouping based in Satory, near Versailles in the Paris area. 109 squadrons, each led by a major or a captain,1 National Gendarmerie Intervention Group with six metropolitan GIGN branches. Their missions include counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, surveillance of national threats, protection of government officials, GIGN is able to deploy a 200 men hostage rescue team to manage a major crisis. The Gendarmerie has a training facility, the National Gendarmerie forces training center, in Saint-Astier. Every squadron takes a two-week refresher training in riot-control techniques there every second year,18 to 20 of the 109 squadrons are permanently deployed on a rotational basis in the French overseas departments and territories. Until 2015, there used to be Reserve Mobile Gendarmerie squadrons but they were disestablished, since 2016, metropolitan France has been divided into 12 administrative regions and the Departmental Gendarmerie has followed this pattern with 13 Gendarmerie Regions. The general officer in charge of a region whose capital is also the seat of a Defense Zone heads all Mobile Gendarmerie forces of that region, the number of Zonal regions, which went down from 9 to 7 in 2000, was left unchanged in the 2016 reform
25.
Water cannon
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A water cannon is a device that shoots a high-velocity stream of water. Typically, a cannon can deliver a large volume of water. They are used in firefighting, large vehicle washing, riot control, most water cannons fall under the category of a fire monitor. Water cannons were first devised for use on fireboats, extinguishing fires on boats and buildings near the water was much more difficult and dangerous before fireboats were invented. The first fireboat deployed in Los Angeles was commissioned on 1 August 1919, the first fireboat in New York City was Marine 1, deployed 1 February 1891. There may have been other fireboats elsewhere even earlier, the first truck-mounted water cannon was used for riot control in Germany in the beginning of the 1930s. The most modern versions do not expose the operator to the riot, and are controlled remotely from within the vehicle by a joystick. The German-built WaWe 10.000 can carry 10,000 litres of water, use of water cannon in riot control contexts can lead to injury or death, with fatalities recorded in Indonesia, Zimbabwe, Turkey, and Ukraine. South Korea used water cannons containing capsaicin and fluorescent dyes for later screening, Water cannons in use during the 1960s, which were generally adapted fire trucks, would knock protesters down and on occasion, tear their clothes. On 30 September 2010, during a protest demonstration against the Stuttgart 21 project in Germany, dietrich Wagner, a retired engineer, suffered from the damage to his eyelids, a fracturing of a portion of the retinal bone, and damage to the retinas. The eye injuries thus inflicted on the man resulted in loss of eyesight. Graphic imagery was recorded of the event, sparking a debate about police brutality and proportionality in the use of state force. The presence of the media at riots has had a significant impact on water cannon use, there is much pressure on police departments to avoid bad publicity, and water cannon often play badly in the press. It is considered that this is a reason that they are not used more often in certain countries. In 1997, pink dye was added to the water used by South Korean and Indonesian police to disperse a riot. The implication is that they use this mark to make it easier to arrest rioters later. The United Kingdom, which had sold the water cannon to Indonesia, condemned this practice, most modern water cannons are also capable of adding tear gas to the stream. In 2004, Jaycor Tactical Systems was experimenting with additives that would allow electricity to be conducted through water and they have demonstrated delivery from a distance of up to twenty feet, but have not yet tested the device on people
26.
Prefect
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Prefect is a magisterial title of varying definition, but which, basically, refers to the leader of an administrative area. A prefects office, department, or area of control is called a prefecture, the words prefect and prefecture are also used, more or less conventionally, to render analogous words in other languages, especially Romance languages. They did have authority in their prefecture such as controlling prisons. The Praetorian prefect began as the commander of a generals guard company in the field. From the Emperor Diocletians tetrarchy they became the administrators of the four Praetorian prefectures, Praefectus urbi, or praefectus urbanus, city prefect, in charge of the administration of Rome. Praefectus vigilum, commander of the Vigiles, Praefectus aerarii, nobles appointed guardians of the state treasury. Praefectus aerarii militaris, prefect of the military treasury Praefectus annonae, Praefectus alae, commander of a cavalry unit. Praefectus cohortis, commander of a cohort, Praefectus fabrum, officer in charge of fabri, i. e. well-trained engineers and artisans. Praefectus legionis agens vice legati, equestrian acting legionary commander, Praefectus orae maritimae, official in charge with the control and defense of an important sector of sea coast. Praefectus socium, Roman officer appointed to a function in an ala sociorum. For some auxiliary troops, specific titles could even refer to their peoples, less important provinces though were entrusted to prefects, military men who would otherwise only govern parts of larger provinces. The most famous example is Pontius Pilate, who governed Judaea at a time when it was administered as an annex of Syria, septimius Severus, after conquering Mesopotamia, introduced the same system there too. Praefectus urbi, a prefect of the era who guarded the city during the annual sacrifice of the Latin. His former title was custos urbi, especially in Medieval Latin, præfectus was used to refer to various officers—administrative, military, judicial, etc. —usually alongside a more precise term in the vernacular. The term is used by the Roman Catholic Church, which based much of its canon law terminology on Roman law, the Roman Curia has the nine Prefects of all the Congregations as well as the two of the Papal Household and of the Economic Affairs of the Holy See. The title also attaches to the heads of some Pontifical Council, who are titled president. For example, the president of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue is also the prefect of the Commission for Religious Relations with Muslims, traditionally these Curial officials are Cardinals, hence often called Cardinal-Prefect or Cardinal-President. There was a custom that those who were not cardinals when they were appointed were titled Pro-Prefect or Pro-President, then these officials would be appointed prefect or president after their elevation to the Sacred College
27.
Public order
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Robertson maintains a crime is nothing more than an act that contravenes a law. Generally speaking, deviancy is criminalized when it is too disruptive and has proved uncontrollable through informal sanctions, Public order crime should be distinguished from political crime. Thus, public order crime includes consensual crime and victimless crime and it asserts the need to use the law to maintain order both in the legal and moral sense. Public order crime is now the term by proponents as against the use of the word victimless based on the idea that there are secondary victims that can be identified. In short, there are no clear, unequivocal definitions of consensus, harm, injury, offender, such judgments are always informed by contestable, epistemological, moral, and political assumptions. A vice squad is a police division whose focus is stopping public-order crimes like gambling, narcotics, prostitution, note that under English and Welsh law, a public order offence is a different category of crime related to disorderly conduct and other breaches of the peace. g. After all, society could deal with unpopular behaviour without invoking criminal or other legal processes and these decisions change over time as moral standards change. For example, Margaret Sanger who founded the first birth control clinic in New York City was accused of distributing obscene material, information about birth control is no longer considered obscene. This reflects a fundamental problem of legal consistency. People have the right to engage in some self-destructive activities, for all its carcinogenic qualities, tobacco is not a prohibited substance. Similarly, the consumption of alcohol can have severe physical consequences. Qualitatively, there is nothing to distinguish the forms of gambling deemed illegal, a side effect of turning too many people into criminals is that the concept of crime becomes blurred and genuine criminality becomes less unacceptable. A further perceptual problem emerges when laws remain in force but are not enforced. Thus, any deterrent message that the state might wish to send is distorted or lost. e. The use of the word implies that there are no injuries caused by these crimes and, if that is true. This has two consequences, Because these crimes take place in private, comprehensive law enforcement would consume an enormous amount of resources. g. Criminalization is intended as a pre-emptive, harm-reduction device, using the threat of punishment as a deterrent to those proposing to engage in the behaviour causing harm, the state becomes involved because the costs of not criminalizing outweigh the costs of criminalizing it. The process of criminalization should be controlled by the state because, even in policed societies, fear may inhibit reporting or co-operation in a trial
28.
Demonstration (protest)
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Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations. Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent, or can begin as nonviolent, sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved. In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all, in other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups, or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot. Demonstrations are a form of activism, usually taking the form of a gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a associated with that opinion. Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint regarding a public issue, a demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate. There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements and these may include, Marches, in which a parade demonstrate while moving along a set route. Rallies, in which people gather to listen to speakers or musicians, picketing, in which people surround an area. Nudity, in which they protest naked - here the antagonist may give in before the demonstration happens to avoid embarrassment, Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible, topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent, government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. Protest marches and demonstrations are a nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence, some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of weapons which can provoke, destabilize
29.
Judiciary
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The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes, in some nations, under doctrines of separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law or enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as Common Law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, the Judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws through the process of judicial review, Judges constitute a critical force for interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus de facto in common law countries creating the body of constitutional law. Budget of the judiciary in many transitional and developing countries is almost completely controlled by the executive, the latter undermines the separation of powers, as it creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary. The proper national wealth distribution including the government spending on the judiciary is subject of the constitutional economics and it is important to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary, the state, and the private. For instance, in France, the jurisprudence constante of the Court of Cassation or the Council of State is equivalent in practice with case law, in common law jurisdictions, courts interpret law, this includes constitutions, statutes, and regulations. They also make law based upon prior case law in areas where the legislature has not made law, for instance, the tort of negligence is not derived from statute law in most common law jurisdictions. The term common law refers to this kind of law, in civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law, but are prohibited from creating law, and thus do not issue rulings more general than the actual case to be judged. Jurisprudence plays a role to case law. State courts, which try 98% of litigation, may have different names and organization, trial courts may be called courts of common plea, appellate courts superior courts or commonwealth courts. The judicial system, whether state or federal, begins with a court of first instance, is appealed to an appellate court, and then ends at the court of last resort. In France, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the Council of State for administrative cases. In the Peoples Republic of China, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the National Peoples Congress. Other countries such as Argentina have mixed systems that include lower courts, appeals courts, a cassation court, in this system the Supreme Court is always the final authority, but criminal cases have four stages, one more than civil law does. On the court sits a total of nine justices and this number has been changed several times. Japans process for selecting judges is longer and more stringent than the process in the United States, assistant judges are appointed from those who have completed their training at the Legal Training and Research Institute located in Wako. Once appointed, assistant judges still may not qualify to sit alone until they have served for five years, Judges require ten years of experience in practical affairs, as a public prosecutor or practicing attorney
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Search warrant
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In most countries a search warrant cannot be issued in aid of civil process. The laws usually make an exception for hot pursuit, an officer following a criminal who has fled the scene of a crime has the right to enter a property where the criminal has sought shelter. This contrasts with authoritarian regimes, where police typically can search property, in the England and Wales, a local magistrate issues search warrants, which require that a constable provide evidence that supports the warrant application. Under Section 18a of PACE, a constable can conduct a search immediately without an inspectors authorisation and this subsection allows a constable to search the home of a suspect under arrest in their presence before they take the suspect to a police station. Under Section 32 of PACE, a constable who arrests a person who is on their own property or has just left their premises, Search warrants must be signed by a Sheriff after a petition from police. Gas company officials may enter a home to inspect, repair, or replace gas meters and this hearing is ex parte meaning only the crown is present. This fact obliges the police to include any facts that hurt their application. After a search the occupant will have a copy of the warrant, if these requirements are not met by the police the evidence found may become admissible against the accused at trial. Under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, most police searches require a warrant based on probable cause. Under the Fourth Amendment, searches must be reasonable and specific and this means that a search warrant must specify the object to search for and the place to search for it. Other items, rooms, outbuildings, persons, vehicles, etc. may require additional search warrants, to obtain a search warrant, an officer must prove to a magistrate or judge that probable cause exists based upon direct information or hearsay information. Police can seize property and persons under a search warrant. The standard for a warrant is lower than the quantum of proof required for a later conviction. In the United States, the issue of federal warrants is determined under Title 18 of the United States Code, the law has been restated and extended under Rule 41 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Federal search warrants may be prepared on Form AO93, Search, each state also enacts its own laws governing the issuance of search warrants. This doctrine is not actually an exception to the Fourth Amendment, balanced against the sovereigns interests at the border are the Fourth Amendment rights of entrants. This balance at international borders means that routine searches are reasonable there, certain cases dont require a search warrant, such as where a person in control of the object or property gives consent. Some commonly cited exigent circumstances are, hot pursuit of a felon, imminent destruction of evidence before a warrant can be obtained, emergency searches
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Probable cause
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In United States criminal law, probable cause is the standard by which police authorities have reason to obtain a warrant for the arrest of a suspected criminal. The standard also applies to personal or property searches, Probable cause, in conjunction with a preponderance of the evidence, also refers to the standard by which a grand jury believes that a crime has been committed. The term comes from the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution, Probable in this case may relate to statistical probability or to a standard of common behavior. The context of the word here is not exclusive to community standards and does not predate statistics. A common definition is an amount of suspicion, supported by circumstances sufficiently strong to justify a prudent. Probable cause is a standard of evidence than a reasonable suspicion. Even hearsay can supply probable cause if it is from a source or supported by other evidence. In Brinegar v. United States, the U. S. ”In the criminal code of some European countries, notably Sweden, the concept of reasonable grounds for suspecting is used throughout the law dealing with police powers. The history of the United States use of cause and its integration in the Fourth Amendment has roots in English common law. This is the idea that someone has the right to defend their “castle” or home from unwanted “attacks” or intrusion, in the 1600s this saying started to apply legally to landowners to protect them from casual searches from government officials. The first was in Massachusetts in 1761 when a customs agent submitted for a new writ of assistance, in the case the lawyer for the merchants James Otis argued that writs of assistance violated the fundamentals of English Law and was unconstitutional. John Adams, a lawyer at the time who wrote the Massachusetts provision that the Fourth Amendment relied heavily on, was impacted by James Otis’s argument. A case against general warrants was Entick v. Carrington, in this case Lord Camden the chief judge said that general warrants were not the same as specific warrants and that parliament or case law could not authorize general warrants. Along with these statements Lord Camden also affirmed that the needs of the state were more important than the individuals rights and this upheld the ideology of the social contract while holding to idea that the government purpose was to protect the property of the people. He called for the government to seek reasonable mean in order to private property as well as a cause. Imposing a reasonable suspicion requirement, as urged by petitioner, would give parolees greater opportunity to anticipate searches, the court held that reasonableness, not individualized suspicion, is the touchstone of the Fourth Amendment. It has been proposed that Fourth Amendment rights be extended to probationers and parolees, there is not much that remains of the Fourth Amendment rights of probationers after waiving their right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. An essay called They Released Me from My Cage. But They Still Keep Me Handcuffed was written in response to the Samson decision, in the United States, use of a trained dog to smell for narcotics has been ruled in several court cases as sufficient probable cause
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BMW R1100RT
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The R1100RT is a BMW touring motorcycle with a twin-cylinder boxer engine. The R1100RT was released in 1996 as a successor to the R100RT, in addition to extensive changes to the full fairing, the engine power was increased significantly from 44 to 66 kW, and the capacity increased from 971 cc to 1085 cc. It has a bore of 99 mm, a stroke of 70.5 mm, top speed is 211 km/h, and the time to accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h is 3.9 seconds. The bike comes standard with a braking system and a regulated three-way catalytic converter. The chassis is constructed in three parts and consists of front and rear frame and a co-supporting ligands motor-gear unit, the suspension was formed on the front by a Telelever and the rear via a Paralever swingarm. The fuel tank holds 25.2 liters,6 liters reserve, the average fuel consumption is 4.7 liters per 100 km at a speed of 90 km/h or 5.6 liters at 120 km/h. The manufacturer recommends the use of petrol with a resistance of at least 95 octane. The front tyres have the dimensions 120/70 ZR17 and rear 160/60 ZR18, the bike weighs 285 kg in running order and has a maximum additional payload of 205 kg. In 2001, the R1100RT was superseded by the R1150RT, touring motorcycles with comparable equipment and motor characteristics are the Honda Pan-European, the Honda Gold Wing and the Triumph Trophy 1200
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Eurovans
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The Eurovans are a family of large MPVs from the Citroën, Peugeot, Fiat and Lancia marques that were produced at the jointly-owned Sevel Nord factory in France. The term Eurovan was not used by the brands themselves in sales literature and it was launched in March 1994, and production ceased in November 2010 for the Fiat and Lancia models, and in June 2014 for the Citroën and Peugeot siblings. The Eurovans differ little technically and visually, being an example of badge engineering. They share mechanicals and body structure with the Sevel Nord light commercial vans, the first generation Eurovans were marketed as the Citroën Evasion, Fiat Ulysse, Lancia Zeta and Peugeot 806. The second generation models were all renamed, except the Fiat Ulysse, with the nameplates now Citroën C8, Lancia Phedra, the first generation Eurovans were introduced in 1994. They are smaller than American vans, like the Chrysler Voyager, in contrast to the Toyota Previa and like American minivans they had sliding rear side doors, a trait they share with their commercial siblings. In spite of the fact that the Voyager also came in the Grand versions with elongated body and wheelbase, in October 1998, the Eurovans were mildly facelifted. The first-generation Eurovans utilized PSAs XU/XUD engines, regardless of brand and they were later replaced by the PSA EW/DW engine. All were mated to 5-speed manual transmissions, apart from the 2.0 16v EW petroleum engine, the Evasion was badged Synergie in the RHD markets of both the United Kingdom and Ireland. However, the car maintained the Evasion name in New Zealand, in 1998, the Citroën Evasion got a slight facelift, including a larger logo and a restyling of the front grille and rear bumper. The 806 was named according to Peugeots x0x system, where the first digit indicates model series, the largest Peugeot series then available was the executive saloon 605, so Peugeot chose 8, potentially leaving room for an in between model. The Eurovans were launched when Peugeot was replacing the x05 with x06 models, the Fiat was named after Ulysses, the Roman name for Odysseus, the hero of Homers Odyssey. The Ulysse range received a facelift in 1999, following the traditional naming theme, Lancia named its variant with the previously unused Greek letter Zeta. In 2002 the second generation of the Eurovans was launched, the 807 itself was launched in June, followed by the C8 in July. The floorpan, wheelbase, and postponement were not transformed, but all exterior dimensions-including front, the increase in length of almost 30 cm greatly enhanced interior volume. The new Eurovans were afforded a more bubbly, contemporary look. The differences between the versions were more marked, surrounding full front fascias and rear sections, as well as different interior colour themes. The middle and third row seats now had fore/aft sliders to increase flexibility, the Citroën C8 and Peugeot 807 also got a light facelift in 2008
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Fiat Ducato
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The Fiat Ducato is a light commercial vehicle developed by the Sevel joint venture between Fiat and PSA Peugeot Citroën, produced since 1981. In Europe, it is produced at the Sevel Sud factory, in Val di Sangro, since 1981, more than 2.6 million Fiat Ducatos have been produced. The Ducato is the most common base used in Europe. The Ducato was first launched in 1981, and was the result of Fiats collaboration with PSA Peugeot Citroën, the vehicles were manufactured at the Sevel Val di Sangro plant in Atessa, central Italy, together with the similar Alfa Romeo AR6, Citroën C25 and Peugeot J5 versions. The Peugeot J5 was sold as the Talbot Express in the United Kingdom, the collaboration of Fiat and PSA had earlier produced the Fiat 242 and Citroën C35 from 1974. For the Fiat, engines were 2.0 litre 4-cylinder petrol or 1.9 diesel, trim levels were base, S and SX. Model variants were named according to carrying capacity, Ducato 10, Ducato 13, Ducato 14 and Ducato Maxi 18. The Ducato Mk1 was very popular as a basis for campervan conversions, a short-wheelbase version was sold as Fiat Talento. The Alfa Romeo AR6 was a badge engineered Ducato sold by Alfa Romeo on the Italian market only and it was available in two different wheelbase lengths, and as passenger van, commercial van or pick-up truck. It was also the commercial vehicle sold by Alfa Romeo. The Citroën C25 was a 2.5 tonne capacity van produced from October 1981 until 1993, the C25 succeeded the dated corrugated Citroën Type H post war one tonne van. The C25’s engines are mounted, the petrol one is a Peugeot 504 unit whilst the diesel one is from the Citroën CX diesel. Both units are coupled to a Citroën gearbox, in February 1982, the range was extended to include a pick up truck and a minibus. In 1991, the C25 series 2 was launched with an enlarged grille, in 1994, the C25 was replaced by the Jumper. The Peugeot J5 was a 2.5 tonne capacity van and its powertrains are as per the Citroën C25. In 1991, the J5 series 2 was launched with a new front grille and it was replaced in 1994 by the Peugeot Boxer, which was based on the second generation Fiat Ducato. The Talbot Express van, sold solely in the United Kingdom, was the last Talbot motor vehicle to be produced. Production of this version for the United Kingdom began in 1982 and continued until 1994. Its Citroën/Peugeot petrol and diesel engines are transversely mounted driving the front wheels, a 4x4 option was also available although now very rare
