1.
California Constitution
–
The Constitution of the State of California is the document that establishes and describes the duties, powers, structure and function of the government of the U. S. state of California. Article 3, Section 2 of the current Constitution references the original boundaries as stated in the 1849 Constitution at Article 7. The result of Progressive mistrust of elected officials, the 1879 constitution is the third longest in the world, californias constitution is one of the longest collections of laws in the world, taking up 110 pages. Part of this length is caused by the fact that many voter initiatives take the form of a constitutional amendment, the constitution can be changed by initiatives passed by voters. Initiatives can be proposed by the governor, legislature, or by popular petition, many of the individual rights clauses in the state constitution have been construed as protecting rights even broader than the Bill of Rights in the federal constitution. This caused the California Supreme Court to find Capital Punishment unconstitional on state Constitutional grounds in the 1972 case of People v. Anderson, the constitution has undergone numerous changes since its original drafting. It was rewritten from scratch several times prior to the drafting of the current 1879 constitution, from 1911, the height of the U. S. Progressive Era, to 1986, the California Constitution was amended or revised over 500 times, the constitution gradually became increasingly bloated, leading to abortive efforts towards a third constitutional convention in 1897,1914,1919,1930,1934 and 1947. By 1962 the constitution had grown to 75,000 words and that year, the electorate approved the creation of a California Constitution Revision Commission, which worked on a comprehensive revision of the constitution from 1964 to 1976. The Commission ultimately removed about 40,000 words from the constitution, many of the signatories to the states original 1849 constitution were themselves prominent in their own right, and are therefore listed below. The list is notable for the inclusion of several Californios, the California Constitution is one of the longest in the world. Unlike other state constitutions, the California Constitution strongly protects the corporate existence of cities and counties, the Constitution gives charter cities, in particular, supreme authority over municipal affairs, even allowing such cities local laws to trump state law. By specifically enabling cities to pay counties to perform governmental functions for them, many of the individual rights clauses in the state constitution have been construed as protecting rights broader than the Bill of Rights in the federal constitution. The constitution also confers upon women equality of rights in entering or pursuing a business, profession, vocation and this is the earliest state constitutional equal rights provision on record. Two universities are expressly mentioned in the constitution, the University of California, UC is one of only nine state-run public universities in the United States whose independence from political interference is expressly guaranteed by the state constitution. Since 1900, Stanford has enjoyed the benefit of a constitutional clause shielding Stanford-owned property from taxes as long as it is used for educational purposes. The constitution of California distinguishes between constitutional amendments and revisions, the latter of which is considered to be a change to the entire constitution. A less extensive change in one or more of its provisions, both require passage of a California ballot proposition by voters, but they differ in how they may be proposed. S
California Constitution
–
Colton Hall in Monterey, site of the 1849 Constitutional Convention
2.
Common law
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Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
Common law
–
The
Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 395 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words.
Common law
–
Legal systems of the world. Common law is red.
Common law
–
Sir William Blackstone as illustrated in his
Commentaries on the Laws of England.
3.
Case law
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Case law is the set of existing rulings which made new interpretations of law and, therefore, can be cited as precedents. In other countries, such as most European countries, the term is applied to any set of rulings on law which is guided by previous rulings, for example, patent office case law. Trials and hearings which are not selected as courts of first impression do not have rulings that become law, therefore. The legal systems of the Nordic countries are included among the civil law systems, but as a separate branch. In Sweden, for instance, case law plays a more important role than in some of the Continental civil law systems. The two highest courts, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court, have the right to set precedent which is in practice binding on all future application of the law. Courts of appeal, both courts and administrative courts may also issue decisions that act as guides for the application of the law. In the common law tradition, courts decide the law applicable to a case by interpreting statutes and applying precedents which record how, normally, the burden rests with litigants to appeal rulings to the higher courts. If a judge acts against precedent and the case is not appealed, the decision will stand. A lower court may not rule against a binding precedent, even if it feels that it is unjust and this may happen several times as the case works its way through successive appeals. High Trees House Ltd K. B.130, the different roles of case law in civil and common law traditions create differences in the way that courts render decisions. By contrast, decisions in civil law jurisdictions are generally very short, some pluralist systems, such as Scots law in Scotland and so-called civil law jurisdictions in Quebec and Louisiana, do not precisely fit into the dual common-civil law system classifications. Such systems may have heavily influenced by the Anglo-American common law tradition, however. Because of their position between the two systems of law, these types of legal systems are sometimes referred to as mixed systems of law. Law professors in common law traditions play a smaller role in developing case law than professors in civil law traditions. Historically, common law courts relied little on legal scholarship, thus, at the turn of the twentieth century, thus common law systems are adopting one of the approaches long common in civil law jurisdictions. Judges may refer to types of persuasive authority to reach a decision in a case. Widely cited non-binding sources include legal encyclopedias such as Corpus Juris Secundum and Halsburys Laws of England, some bodies are given statutory powers to issue Guidance with persuasive authority or similar statutory effect, such as the Highway Code
Case law
4.
Supreme Court of California
–
The Supreme Court of California is the court of last resort in the courts of the State of California. It is headquartered in San Francisco and regularly holds sessions in Los Angeles and its decisions are binding on all other California state courts. Under the original 1849 California Constitution, the Court started with a chief justice, the court was expanded to five justices in 1862. Under the current 1879 constitution, the Court expanded to six associate justices and one chief justice, the justices are appointed by the Governor of California and are subject to retention elections. The Commission holds a hearing and if satisfied with the nominees qualifications. The nominee can then immediately fill a vacancy, or replace a departing justice at the beginning of the next judicial term. If a nominee is confirmed to fill a vacancy that arose partway through a judicial term, voters then determine whether to retain the justice for the remainder of the judicial term. At the terms conclusion, justices must again undergo a statewide election for a full 12-year term. If a majority votes no, the seat vacant and may be filled by the Governor. The electorate has occasionally exercised the power not to retain justices, Chief Justice Rose Bird and Associate Justices Cruz Reynoso and Joseph Grodin were staunchly opposed to capital punishment and were subsequently removed in the 1986 general election. Newly reelected Governor George Deukmejian was then able to elevate Associate Justice Malcolm M. Lucas to Chief Justice, four current justices were appointed by Republicans and three by a Democrat. There is one Filipino-American justice, one Hispanic, one African-American, the justices do not publicly discuss their religious views or affiliations. Two justices earned undergraduate degrees from a University of California school, in March 2017, Werdegar announced her intent to retire on August 31,2017. Between 1879 and 1966, the court was divided into two panels, Department One and Department Two. The chief justice divided cases evenly between the panels and also decided which cases would be heard en banc by the Court sitting as a whole, after a constitutional amendment in 1966, the Court currently sits as a whole when hearing all appeals. The procedure for all justices recuse themselves from a case has varied over time. In an average year the Court will decide to hear 83 cases, the Court is open for business year-round. The Court hears oral argument at least one week per month,10 months each year, since 1878, it has regularly heard oral argument each year at San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Sacramento
Supreme Court of California
–
Justices of the California Supreme Court: Standing, from left: Justice Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar, Justice Carol A. Corrigan, Justice Goodwin H. Liu, and Justice Leondra R. Kruger. Seated, from left: Justice Kathryn M. Werdegar, Chief Justice Tani G. Cantil-Sakauye, and Justice Ming W. Chin
Supreme Court of California
–
Seal of the Supreme Court of California
Supreme Court of California
–
Cantil-Sakauye, Tani
Tani Cantil-Sakauye
Supreme Court of California
–
Werdegar, Kathryn
Kathryn Werdegar
5.
California Courts of Appeal
–
The California courts of appeal are the state intermediate appellate courts in the U. S. state of California. The state is divided into six appellate districts. The courts of appeal form the largest state-level intermediate appellate court system in the United States, notably, all published California appellate decisions are binding on all trial courts. By way of contrast, there is no stare decisis in the California Court of Appeal. It is customary in federal courts and other courts to indicate in case citations the particular circuit or district of an intermediate appellate court that issued the decision cited. All California appellate courts are required by the California Constitution to decide cases in writing with reasons stated. Most Court of Appeal opinions are not published and have no precedential value, in addition, West Publishing traditionally included Court of Appeal opinions in its unofficial reporter, the Pacific Reporter. In 1959, West began publishing both Supreme Court and Court of Appeal opinions in Wests California Reporter, and no longer included Court of Appeal opinions in the Pacific Reporter. Due to their huge caseloads and volume of output, the courts of appeal in turn see the largest number of decisions appealed to the supreme court. The California Constitution originally made the Supreme Court the only appellate court for the whole state, the Court became so overloaded that it frequently issued summary dispositions in minor cases, meaning that it was merely saying affirmed or reversed without saying why. The states second Constitution, enacted in 1879, halted that practice by requiring the Court to issue every dispositive decision in writing with reasons stated. In 1889, the Legislature authorized the Supreme Court to appoint five commissioners to help with its work, despite implementing all these measures, the Supreme Court was no longer able to keep up with the states rapidly growing appellate caseload by the end of the 19th century. Accordingly, in 1903, the Legislature proposed an amendment to create what were then called the district courts of appeal. On November 8,1904, the electorate adopted the amendment, the district courts of appeal originally consisted of three appellate districts, headquartered in San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Sacramento, with three justices each. These first nine justices were appointed by the Governor, each district was assigned an ordinal number. In 1966, the district was dropped from the official names of the courts of appeal by another constitutional amendment which extensively revised the sections governing the state judiciary. This left Florida as the state in the United States with District Courts of Appeal. Since then, each of the courts of appeal has been named officially as the Court of Appeal of the State of California for a particular numbered appellate district
California Courts of Appeal
–
The California Appellate Reports, the court's official reporter
California Courts of Appeal
–
First District
California Courts of Appeal
–
The Supreme Court of California's headquarters is also home to the First District
California Courts of Appeal
–
The Second District's main courthouse in Los Angeles, which it shares with the Supreme Court's branch office
6.
Constitution of the United States
–
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states
Constitution of the United States
–
Page one of the original copy of the Constitution
Constitution of the United States
–
Signing the Constitution, September 17, 1787
Constitution of the United States
–
Territorial extent of the United States, 1790.
Constitution of the United States
–
"We the People" in an original edition
7.
Judicial Council of California
–
The Judicial Council of California is the rule-making arm of the California court system. It was created by an amendment to article VI of the California Constitution in 1926, the California Rules of Court are rules adopted by the Judicial Council. Every court may make local rules for its own government. The Administrative Director is a member who serves as Secretary. The staff maintains an office in San Francisco where the Judicial Council regularly meets, as well as branch offices in Burbank. The staff has also created a centralized datacenter for the system, the California Court Technology Center. California Court Case Management System Judiciary of California Judicial Conference of the United States Official website
Judicial Council of California
–
Seal
8.
Local government in California
–
California has an extensive and complicated system of local government that manages public functions throughout the state. Like most states, California is divided into counties, of which there are 58 covering the entire state, most urbanized areas are incorporated as cities, though not all of California is within the boundaries of a city. School districts, which are independent of cities and counties, handle public education, due to geographical variations in property tax and sales tax revenue and differing attitudes towards priorities, there are variations in the levels of various services from one city to the next. The basic political subdivision of California are the 58 counties, in addition the county serves as the local government for all unincorporated areas, providing services such as police, parks, street maintenance, land use regulations, zoning, and waste disposal. Counties have taxing and police powers, counties may promulgate ordinances which are usually codified in a county code, and violations of the ordinances are misdemeanor crimes unless otherwise specified as an infraction. Thirteen counties are charter counties while the rest are general law counties, most counties elect all of their supervisors by district except San Mateo and Tehama. All counties elect their treasurers except Los Angeles, Sacramento, Santa Clara, all counties elect their district attorneys and their sheriffs. Counties may also have an assessor, a recorder, an auditor, a controller, a treasurer, a tax collector, a county clerk, a registrar of voters, a coroner, and/or a medical examiner. Californias judicial system is organized along county lines, but the county courts are a part of the court system. This unfunded mandate was a source of frustration for both the superior courts and the counties. A LAFCO regulates the creation of districts and annexation of unincorporated land to cities within the county. No incorporated city may cross county boundaries, and special districts that span county lines must be approved by the state Legislature. California also uses grand juries, with at least one per county and these county-level grand juries are often called civil grand juries because their primary focus is on oversight of government institutions at the county level and lower. They meet at least once per year, on January 4,1850, the California constitutional committee recommended the formation of 18 counties. On April 22, the counties of Branciforte, Calaveras, Coloma, Colusi, Marin, Mendocino, Napa, Trinity, and Yuba were added. Benicia was renamed Solano, Coloma to El Dorado, Fremont to Yolo, Mt. Diablo to Contra Costa, San Jose to Santa Clara, Oro to Tuolumne, and Redding to Shasta. One of the first state legislative acts regarding counties was to rename Branciforte County to Santa Cruz, Colusi to Colusa, the last county in California to be established is Imperial County on August 7,1907. Since 1911, counties in California have been allowed limited home rule, in 1933, county supervisors gained authority to fix salaries for all county officers other than themselves
Local government in California
–
San Francisco City Hall
Local government in California
–
The
Kenneth Hahn Hall of Administration where the
Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors meets
Local government in California
–
The San Diego County Administration Building where the
San Diego County Board of Supervisors meets
Local government in California
–
Oakland City Hall, where the
Oakland City Council meets
9.
County (United States)
–
In the United States, an administrative or political sub-division of a state is a county, which is a region having specific boundaries and usually some level of governmental authority. The term county is used in 48 U. S. states, while Louisiana and Alaska have functionally equivalent subdivisions called parishes, most counties have subdivisions which may include municipalities and unincorporated areas. Others have no divisions, or may serve as a singular consolidated city-county. Some municipalities are in multiple counties, New York City is uniquely partitioned into multiple counties/boroughs, the U. S. federal government uses the term county equivalent to describe non-county administrative or statistical areas that are comparable to counties. Alaskas Unorganized Borough is divided into 11 census areas that are equivalent to counties. As of 2013, the United States has 3,007 counties and 137 county equivalents for a total of 3,144 counties, the number of counties per state ranges from the 3 counties of Delaware to the 254 counties of Texas. Counties have significant governmental functions in all states except Rhode Island and Connecticut, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts has removed most government functions from eight of its 14 counties. The county with the largest population, Los Angeles County, counties were among the earliest units of local government established in the Thirteen Colonies that would become the United States. Virginia created the first counties in order to ease the workload in Jamestown. Americas oldest intact county court records can be found at Eastville, Virginia, in Northampton County, maryland established its first county, St. Marys, in 1637, and Massachusetts followed in 1643. When independence came, the framers of the Constitution did not provide for local governments, rather, they left the matter to the states. Subsequently, early state constitutions generally conceptualized county government as an arm of the state, in some states, these powers are partly or mostly devolved to the counties smaller divisions usually called townships, though in New York, New England and Wisconsin they are called towns. The county may or may not be able to override its townships on certain matters, the newest county in the United States is the city and county of Broomfield, Colorado, established in 2001 as a consolidated city-county. The newest county-equivalents are the Alaskan boroughs of Skagway established in 2007, Wrangell established in 2008, there are 40 consolidated city-counties in the U. S. Similarly, some of Alaskas boroughs have merged with their principal cities creating unified city-boroughs. Some such consolidations and mergers have created cities that rank among the geographically largest cities in the world, see also, #County names, regarding Louisiana. Independent cities, These are cities that legally belong to no county, Washington, D. C. outside the jurisdiction of any state, has a special status. The city of Washington comprises the entirety of the District of Columbia, when founded in 1801, the District consisted of two counties and three cities. In 1846, Alexandria County – including the then–City of Alexandria – was given back to Virginia, in 1871, the three remaining entities – the City of Washington, Georgetown City, and Washington County – were merged into a consolidated government by an act of Congress
County (United States)
–
A highway sign designating the border between
Nicholas and
Greenbrier counties in
West Virginia along a secondary road.
County (United States)
–
County
10.
San Francisco
–
San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
San Francisco
–
San Francisco and the
Golden Gate Bridge from
Marin Headlands
San Francisco
–
Mission San Francisco de Asís (Mission Dolores)
San Francisco
–
1853
United States Coast Survey Map
San Francisco
–
Francis Samuel Marryat, Hilltop of San Francisco, California, Looking toward the Bay, 1849. M.& N. Hanhart Chromolithograph
11.
City
–
A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
City
–
1908 map of
Piraeus, the port of
Athens, showing the grid plan of the city
City
–
Ancient
Ur of
Sumer in present-day Tell el-Mukayyar in
Iraq, one of the world's earliest cities
City
–
Mohenjo-daro, a
World Heritage site that was part of the
Indus Valley Civilization
City
–
A map dating 1669 showing the location of
Multan, Pakistan
12.
Unincorporated area
–
Occasionally, municipalities dissolve or disincorporate, which may happen if they become fiscally insolvent, and services become the responsibility of a higher administration. In some countries, such as in Brazil, Japan, France or the United Kingdom, unlike many other countries, Australia has only one level of local government immediately beneath state and territorial governments. A local government area often contains several towns and even entire cities, thus, aside from very sparsely populated areas and a few other special cases, almost all of Australia is part of an LGA. Unincorporated areas are often in locations, cover vast areas or have very small populations. Postal addresses in unincorporated areas, as in parts of Australia. Thus, there is any ambiguity regarding addresses in unincorporated areas. The Australian Capital Territory has no municipalities and is in some sense an unincorporated area, the territorial government is directly responsible for matters normally carried out by local government. The far west and north of New South Wales constitutes the Unincorporated Far West Region, a civil servant in the state capital manages such matters as are necessary. The second unincorporated area of state is Lord Howe Island. In the Northern Territory,1. 45% of the area and 4. In South Australia, 60% of the area is unincorporated and communities located within can receive services provided by a state agency. Firstly, the remote area that is unincorporated is the Abrolhos Islands. Secondly, the unincorporated areas are A-class reserves either in, or close to. In Canada, depending on the province, a settlement is one that does not have a municipal council that governs solely over the settlement. It is usually, but not always, part of a municipal government. This can range from hamlets to large urbanized areas that are similar in size to towns. In British Columbia, unincorporated settlements lie outside municipal boundaries entirely, Unincorporated settlements with a population of between 100 and 1,000 residents may have the status of designated place in Canadian census data. In some provinces, large tracts of undeveloped wilderness or rural country are unorganized areas that fall directly under the provincial jurisdiction
Unincorporated area
–
Sign at
Contra Costa Centre Transit Village, an unincorporated community in
Contra Costa County, California, United States, north of the city of
Walnut Creek.
Unincorporated area
–
Sign prohibiting entry to the
Military Area Boletice
Unincorporated area
–
Nutbush, an unincorporated area in
Haywood County,
Tennessee
Unincorporated area
–
Rosslyn, one of many highrise neighborhoods in
Arlington County, Virginia. The county has no cities within its borders, and five times the
population density of the state's most populous city,
Virginia Beach.
13.
Misdemeanor
–
A misdemeanor or misdemeanour is any lesser criminal act in some common law legal systems. Misdemeanors are generally punished less severely than felonies, but theoretically more so than administrative infractions, many misdemeanors are punished with monetary fines. In the United States, the government generally considers a crime punishable with incarceration for one year or less to be a misdemeanor. All other crimes are considered felonies, many states also employ this distinction. A misdemeanor is considered a crime of low seriousness, and a one of high seriousness. A principle of the rationale for the degree of punishment meted out is that the punishment should fit the crime, one standard for measurement is the degree to which a crime affects others or society. Measurements of the degree of seriousness of a crime have been developed, the distinction between felonies and misdemeanors has been abolished by several common law jurisdictions. The Republic of Ireland, a member of the Commonwealth. In the United States of America, the first time a person commits certain crimes, such as assault, it is a misdemeanor. In some jurisdictions, those who are convicted of a misdemeanor are known as misdemeanants, jurisdictions such as Massachusetts are a notable exception where the maximum punishment of some misdemeanors is up to 2.5 years. People who are convicted of misdemeanors are punished with probation, community service, short jail term, or part-time imprisonment. Misdemeanors usually do not result in the loss of civil rights, such effects are known as the collateral consequences of criminal charges. This is more common when the misdemeanor is related to the privilege in question, the definition of a high crime is left to the judgment of Congress. In Singapore, misdemeanors generally are sentenced to months of jail sentence, depending on the jurisdiction, several classes of misdemeanors may exist, the forms of punishment can vary widely between those classes. For example, the federal and state governments in the United States divide misdemeanors into several classes, with certain classes punishable by jail time and others carrying only a fine. In New York law, a Class A Misdemeanor carries a sentence of one year of imprisonment. In the United States, when a statute does not specify the class, legislators usually enact such laws when they wish to impose penalties that fall outside the framework specified by each class. First-time cannabis possession is a misdemeanor in Virginia punishable by up to 30 days in jail rather than the normal fines
Misdemeanor
–
Graffiti —in the US—is a common form of the misdemeanor
vandalism, although in many states it is now a felony.
Misdemeanor
–
Possession of
cannabis is an unclassified misdemeanor in parts of the
US.
14.
Infraction
–
A summary offence is a crime in some common law jurisdictions that can be proceeded against summarily, without the right to a jury trial and/or indictment. In Canada, summary offences are referred to as summary conviction offences, as in other jurisdictions, summary conviction offences are considered less serious than indictable offences because they are punishable by shorter prison sentences and smaller fines. These offences appear both in the laws of Canada and in the legislation of Canadas provinces and territories. As a matter of practical effect, some differences between summary conviction and indictable offences are provided below. Accused must be charged with a conviction within 6 months after the act happened. Limitation periods are set out in the Criminal Code, the police can arrest under summary conviction without an arrest warrant if found committing a summary offense notwithstanding s.495 of the Criminal Code. If the police do not find committing an offense, an arrest warrant is required. Accused does not have to submit fingerprints when charged under Summary Conviction, appeals of summary conviction offences go first to the highest trial court within the jurisdiction. Accused convicted under summary conviction are eligible for a pardon after 5 years provided the accused is not convicted of any further offences during that period, always tried in a provincial court. There is no limit to when charges can be laid. The exception to this point is treason, which has a 3-year limitation period, police do not require a warrant to arrest under an indictable offence, see S.495 Criminal Code Accused has to submit fingerprints when required to appear to answer to an indictable offence. Appeals always go to the Provincial Court of Appeal first, Accused convicted under an indictable offence can apply for parole after 10 years. In Hong Kong, trials for summary offences are heard in one of the territorys Magistrates Courts, in relation to England and Wales, the expression summary offence means an offence which, if committed by an adult, is tried by a summary procedure. In such proceedings there is no jury, the judge decides the guilt or innocence of the accused. Each summary offence is specified by statute which describes the offence, a summary procedure can result in a summary conviction. In these there is no intervention of a jury, but the party accused is acquitted or condemned by the suffrage of such person only, as the statute has appointed for his judge. But it has of late been so far extended, as, if a check be not timely given, to threaten the disuse of our admirable and truly English trial by jury, unless only in capital cases. In the United Kingdom, trials for summary offences are heard in one of a number of types of lower court, for England and Wales this is the Magistrates Court
Infraction
–
Classes of crimes
15.
Louisiana
–
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
Louisiana
–
Louisiana entrance sign off
Interstate 20 in
Madison Parish east of
Tallulah.
Louisiana
–
Flag
Louisiana
–
Aerial view of Louisiana wetland habitats.
Louisiana
–
A field of yellow wildflowers in
Saint Bernard Parish, Louisiana
16.
English law
–
English law is the common law legal system governing England and Wales, comprising criminal law and civil law. English law has no formal codification, the essence of English common law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts applying statute, and legal precedent from previous cases. A decision of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, the highest civil court of the United Kingdom, is binding on every other court. Some rulings are derived from legislation, others, known as law, are based on rulings of previous courts. For example, murder is a common law rather than one established by an Act of Parliament. Common law can be amended or repealed by Parliament, murder, for example, the first schedule of the Interpretation Act 1978, defines the following terms, British Islands, England, and United Kingdom. The use of the term British Isles is virtually obsolete in statutes and, for interpretation purposes, England includes a number of specified elements, Wales and Berwick Act 1746, section 3 formally incorporated Wales and Berwick-upon-Tweed into England. But section 4 Welsh Language Act 1967 provided that references to England in future Acts of Parliament should no longer include Wales, but Dicey & Morris say It seems desirable to adhere to Diceys definition for reasons of convenience and especially of brevity. It would be cumbersome to have to add or Wales after England, the adjacent islands of the Isle of Wight and Anglesey are a part of England and Wales by custom, while Harman v Bolt 47 TLR219 expressly confirms that Lundy is a part of England. The adjacent territorial waters by virtue of the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878, great Britain means England, Wales, Scotland, their adjacent territorial waters and the islands of Orkney and Shetland, the Hebrides and, by virtue of the Island of Rockall Act 1972, Rockall. V Canon Film Sales Ltd.1 WLR1597 and Chloride Industrial Batteries Ltd, V F. & W. Freight Ltd.1 WLR823. British Islands – but not British Isles – means the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, compare with American convention, which includes of, as in Civil Rights Act of 1964. For example, the Pleading in English Act 1362 was referred to as 36 Edw,15, meaning 36th year of the reign of Edward III, chapter 15, though in the past this was all spelt out, together with the long title. Common law is a term with historical origins in the system of England. This may be a legacy of the Norman conquest of England, an example is the Law Merchant derived from the Pie-Powder Courts, named from a corruption of the French pieds-poudrés implying ad hoc marketplace courts. In 1276, the concept of time immemorial often applied in common law was defined as being any time before 6 July 1189, one of the major challenges in the early centuries was to produce a system that was certain in its operation and predictable in its outcomes. Too many judges were either partial or incompetent, acquiring their positions only by virtue of their rank in society, thus, a standardised procedure slowly emerged, based on a system termed stare decisis which roughly means let the decision stand. The doctrine of precedent which requires similar cases to be adjudicated in a like manner, thus, the ratio decidendi of each case will bind future cases on the same generic set of facts both horizontally and vertically in the court structure
English law
–
The
Royal Courts of Justice on the
Strand in
London is the seat of the
High Court of Justice and the
Court of Appeal.
17.
Initiative
–
In political science, an initiative is a means by which a petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered voters can force a public vote. The initiative may take the form of an initiative or an indirect initiative. In a direct initiative, a measure is put directly to a vote after being submitted by a petition, in an indirect initiative, a measure is first referred to the legislature, and then put to a popular vote only if not enacted by the legislature. It is a form of direct democracy, the Canadian province of British Columbia has a citizen initiative law known as the Recall and Initiative Act. The original proposal was put to voters in a referendum held in October 1991 and was supported by over 83% of voters and it was subsequently put into force by the incoming NDP government. The first referendum was held under this legislation on September 2011 on the subject of repealing the Harmonized Sales Tax, details of its use in BC are available on the Elections BC website. The rejected Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe included an indirect initiative right. The precise mechanism had not been agreed upon, critics underlined the weakness of this right of initiative, which did not ultimately entail any vote or referendum. A similar scheme under the name, European Citizens Initiative, has been put forward in the now ratified European Lisbon Treaty. It follows very similar rules to the ones outlined in the European Constitution and these citizens would thereby obtain the same right to request the Commission to submit a legislative proposal as the Council has had since the establishment of the European Communities in 1957. This, however, does require that the signatures come from a significant number of Member States and it is suggested that this significant number will need to be around a quarter of member states, with at least 1/500 of the citizens in those member states supporting the initiative. With the variety of languages within the European Union, this creates a significant hurdle for people to navigate. In 2013 the subjects of ongoing open initiatives of the European Citizens Initiative are e. g. about water and sanitation as a human right, unconditional Basic Income, or to End Ecocide in Europe. It remains to be if the ECI evolves into a full initiative or remains in its present state of a de facto petition. Since March 1,2012, groups of at least 50,000 Finnish citizens with suffrage have had the right to send a citizens initiative to the Parliament of Finland. A limited, indirect form of initiative was added to the French Constitution on 28 March 2003 as part of decentralization reforms. However, the only power these local referendum initiatives confer on citizens is the ability to add propositions to their local assemblys meeting agenda, the decision as to whether to submit citizen propositions to a popular vote rests with the local assembly. All German states have the right to initiative, however, there is no constitutional citizens initiative in Germany at a federal level
Initiative
–
Signature collection point at
The Body Shop in
Kluuvi shopping centre,
Helsinki, for one of the first citizens’ initiatives in Finland, about banning
fur farming.
18.
Law report
–
Law reports or reporters are series of books that contain judicial opinions from a selection of case law decided by courts. When a particular judicial opinion is referenced, the law report series in which the opinion is printed will determine the case citation format, the term reporter was originally used to refer to the individual persons who actually compile, edit, and publish such opinions. For example, the Reporter of Decisions for the U. S. Supreme Court is the person authorized to publish the Courts cases in the volumes of the United States Reports. In American English, reporter also denotes the books themselves, in the Commonwealth, these are described by the plural term law reports, the title that usually appears on the covers of the periodical parts and the individual volumes. In common law countries, court opinions are binding under the rule of stare decisis. That rule requires a court to apply a principle that was set forth earlier by a court of a superior jurisdiction dealing with a similar set of facts. Thus, the publication of such opinions is important so that everyone—lawyers, judges. Official law reports or reporters are those authorized for publication by statute or other governmental ruling, governments designate law reports as official to provide an authoritative, consistent, and authentic statement of a jurisdictions primary law. Official case law publishing may be carried out by a government agency, unofficial law reports, on the other hand, are not officially sanctioned and are published as a commercial enterprise. In Australia and New Zealand, official reports are called authorised reports - unofficial are referred to as unauthorised reports, some commercial publishers also provide court opinions in searchable online databases that are part of larger fee-based, online legal research systems, such as Westlaw, Lexis-Nexis and Justis. But once a court opinion is officially published, case citation rules usually require a person to cite to the official reports, a good printed law report in traditional form usually contains the following items, - • The citation reference. • A recital of the facts of the case, • A note of the arguments of counsel before the judge. The development of the Internet created the opportunity for courts to publish their decisions on Web sites and this is a relatively low cost publication method compared to paper and makes court decisions more easily available to the public. Because a court can post a decision on a Web site as soon as it is rendered, Decisions of courts from all over the world can now be found through the WorldLII Web site, and the sites of its member organizations. These projects have strongly encouraged by the Free Access to Law Movement. Many law librarians and academics have commented on the system of legal information delivery - brought about by the rapid growth of the World Wide Web. Professor Bob Berring writes that the primacy of the old paper sets is fading, in theory, court decisions posted on the Web expand access to the law beyond the specialized law library collections used primarily by lawyers and judges. The general public can more readily find court opinions online, whether posted on Web-accessible databases, questions remain, however, on the need for a uniform and practical citation format for cases posted on the Web
Law report
–
The
United States Reports, the official reporter of the
Supreme Court of the United States
Law report
–
A few volumes of the English Reports at a
law library
Law report
–
The
Pacific Reporter, a part of West's National Reporter System
Law report
–
Volumes of the Commonwealth Law Reports
19.
LexisNexis
–
LexisNexis Group is a corporation providing computer-assisted legal research as well as business research and risk management services. During the 1970s, LexisNexis pioneered the electronic accessibility of legal, as of 2006, the company has the worlds largest electronic database for legal and public-records related information. Currently a division of RELX Group, LexisNexis was first a product of the Mead Data Central company, the Anglo-Dutch publishing company Reed Elsevier has owned LexisNexis and its predecessor company since 1994. At its inception in 1970, the database was named LEXIS by Mead Data Central and it was a continuation of an experiment organized by the Ohio State Bar in 1967. On April 2,1973, LEXIS launched publicly, offering full-text search in all Ohio, in 1980, LEXIS completed its hand-keyed electronic archive of all U. S. federal and state cases. The NEXIS service, added that year, gave journalists a searchable database of news articles. LexisNexis world headquarters is located in Dayton, Ohio, United States, in 1989, MDC acquired the Michie Company, a legal publisher, from Macmillan. When Toyota launched the Lexus line of vehicles in 1987. A market research survey asked consumers to identify the spoken word Lexis, survey results showed that a nominal number of people thought of the computerized legal search system, a similarly small number thought of Toyotas luxury car division. A judge ruled against Toyota, and the company appealed the decision, Mead lost on appeal in 1989 when the Court of Appeals for the 2nd Circuit held that there was little chance of consumer confusion. Today, the two companies have a business relationship, and in 2002 implemented a joint promotion called Win a Lexus on Lexis. In December 1994, Mead sold the LexisNexis system to Reed Elsevier for $1.5 billion, on April 15,2008, the U. S. The Court reversed and remanded so that the courts could apply the correct test and determine whether Mead. In 2000, LexisNexis purchased RiskWise, a St. Cloud, in 2002 it acquired a Canadian research database company, Quicklaw. In 2004, Reed Elsevier Group, parent company of LexisNexis, purchased Seisint, Inc, from founder Michael Brauser of Boca Raton, Seisint housed and operated the Multistate Anti-Terrorism Information Exchange. On March 9,2005, LexisNexis announced the possible theft of information of some Seisint users. It was originally estimated that 32,000 users were affected, affected persons were provided with free fraud insurance and credit bureau reports for a year. However, no reports of identity theft or fraud were discovered to have stemmed from the security breach, in February 2008, Reed Elsevier purchased data aggregator ChoicePoint in a cash deal for US$3.6 billion
LexisNexis
–
LexisNexis office in Markham
LexisNexis
–
LexisNexis
20.
Thomson West
–
West is a business owned by Thomson Reuters that publishes legal, business, and regulatory information in print, and on electronic services such as Westlaw. Since the late 19th century, West has been one of the most prominent publishers of materials in the United States. Its headquarters is in Eagan, Minnesota, it also has an office in Rochester, New York, organizationally, West is part of the global legal division of Thomson Reuters. West Publishing was founded by John B, West and his brother Horatio in 1872 in St. Paul, Minnesota. It is best known for establishing the National Reporter System, a system of regional reporters, technically, all of Wests reporters were originally unofficial reporters published without the express authorization or endorsement of the courts. West reporters have become the de facto standard used by all federal courts and most state courts. In 1995 West retained the services of A. G. Edwards, today, West also publishes some treatise titles purchased from Shepards. Through these acquisitions, Thomson has become one of the big three legal publishers, along with LexisNexis and Wolters Kluwer, following the acquisition by Thomson, West was known as WIPG, West Information Publishing Group. From 1997 to 2004, West was known as West Group, in 2009/2010 West began offering buyouts to its U. S. editorial staff as it began to move editorial production overseas. West Publishing Company in MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia
Thomson West
–
Logo used from 1999 to 2008
21.
Westlaw
–
Westlaw is one of the primary online legal research services for lawyers and legal professionals in the United States and is a part of West. In addition, it provides proprietary database services, most legal documents on Westlaw are indexed to the West Key Number System, which is Wests master classification system of U. S. law. Westlaw supports natural language and Boolean searches, other tabs organize Westlaw content around the specific work needs of litigators, in-house corporate practitioners, and lawyers who specialize in any of over 150 legal topics. Most customers are attorneys or law students, but other individuals can also obtain accounts, Westlaw was originated by West Publishing, a company whose headquarters have been in Eagan, Minnesota since 1992, West was acquired by The Thomson Corporation in 1996. Several of Thomsons law-related businesses outside the United States have their own Westlaw sites, more recently, Westlaw China was introduced, with laws and regulations, cases, digests, and status icons, for the law of the Peoples Republic of China. In total, Westlaw is used in over 68 countries, Wests chief competitor in the legal information retrieval market is LexisNexis. Both Westlaw and LexisNexis started in the 1970s as dial-up services with dedicated terminals, the earliest versions used acoustic couplers or key phones, then smaller terminals with internal modems. Westlaws terminal was known as WALT, for West Automatic Law Terminal, Wests program was known as Westmate. It was based on Borland C++ around 1997, and then changed to a program compiled on a Microsoft platform that incorporated portions of Internet Explorer and this was the first program to incorporate HTML, prior to that, Westmate had jumps indicated by triangles instead of links. Shortly after that, both publishers started developing web browser interfaces, with Westlaws being notable for the use of web dialogs, Westmate was discontinued on June 30,2007. West introduced WestlawNext on February 8,2010, a new search algorithm, referred to as WestSearch, claimed to be the worlds most advanced legal research engine, executes a federated search across multiple content types. Users can either enter descriptive terms or Boolean connectors and select a jurisdiction, WestlawNext also supports retrieving documents by citation, party name or KeyCite reference. An overview page enables users to see the top results per content type, filters can also be applied to refine the result list even further. On the results page, users can also see links to related secondary sources relevant to their research, WestlawNext also provides folders for storing portions of the research selected by the user. The classic Westlaw. com platform was retired in August 2015, WestlawNext was renamed Thomson Reuters Westlaw, effective in February 2016. KeyCite is a case used in United States legal research that provides a list of all the authorities citing a particular case, statute. Verification of citations is necessary, because lawyers must determine whether a case has reversed, overruled. Further, when interpreting a statute it is necessary to examine previous judicial interpretations, as such, legal professionals must be certain that the legal citations they use to reinforce their arguments are accurate and still “good law
Westlaw
–
Westlaw
22.
Court case
–
A legal case is a dispute between opposing parties resolved by a court, or by some equivalent legal process. A legal case may be civil or criminal. In each legal case there is an accuser and one or more defendants, the remedy will be prescribed by the court if the plaintiff wins the case. A civil case can also be arbitrated through arbitration, which may result in a settlement, with lower costs. Cases involving separation including asset division, support, and matters related to children are handled differently in different jurisdictions, often, the courts procedure for dealing with family cases is very similar to that of a civil case. A criminal case may in some jurisdictions be settled before a trial through a plea bargain, typically, in a plea bargain, the defendant agrees to plead guilty to a lesser charge than that which was originally brought by the grand jury or prosecuter. A defendant who goes to trial risks greater penalties than would normally be imposed through a plea bargain. Details of the procedure may depend on both the kind of case and the kind of system in which the case is brought - whether, for example, it is an inquisitorial system or an adversarial system. The outcome of the case is recorded, and can later be reviewed by obtaining a copy of the associated with the designation previously assigned to the case. However, it is more convenient to refer to cases – particularly landmark. Where a legal proceeding does not have formally designated adverse parties, the v separating the parties is an abbreviation of the Latin versus, but, when spoken in Commonwealth countries, it is normally rendered as and or against. Where it is considered necessary to protect the anonymity of a natural person, in titles such as R v Adams, however, the initial R is usually an abbreviation for the Latin Rex or Regina, i. e. for the Crown. Case law early case assessment lists of case law
Court case
–
Canadian criminal cases
23.
Restatement of Torts, Second
–
The American Restatement of Torts, Second is an influential treatise issued by the American Law Institute. It summarizes the principles of common law United States tort law. The volumes covering torts are part of the Second Restatements of the Law series and it includes four volumes, with the first two published in 1965, the third in 1977 and the last in 1979. Section 402A of this Restatement, discussing strict liability for defective products, is by far the most widely cited section of any Restatement. It gave birth to such a body of case law that an entirely new Restatement of Torts, Third, Products Liability was published in 1997 to supersede Section 402A
Restatement of Torts, Second
–
The Restatement (Second) of Torts
24.
Rutter Group
–
The Rutter Group, originally founded by William Rutter, is a business of Thomson Reuters that publishes materials for lawyers and judges in the United States, with a particular focus on California. The Rutter Group is well known for its Rutter Group Practice Guides, courts have cited these treatises in almost 8,000 legal opinions, and they have been called the bible for litigators. Many of the cases that the treatises cite point back directly to the Rutter text as the source of the legal principle applied. When this occurs, the Rutter treatises include the parenthetical citing text when listing the cases, because the publications are non-binding, courts may sometimes expressly decline to follow them. However, both California and federal courts have repeatedly identified Rutter treatises as well-respected interpretations of the law, the Rutter Group now publishes more than twenty-five treatises, which are available both in print and through Westlaw. They are considered one of the reasons that many attorneys subscribe to Westlaw instead of its competitor
Rutter Group
–
Rutter Group
25.
Summary judgment
–
In law, a summary judgment is a judgment entered by a court for one party and against another party summarily, i. e. without a full trial. Such a judgment may be issued on the merits of an entire case, a factfinder has to decide what the facts are and apply the law. In traditional common law the factfinder was a jury, but in many jurisdictions the judge now acts as the factfinder as well. It is the factfinder who decides what happened, and it is the judge who applies the law to the facts as determined by the factfinder, whether directly or by giving instructions to the jury. The necessary steps before a case can get to trial include disclosing documents to the opponent by discovery, showing the other side the evidence and this process is lengthy, and can be difficult and costly. A party moving for summary judgment is attempting to avoid the time and expense of a trial when, in the partys view. Typically this is stated as, when all the likely to be put forward is such that no reasonable factfinder could disagree with the moving party. If there is nothing for the factfinder to decide, then the party asks rhetorically. The moving party will also attempt to persuade the court that the material facts require judgment to be entered in its favor. See Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 56, Celotex Corp. v. Catrett,477 U. S.317, 322–27, Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc.477 U. S.242,257, Matsushita Elec. Industrial Co. v. Zenith Radio Corp.475 U. S.574, in American legal practice, summary judgment can be awarded by the court before trial, effectively holding that no trial will be necessary. At the federal level, a summary-judgment motion in United States District Court is governed by Rule 56 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, a party seeking summary judgment is called the movant, the opposing party is the nonmovant. An issue of fact is an event that the factfinder at trial is charged to credit. A genuine issue/fact is one that can be resolved in favor of either party, a material issue/fact is one which could affect the outcome of the case. Summary judgment in the United States applies only in civil cases and it does not apply to criminal cases to obtain a pretrial judgment of conviction or acquittal, in part because a criminal defendant has a constitutional right to a jury trial. Some federal and state-court judges publish general guidelines and sample summary-judgment forms, according to Federal Judicial Center research, summary-judgment motions are filed in 17% of federal cases. Since almost two-thirds of federal civil cases are dismissed or settled, 71% of summary-judgment motions were filed by defendants, 26% by plaintiffs. Out of these, 36% of the motions were denied, from a tactical perspective, there are two basic types of summary-judgment motions
Summary judgment
–
Civil rights cases concluded in U.S. district courts, by disposition, 1990–2006.
26.
Arnold Schwarzenegger
–
Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger is an Austrian-American actor, producer, businessman, investor, author, philanthropist, activist, politician and former professional bodybuilder. He served two terms as the 38th Governor of California from 2003 until 2011, Schwarzenegger began weight training at the age of 15. He won the Mr. Universe title at age 20 and went on to win the Mr. Olympia contest seven times, Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent presence in bodybuilding and has written many books and articles on the sport. He is widely considered to be among the greatest bodybuilders of all time as well as bodybuildings biggest icon, Schwarzenegger gained worldwide fame as a Hollywood action film icon. His breakthrough film was the sword-and-sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian in 1982, in 1984, Schwarzenegger appeared in James Camerons science-fiction thriller film The Terminator, which was a massive critical and box-office success. Schwarzenegger subsequently reprised the Terminator character in the later installments in 1991,2003. He appeared in a number of films, such as Commando, The Running Man, Predator, Twins, Total Recall, Kindergarten Cop. In 2015, it was announced Schwarzenegger would replace Donald Trump as the host of The Celebrity Apprentice and he was nicknamed the Austrian Oak in his bodybuilding days, Arnie during his acting career, and The Governator during his political career. As a Republican, he was first elected on October 7,2003, Schwarzenegger was sworn in on November 17, to serve the remainder of Daviss term. Schwarzenegger was sworn in for his term on January 5,2007. In 2011, Schwarzenegger completed his term as governor. Schwarzenegger was born in Thal, Styria, and christened Arnold Alois and his parents were Gustav Schwarzenegger and Aurelia Schwarzenegger. He married Aurelia on October 20,1945, he was 38, according to Schwarzenegger, both of his parents were very strict, Back then in Austria it was a very different world. If we did something bad or we disobeyed our parents, the rod was not spared, Schwarzenegger grew up in a Roman Catholic family who attended Mass every Sunday. Gustav had a preference for his son, Meinhard, over Arnold. His favoritism was strong and blatant, which stemmed from unfounded suspicion that Arnold was not his biological child, Schwarzenegger has said his father had no patience for listening or understanding your problems. He had a relationship with his mother and kept in touch with her until her death. Gustavs background received wide press attention during the 2003 California recall campaign, at school, Schwarzenegger was reportedly academically average, but stood out for his cheerful, good-humored, and exuberant character
Arnold Schwarzenegger
–
Schwarzenegger in 2015
Arnold Schwarzenegger
–
Schwarzenegger with President
Ronald Reagan in 1984
Arnold Schwarzenegger
–
Schwarzenegger, pictured with 1987 world champion American
Karyn Marshall, presenting awards at the USA Weightlifting Hall of Fame in 2011 in
Columbus, Ohio
Arnold Schwarzenegger
–
Footprints and handprints of Arnold Schwarzenegger in front of the
Grauman's Chinese Theatre
27.
Hollywood
–
Hollywood is an ethnically diverse, densely populated neighborhood in the central region of Los Angeles, California. It is notable as the home of the U. S. film industry, including several of its studios, and its name has come to be a shorthand reference for the industry. Hollywood was a community in 1870 and was incorporated as a municipality in 1903. It was consolidated with the city of Los Angeles in 1910, in 1853, one adobe hut stood in Nopalera, named for the Mexican Nopal cactus indigenous to the area. By 1870, an agricultural community flourished, the area was known as the Cahuenga Valley, after the pass in the Santa Monica Mountains immediately to the north. According to the diary of H. J. Whitley, known as the Father of Hollywood, along came a Chinese man in a wagon carrying wood. The man got out of the wagon and bowed, the Chinese man was asked what he was doing and replied, I holly-wood, meaning hauling wood. H. J. Whitley had an epiphany and decided to name his new town Hollywood, Holly would represent England and wood would represent his Scottish heritage. Whitley had already started over 100 towns across the western United States, Whitley arranged to buy the 500-acre E. C. Hurd ranch and disclosed to him his plans for the land. They agreed on a price and Hurd agreed to sell at a later date, before Whitley got off the ground with Hollywood, plans for the new town had spread to General Harrison Gray Otis, Hurds wife, eastern adjacent ranch co-owner Daeida Wilcox, and others. Daeida Wilcox may have learned of the name Hollywood from Ivar Weid, her neighbor in Holly Canyon and she recommended the same name to her husband, Harvey. In August 1887, Wilcox filed with the Los Angeles County Recorders office a deed and parcel map of property he had sold named Hollywood, Wilcox wanted to be the first to record it on a deed. The early real-estate boom busted that year, yet Hollywood began its slow growth. By 1900, the region had a post office, newspaper, hotel, Los Angeles, with a population of 102,479 lay 10 miles east through the vineyards, barley fields, and citrus groves. A single-track streetcar line ran down the middle of Prospect Avenue from it, but service was infrequent, the old citrus fruit-packing house was converted into a livery stable, improving transportation for the inhabitants of Hollywood. The Hollywood Hotel was opened in 1902 by H. J. Whitley who was a president of the Los Pacific Boulevard, having finally acquired the Hurd ranch and subdivided it, Whitley built the hotel to attract land buyers. Flanking the west side of Highland Avenue, the structure fronted on Prospect Avenue, the hotel was to become internationally known and was the center of the civic and social life and home of the stars for many years. Whitleys company developed and sold one of the residential areas
Hollywood
–
The Four Ladies installation at the
Hollywood Boulevard –
La Brea Avenue Gateway
Hollywood
–
Glen-Holly Hotel, first hotel in Hollywood, at the corner of what is now Yucca Street. It was built in the 1890s.
Hollywood
–
Hollywood Hotel, 1905
Hollywood
–
The intersection of
Hollywood and Highland, 1907
28.
Lee Marvin
–
Lee Marvin was an American film and television actor. Known for his voice and prematurely white hair, Marvin initially appeared in supporting roles, mostly villains, soldiers. From 1957 to 1960, he starred as Detective Lieutenant Frank Ballinger in the NBC crime series, M Squad. In 1966, he won awards, including an Academy Award for Best Actor, and Best Actor BAFTA. Marvin was born in New York City and he was the son of Lamont Waltman Marvin, an advertising executive and the head of the New York and New England Apple Institute. His mother was Courtenay Washington, a writer and beauty consultant. As with his brother, Robert, he was named in honor of Confederate General Robert E. Lee. His father was a descendant of Matthew Marvin, Sr. who emigrated from Great Bentley, Essex, England, in 1635. Marvin studied violin when he was young, as a teenager, Marvin spent weekends and spare time hunting deer, puma, wild turkey, and bobwhite in the wilds of the then-uncharted Everglades. Marvin left school at 18 to enlist in the United States Marine Corps Reserve on August 12,1942 and he served with the 4th Marine Division in the Pacific Theater during World War II. He was shot by gun fire, which severed his sciatic nerve. After over a year of treatment in naval hospitals, Marvin was given a medical discharge with the rank of private first class in 1945 at Philadelphia. Contrary to rumors, Marvin did not serve on Iwo Jima, receive a Navy Cross, or serve with actor, producer, and former Marine Bob Keeshan during World War II. After the war, while working as an assistant at a local community theatre in upstate New York. He then began an amateur acting career in New York City. In 1950, Marvin moved to Hollywood and he found work in supporting roles, and from the beginning was cast in various war films. His debut was in Youre in the Navy Now, and in 1952, he appeared in films, including Don Siegels Duel at Silver Creek, Hangmans Knot. He played Gloria Grahames vicious boyfriend in Fritz Langs The Big Heat, Marvin had a small but memorable role in The Wild One opposite Marlon Brando, followed by Seminole and Gun Fury
Lee Marvin
–
Marvin in 1971.
Lee Marvin
–
Marvin in
Attack
Lee Marvin
–
Gravestone, Arlington National Cemetery
29.
Barry Bonds
–
Barry Lamar Bonds is an American former professional baseball left fielder who played 22 seasons in Major League Baseball with the Pittsburgh Pirates and San Francisco Giants. Bonds received seven NL MVP awards and 14 All-Star selections, and is considered to be one of the greatest baseball players of all time, Bonds was regarded as an exceptional hitter, and finished his regular season career with a very high on-base percentage and isolated power. He holds many MLB hitting records, including most career runs, most home runs in a single season. He also received eight Gold Gloves for his defense in the outfield and he is ranked second in career Wins Above Replacement among all major league position players by both Fangraphs and Baseball-Reference. com, behind only Babe Ruth. Bonds led a career, notably as a central figure in baseballs steroids scandal. In 2007, he was indicted on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice for lying to the grand jury during the federal governments investigation of BALCO. The perjury charges against Bonds were dropped, and he was initially convicted of obstruction of justice. Bonds has not been elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in his first four years of eligibility, in the 2016 season, Bonds served as the hitting coach for the Miami Marlins. He played on the varsity team during his freshman year. He batted for a.467 batting average his senior year, Bonds attended Arizona State University, hitting.347 with 45 home runs and 175 runs batted in. In 1984 he batted.360 and had 30 stolen bases, in 1985, he hit 23 home runs with 66 RBIs and a.368 batting average. He was a Sporting News All-American selection that year and he tied the NCAA record with seven consecutive hits in the College World Series as sophomore and was named to All-Time College World Series Team in 1996. He graduated from Arizona State in 1986 with a degree in criminology and he was named ASU On Deck Circle Most Valuable Player, other winners include Dustin Pedroia, Willie Bloomquist, Paul Lo Duca, and Ike Davis. During college, he played part of one summer in the amateur Alaska Baseball League with the Alaska Goldpanners, the Pittsburgh Pirates drafted Bonds as the sixth overall pick of the 1985 Major League Baseball draft. He joined the Prince William Pirates of the Carolina League and was named July 1985 Player of the Month for the league, in 1986, he hit.311 in 44 games for the Hawaii Islanders of the Pacific Coast League. Before Bonds made it to the leagues in Pittsburgh, Pirate fan attendance was low. Bonds made his league debut on May 30,1986. In 1986, Bonds led National League rookies with 16 home runs,48 RBI,36 stolen bases and 65 walks and he played center field in 1986, but switched to left field with the arrival of centerfielder Andy Van Slyke in 1987
Barry Bonds
–
Bonds in 2006
Barry Bonds
Barry Bonds
–
Bonds at the plate with the Giants.
30.
Community property
–
Joint ownership is automatically presumed by law in the absence of specific evidence that would point to a contrary conclusion for a particular piece of property. Division of community property may take place by item by splitting all items or by values, in other jurisdictions, such as Texas, a divorce court may decree an equitable distribution of community property, which may result in an unequal division of such. In non-community property states property may be divided by equitable distribution, generally speaking, the property that each partner brings into the marriage or receives by gift, bequest or devise during marriage is called separate property. Division of community debts may not be the same as division of community property, for example, in California, community property is required to be divided equally while community debt is required to be divided equitably. The rules vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, the community property concept originated in civil law jurisdictions but is now also found in some common law jurisdictions. While under Spanish rule, Louisiana adopted the community system of acquests and gains. The countervailing majority view in most U. S, in the United States there are nine community property states, Arizona, California, Idaho, Louisiana, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin. Alaska has also adopted a community property system, but it is optional, spouses may create community property by entering into a community property agreement or by creating a community property trust. In 2010, Tennessee adopted a law similar to Alaskas and allows residents and non-residents to opt into community property through a community property trust, the territory of Puerto Rico allows property to be owned as community property also as do several Native American jurisdictions. In the case of Puerto Rico, the island had been under community property law since its settlement by Spain in 1493. The U. S. Supreme Court ruled that a statute allowing spouses to elect a community property system under Oklahoma law would not be recognized for federal income tax reporting purposes. The Harmon decision should apply to the Alaska system for income reporting purposes. If property is held as community property, each spouse technically owns an undivided one-half interest in the property and this type of ownership applies to most property acquired by each spouse during the course of the marriage. It generally does not apply to property acquired prior to the marriage or to property acquired by gift or inheritance during the marriage, after a divorce, community property is divided equally in some states and according to the discretion of the court in the other states. It is extremely important to bear in mind there are no two community property states with exactly the same laws on the subject. The statutes or judicial decisions in one state may be completely opposite to those of state on a particular legal issue. For example, in some community property states, income from separate property is also separate, in others, the income from separate property is community property. The right of a creditor to reach community property in satisfaction of a debt or other obligation incurred by one or both of the spouses also varies from state to state, community property has certain federal tax implications, which the Internal Revenue Service discusses in its Publication 555
Community property
–
Map of the United States with community property states in red. Additionally, Alaska is an elective community property state; and of the five inhabited US territories, Puerto Rico and Guam are community property jurisdictions.
31.
Motion picture
–
A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
Motion picture
–
A vintage Fox movietone motion picture camera
Motion picture
–
The
Berlin Wintergarten theatre was the site of the first
cinema ever, with a short film presented by the
Skladanowsky brothers on 1 November 1895. The image depicts a July 1940
variety show.
Motion picture
–
A shot from
Georges Méliès Le Voyage dans la Lune (A Trip to the Moon) (1902), an early narrative film.
32.
California Penal Code
–
The Penal Code of California forms the basis for the application of criminal law in the American state of California. It was originally enacted in 1872 as one of the original four California Codes, the actual drafter of the New York penal code was commissioner William Curtis Noyes, a former prosecutor. New York belatedly enacted the Field Penal Code in 1881, about this, UC Berkeley law professor Sanford H. Kadish wrote in 1987, None of the codes I have considered had a larger measure of influence. The Penal Code is divided into six Parts, most of which contain Titles, some of which are in turn subdivided into Chapters, most of this article deals exclusively with the substantive criminal law set out in Part 1. The first two titles of Part 1, up to Section 33, are preliminary and provide definitions of terms rather than definitions of, or punishments for. The next group of titles, through Section 88, deal with crimes against the state itself, Title 7, ending with Section 186, covers the state court system and crimes that can be committed therein, such as perjury. Title 8 covers the subject of violent crimes, and extends through Section 249, Title 9 deals with offenses against public morals and decency. Title 10 is devoted to crimes against public health and safety, the topic of Title 12 is crimes against public revenue, and of Title 13, crimes against property. Title 14 bears the heading Malicious Mischief, but in addition to vandalism, Title 15 deals with Miscellaneous Crimes, Title 16 is labeled General Provisions, and the last title of Part 1, Title 17 delineates the Rights of Victims and Witnesses of Crime. Part 2 of the Penal Code codifies the criminal procedure system. Part 3 of the Penal Code codifies statutes governing the states corrections system, Part 3 includes provisions governing the operation of the county jails and state prisons, as well as the administration of the death penalty. Part 4 of the Penal Code codifies statutes governing criminal investigations, prison officer training, police training, crime control, crime prevention. Part 6 of the Penal Code codifies statutes dealing with the management of weapons, californias drug laws are not found within the Penal Code at all, but in a separate enactment, the California Health and Safety Code. Likewise, provisions affecting motorists, motor vehicles, and traffic matters are contained in the California Vehicle Code,148 - Resisting/obstructing a police officer 187 - Murder 192 - Manslaughter…. 203 - Mayhem 207 - Kidnapping 211 - Robbery 215 - Carjacking 219 - Train wrecking — see, the actual Section 420 covers obstructing entry on public land. List of Penalties of California Penal and Vehicle Codes California Penal Code California Law database maintained by state Legislative Counsel Law of California Law of the United States
California Penal Code
–
Volumes of the
Thomson West annotated version of the California Penal Code; the other popular annotated version is Deering's, which is published by
LexisNexis
33.
Civil rights
–
Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes
Civil rights
–
Savka Dabčević-Kučar,
Croatian Spring participant; Europe's first female prime minister
34.
At-will employment
–
At-will employment is a term used in U. S. labor law for contractual relationships in which an employee can be dismissed by an employer for any reason, and without warning. When an employee is acknowledged as being hired at will, courts deny the employee any claim for loss resulting from the dismissal, the rule is justified by its proponents on the basis that an employee may be similarly entitled to leave his or her job without reason or warning. In contrast, the practice is seen as unjust by those who view the employment relationship as characterized by inequality of bargaining power. Over the 20th century, many states modified the rule by adding a number of exceptions. In workplaces with a trade union recognized for purposes of collective bargaining, and in public sector jobs. Otherwise, subject to rights, most states adhere to the general principle that employer. The employer may act peremptorily, arbitrarily, or inconsistently, without providing specific protections such as warning, fair procedures, objective evaluation. At-will employment disclaimers are a staple of employee handbooks in the United States, for instance, in 1870 in Massachusetts, Tatterson v. Suffolk Mfg Co held that an employees term of hiring dictated the default period of notice. By contrast, in Tennessee, a court stated in 1884 that an employer should be allowed to any worker, or any number of workers. However, the position of the typical 19th-century worker meant that this was rare, the at-will practice is typically traced to a treatise published by Horace Gray Wood in 1877, called Master and Servant. Wood cited four U. S. cases as authority for his rule that when a hiring was indefinite, in Toussaint v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield of Michigan, the Court noted that Wood’s rule was quickly cited as authority for another proposition. In New York, the first case to adopt Woods rule was Martin v New York Life Ins Co in 1895. Bartlett J asserted that New York law now followed Woods treatise, the case did not make reference to the previous authority. Four years earlier, in 1891, Adams v Fitzpatrick had held that New York law followed the practice of requiring notice similar to pay periods. However, subsequent New York cases continued to follow the rule into the early 20th century. Some courts saw the rule as requiring the employee to prove an express contract for a term in order to maintain an action based on termination of the employment. Thus was born the U. S. at-will employment rule and this rule was adopted by all U. S. states. In 1959, the first judicial exception to the rule was created by one of the California Courts of Appeal
At-will employment
–
U.S. states (Blue) without a public policy exception
35.
Standing (law)
–
This is called the something to lose doctrine, in which the party has standing because they directly will be harmed by the conditions for which they are asking the court for relief. The party is granted automatic standing by act of law, the law allows them to receive attorneys fees if they substantially prevail in the action. In some U. S. states, a person who believes a book, otherwise, the court will rule that the plaintiff lacks standing to bring the suit, and will dismiss the case without considering the merits of the claim of unconstitutionality. To have a court declare a law unconstitutional, there must be a reason for the lawsuit. The party suing must have something to lose in order to sue unless it has automatic standing by action of law, the Council of Europe created the first international court before which individuals have automatic locus standi. Some statutes provide for a right of standing while others provide for a broader right of standing. Frequently a litigant wishes to bring an action for a declaratory judgment against a public body or official. This is considered an aspect of law, sometimes with a constitutional dimension. The trilogy was summarized as follows in Canadian Council of Churches v. Canada, It has been seen that when public interest standing is sought, first, is there a serious issue raised as to the invalidity of legislation in question. Second, has it established that the plaintiff is directly affected by the legislation or if not does the plaintiff have a genuine interest in its validity. Third, is there another reasonable and effective way to bring the issue before the court, public-interest standing is also available in non-constitutional cases, as the Court found in Finlay v. Canada. In British administrative law, the applicant needs to have a sufficient interest in the matter to which the application relates and this sufficient interest requirement has been construed liberally by the courts. As Lord Diplock put it, t would. be a danger to escape lacuna in our system of public law if a pressure group. At common law, the test for standing is whether the plaintiff has a special interest in the matter of the action. This has generally been interpreted in accordance with the common law test, there is no open standing unless statute allows it or represents needs of a specified class of people. The issue is one of remoteness, standing may apply to class of aggrieved people, where essentially the closeness of the plaintiff to the subject matter is the test. Furthermore, a plaintiff must show that he or she has been affected in comparison with the public at large. Also, while there is no open standing per se, prerogative writs like certiorari, writ of prohibition, quo warranto, australian courts also recognise amicus curiae, and the various Attorneys Generals have a presumed standing in administrative law cases
Standing (law)
–
United States Federal Civil Procedure doctrines
36.
National Environmental Policy Act
–
The National Environmental Policy Act is a United States environmental law that promotes the enhancement of the environment and established the Presidents Council on Environmental Quality. The law was enacted on January 1,1970, as the bill was an early step towards the development of the United States environmental policy, NEPA is referred to as the “environmental Magna Carta”. NEPAs most significant outcome was the requirement that all federal agencies prepare environmental assessments. These reports state the potential effects of proposed federal agency actions. NEPA does not apply to the President, Congress, or the federal courts, NEPA grew out of the increased appreciation and concern for the environment that resulted from the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill. During this time, environmental interest group efforts and the movement resulting from Rachel Carsons 1962 book, Silent Spring, helped to pass the Wilderness, Clean Air, and Clean Water Acts. The act also promotes the CEQ to advise the President in the preparation of a report on the progress of federal agencies in implementing NEPA. It also established the CEQ to advise the president on environmental policy, NEPA establishes this national environmental policy by requiring federal agencies to prepare an environmental impact statement to accompany reports and recommendations for Congressional funding. This impact statement is known as an EIS, NEPA is an action-forcing piece of legislation, meaning the act itself does not carry any criminal or civil sanctions, and therefore, all enforcement of NEPA must occur through the court system. In practice, a project is required to meet NEPA guidelines when a federal agency provides any portion of financing for the project. However, review of a project by an employee can be viewed as a federal action. NEPA covers a vast array of federal agency actions, but the act does not apply to state action where there is an absence of federal influence or funding. Exemptions and exclusions are also present within NEPAs guidelines, including specific federal projects detailed in legislation, exemptions also apply when compliance with other environmental laws require an impact analysis similar to that mandated by NEPA. Such laws can include but are not limited to the Clean Air Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act. The NEPA process is the evaluation of the relevant environmental effects of a project or action mandated by NEPA. This process begins when an agency develops a proposal addressing a need to take action, if it is determined that the proposed action is covered under NEPA, there are three levels of analysis that a federal agency must undertake to comply with the law. A Categorical Exclusion is a list of actions an agency has determined do not individually or cumulatively affect the quality of the human environment. If a proposed action is included in an agencys CatEx, the agency must make sure that no extraordinary circumstances might cause the action to affect the environment
National Environmental Policy Act
–
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
37.
California State Legislature
–
The California State Legislature is the state legislature of the U. S. state of California. It is a body consisting of the lower house, the California State Assembly, with 80 members, and the upper house. New legislators convene each new session, to organize, in the Assembly and Senate Chambers, respectively. Aside from the recess, the legislature is in session year-round, the Democratic Party currently holds supermajorities in both chambers of the California Legislature. The state senate currently consists of 27 Democrats and 13 Republicans, except for the period from 1995 to 1996, the Assembly has been in Democratic hands since the 1970 election. The Senate has been in Democratic hands continuously since 1970, the first Californian State House was originally a hotel in San Jose owned by businessman Pierre Don Pedro Sainsevain and his associates. The State Legislature currently meets in the California State Capitol in Sacramento, members of the Assembly are elected from 80 districts and serve two-year terms. Members of the Senate are elected from forty districts and serve four-year terms, twenty Senate seats are up for election at each two-year election cycle. Term limits were established in 1990 following the passage of Proposition 140. In June 2012, voters approved Proposition 28 which allows legislators to serve a maximum of 12 years without regard to whether the years are served in the State Assembly or the State Senate. The proceedings of the California State Legislature are briefly summarized in regularly published journals, which show votes, reports produced by California executive agencies, as well as the Legislature, were published in the Appendices to the Journals from 1849 to 1970. Since the 1990s, the legislature has provided a video feed for its sessions. Due to the expense and the obvious political downside, California did not keep records of actual speeches made by members of the Assembly. As a result, reconstructing legislative intent outside of an acts preamble is extremely difficult in California for legislation passed before the 1990s. Since 1993, the Legislature has hosted a web/ftp site in one form or another, the most sought-after legislative committee appointments are to banking, agriculture and insurance. A bill is a proposal to change, repeal, or add to existing state law, an Assembly Bill is one introduced in the Assembly, a Senate Bill, in the Senate. Bills are designated by number, in the order of introduction in each house, for example, AB16 refers to the 16th bill introduced in the Assembly. The numbering starts afresh each session, there may be one or more extraordinary sessions
California State Legislature
California State Legislature
–
California State Legislature
California State Legislature
–
California State Assembly chamber
California State Legislature
–
California State Senate chamber
38.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
39.
Public.Resource.Org
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Public. Resource. Org is a 501 non-profit corporation dedicated to publishing and sharing public domain materials in the United States and internationally. It was founded by Carl Malamud and is based in Sebastopol, major projects conducted by the organization include the digitizing and sharing of large numbers of court records, US government-produced video, and laws of various places. The organization often advertises its work by saying Yes We Scan, the Yes We Scan focus as of autumn 2013 is an effort to digitize and publish every available set of safety standards for every government in the world. Malamud works on the premise that information in the public domain, in doing this, he identifies interesting collections of information held by organizations which have failed to grant free public access to it. At this point, Malamud acquires the information himself, publishes it in public. resource. In 2013, Public. Resource. Org filed a Freedom of Information Act request with the Internal Revenue Service requesting copies of nine annual information reports for tax-exempt entities in MeF format. The IRS refused to provide the MeF files, claiming that the effort to edit them to conform to required standards for the filers represented an unreasonable burden. On January 29,2015, a U. S. District Court ruled against the IRS, observers believe that this decision will result in the IRS moving more rapidly toward providing electronic versions of Form 990 to the public. Malamud called for increased awareness that Westlaw was a broker of the United States Federal Reporter, Federal Supplement. Public. Resource. Org collects old and forgotten United States government video, digitizes it, video is purchased or requested from government agencies such as the National Technical Information Service. These videos are digitized and uploaded with metadata to YouTube and Public. Resource. Orgs servers, most of these videos were produced with federal government funding and intended for educational purposes. There is also a collection of videos from FedFlix at the Internet Archive which contains over 8,700 items, youTubes Content ID tool helps copyright holders make requests to remove their copyrighted videos from YouTube. Yes We Scan is a used as a name for various Public. Resource. Org projects which have the goal of digitizing and making available large collections of documents. In 2009 when Carl Malamud petitioned to become the Public Printer of the United States the campaign slogan was Yes we scan, david Ferriero responded to the petition describing efforts to increase availability of government archives. In 2013 Public. Resource. Org organized a fundraiser for a Yes We Scan project to collect, digitize, in 2010 Public. Resource. Org managed a smaller project to free the public safety codes in California in the United States. In 2007 Malamud petitioned for more access to some C-SPAN recordings. C-SPAN is a media company which records and broadcasts the discussions of the United States Congress. The company’s business model is to provide its recordings for fees to cable, in February 2007, Nancy Pelosi was publishing on her blog as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives and inserted video clips from C-SPAN into her messages
Public.Resource.Org
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Contents
40.
University of California, Berkeley Library System
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As of 2006, Berkeleys library system contains over 10 million volumes and maintains over 70,000 serial titles. The libraries together cover over 12 acres of land and compose one of the largest library complexes in the world, in 2003, the Association of Research Libraries ranked it as the top public and third overall university library in North America based on various statistical measures of quality. Charles Franklin Doe was the benefactor of the main library, the Doe Memorial Library, built in 1910, originally housed the main collections. A strictly Beaux-Arts Classical building, it was designed by campus architect John Galen Howard as one of the structures in the Athens of the West campus plan. The library was meant to be the first building students and visitors saw when entering the university, most of the main collections are now housed in the Gardner Main Stacks and Moffitt Undergraduate Library, while Doe serves as the library systems reference, periodical, and administrative center. Inside Doe are the two largest reading rooms in the university, named the North and Heyns Reading Rooms, the North Reading room features a large barrel-vaulted ceiling capped with a tall Roman-arched windows at each end. The Heyns reading room, named after Roger W, the piece was originally a gift to the university in 1882 by Mrs. Mark Hopkins but was soon forgotten after it was stored in the Hearst Womens Gymnasium. It was not until the 1960s, when Dr. Raymond L. Stehle was writing a biography of Leutze, the North Reading Room features enormously high ceilings and was restored in 2005 to its original 1910 state. The renovated room features refinished historic tables and chairs, replaced floors, the lobby of Doe features perpetually changing exhibits and also houses the Morrison Memorial Library. This library was a gift to the university by May T. Morrison in 1921 and is considered today to be a no study library, many of its collections are works of classic or contemporary fiction, and the mezzanine level contains a compact disc listening area. The library evokes the feeling of an East Coast country club and was featured in the 2000 Abercrombie & Fitch Back-to-School Catalogue, below Doe is the Gardner Main Stacks, named after the 15th University of California President and Berkeley graduate, David P. Gardner. Built in 1997, these stacks contain 52 miles of bookshelves and were intended to accommodate the library collections. The Gardner Main Stacks consist of four floors, each roughly one-and-a-half football fields long. Although underground, it was built with four skylights that allow light to permeate even to the bottom floor. Just east of Doe is the Bancroft Library, one of the most heavily used libraries of manuscripts, rare books, and unique materials in the United States. This library contains over 60 million manuscript items,600,000 volumes,2.8 million photographs,43,000 microforms, and 23,000 maps. Today, the library houses the largest collection of ancient papyri in the Western Hemisphere,300 medieval manuscripts. The library system also contains 27 other departmental and specialized libraries, including the 580,000 volume Koshland Bioscience Library, starr East Asian Studies Library and the Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library
University of California, Berkeley Library System
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The north side of Doe Library with Memorial Glade in the foreground
University of California, Berkeley Library System
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Professor
Ted Kaczynski outside Doe, before the murders.
University of California, Berkeley Library System
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Leutze's Washington Rallying the Troops at Monmouth hangs in the Heyns (East) Reading Room of the Doe Library
41.
Legal Information Institute
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The organization is a pioneer in the delivery of legal information online. Founded in 1992 by Peter Martin and Tom Bruce, LII was the first law site developed on the internet, LII also provides access to other national and international sources, such as treaties and United Nations materials. According to its website, the LII serves over 30 million unique visitors per year, since its inception, the Legal Information Institute has inspired others around the world to develop namesake operations. These services are part of the Free Access to Law Movement, LII was established in 1992 at Cornell Law School by Professor Peter Martin and Tom Bruce with a $250,000 multi-year startup grant from the National Center for Automated Information Research. The LII was originally based on Gopher and provided access to United States Supreme Court decisions and its original mission included the intent to carry out applied research on the use of digital information technology in the distribution of legal information. o make law more accessible. In the early years of LII, Bruce developed Cello the first web browser for Microsoft Windows, Cello was released on 8 June 1993. In 1994 LII moved from Gopher to the Web, since 2007 the IRS has distributed its IRS Tax Products DVD with LIIs version of 26 USC. LII has a collection of law from the Supreme Court of the United States. It hosts all Supreme Court decisions since 1990 and over 600 historic Supreme Court pre-1992 decisions in web form, the LII Supreme Court Bulletin is LIIs free Supreme Court email-based subscriber and web-based publication service. The Bulletin provides subscribers with two distinct services, the first is a notification service. LII Bulletin emails subscribers with timely notification of when the US Supreme Court has handed down a decision and it also provides subscribers links to the full opinions of those cases on the LII site. The second service of LII Bulletin is a preview and analysis service for upcoming Supreme Court cases, subscribers to the Bulletin receive legal analysis of upcoming Supreme Court cases with the intention of providing sophisticated yet accessible previews of the cases. LII selectively recruits second- and third-year students of the Cornell Law School to comprise the LII Bulletin editorial board, LII publishes a wiki called the Wex Legal Dictionary/Encyclopedia. As a wiki, it is a collaboratively authored, freely available legal reference, qualified legal experts are allowed to post and edit entries on legal topics within Wex. Free Access to Law Movement unites many similar institutions, including AfricanLII AustLII BAILII CanLII HKLII NZLII PacLII SAFLII WorldLII Legal awareness Official website
Legal Information Institute
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The home page of LII on 03/03/2010
42.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
U.S. state
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U.S. states
43.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
California
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A forest of redwood trees in
Redwood National Park
California
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Flag
California
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Mount Shasta
California
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Aerial view of the
California Central Valley
44.
Sacramento, California
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Sacramento is the capital city of the U. S. state of California and the seat of Sacramento County. It is at the confluence of the Sacramento River and the American River in the portion of Californias expansive Central Valley. Its estimated 2014 population of 485,199 made it the sixth-largest city in California, Sacramento is the cultural and economic core of the Sacramento metropolitan area, which includes seven counties with a 2010 population of 2,414,783. In 2002, the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University conducted for Time magazine named Sacramento Americas Most Diverse City, Sacramento became a city through the efforts of the Swiss immigrant John Sutter, Sr. his son John Augustus Sutter, Jr. and James W. Marshall. Sacramento grew quickly thanks to the protection of Sutters Fort, which was established by Sutter in 1839, the city was named after the Sacramento River, which forms its western border. The river was named by Spanish cavalry officer Gabriel Moraga for the Santísimo Sacramento, California State University, Sacramento, is the largest university in the city and one of 23 campuses in the California State University system. University of the Pacific is a university with one of its three campuses in Sacramento. In addition, the University of California, Davis, located in nearby Davis, operates its UC Davis Medical Center, nisenan and Plains Miwok Native Americans had lived in the area for perhaps thousands of years. Unlike the settlers who would eventually make Sacramento their home, these Native Americans left little evidence of their existence. Traditionally, their diet was dominated by acorns taken from the oak trees in the region, and by fruits, bulbs, seeds. In 1808, the Spanish explorer Gabriel Moraga discovered and named the Sacramento Valley, a Spanish writer with the Moraga expedition wrote, Canopies of oaks and cottonwoods, many festooned with grapevines, overhung both sides of the blue current. Birds chattered in the trees and big fish darted through the pellucid depths, the air was like champagne, and drank deep of it, drank in the beauty around them. The valley and the river were then christened after the Most Holy Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ, John Sutter first arrived on August 13,1839 at the divergence of the American and Sacramento Rivers with a Mexican land grant of 50,000 acres. The next year, he and his party established Sutters Fort, representing Mexico, Sutter called his colony New Helvetia, a Swiss inspired name, and was the political authority and dispenser of justice in the new settlement. Soon, the colony began to grow as more and more pioneers headed west, within just a few short years, John Sutter had become a grand success, owning a ten-acre orchard and a herd of thirteen thousand cattle. Fort Sutter became a stop for the increasing number of immigrants coming through the valley. In 1847, Sutter hired James Marshall to build a sawmill so that he could continue to expand his empire, Sutter received 2,000 fruit trees in 1847, which started the agriculture industry in the Sacramento Valley. In 1848, when gold was discovered by James W. Marshall at Sutters Mill in Coloma and he hired topographical engineer William H
Sacramento, California
Sacramento, California
Sacramento, California
Sacramento, California
45.
Culture of California
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The culture of California is tied to the culture of the United States as a whole. However, there are features that are unique to California, with roots in the cultures of Spain, Mexico, and the eastern United States, California integrates foods, languages and traditions from all over the world. Spain had explored the present state of California since the 16th century, although it did not colonize it, by the 19th century, Spain had built missions throughout all the state and Californios owned huge land extensions. From that time to the present, Hispanic Californians have always been among the largest cultural groups in the state, furthermore, Mexican immigration into California has also resulted in a large share of cultural contributions. California culture has also greatly influenced by several other large immigrant populations, especially those from Latin America. California is a melting pot as well as an international gateway to the United States. California has long been a subject of interest in the mind and has often been promoted by its boosters as a kind of paradise. In the 1960s, popular music such as The Beach Boys promoted the image of Californians as laid-back. In terms of socio-cultural mores and national politics, Californians are perceived as liberal than most other Americans. The state, in whole, is perceived as liberal, though the region is seen as more liberal than the southern region. The hippie movement began in San Francisco, California, in the early 1960s, English is the main language of Californias inhabitants. Spanish is a common second language all over the state. California English is a dialect of the English language spoken within California, California is the home to a highly diverse populace, and this is reflected in Californias dialect of English, which integrates words from many other languages, especially Spanish. As is the case of English spoken in any state, not all features of California English are used by all speakers in the state, however, there are some linguistic features which can be identified as either originally or predominantly Californian. The media outlets and entertainment industry based in California also popularizes the California English accent and dialect to the rest of the country, the official language of California has been English since the passage of Proposition 63 in 1986. However, many state, city, and local government agencies print official public documents in Spanish, the Indigenous Farmworker Study of 2007-2009 found 23 languages of Mexico and Mesoamerica spoken in California. The towns of Eureka and Ferndale, in Humboldt County, are noteworthy for their well-preserved Victorian building stock. California is home to Hollywood, the center of the American film industry, Hollywood has had a profound effect on culture all across the world since the early 20th century
Culture of California
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San Gabriel Civic Auditorium, an example of Mission Revival Style architecture
Culture of California
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The American Film industry.
46.
Cuisine of California
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The cuisine of California is the local cuisine of the U. S. state of California. In Northern California, with wine country nearby, French, Italian, many of the restaurants, cafes, bistros, and grills use ingredients sourced from local growers and farmers markets. The California coast, especially the North Coast and Central Coast regions, is a source of seafood, battered and fried foods are not as common in California as they are in other regions, but there are several exceptions, such as fish tacos, tempura and french fries. The agricultural diversity of Californias Central Valley provides fresh produce in the state, on less than 1 percent of the total farmland in the US, the Central Valley produces 8 percent of the nations agricultural output by value. Sunset, a magazine of the West published in California, has featured recipes that have influenced the cuisine of California, regional fast food menus differ, generally depending on the ethnic composition of an area. In Southern California, smaller chains like The Hat feature hamburgers, Mexican food, chili fries, while gastropubs are not unique in California, the concept of the gourmet burger is very popular. Commercial taquería-style Mexican fast food, consisting of such as burritos, refried beans, tortas, tacos, nachos. Taquerías can be found throughout California, examples of these foods include tamales, tortillas, tostadas, mole, menudo, pozole, sopes, chile relleno and enchiladas. In addition to Mexican food, California restaurants serve up nearly every other variation of Central American food there is, for example, pupuserías are common in areas with a large population of Salvadorans. More recently, Fresh Mex or Baja-style Mexican food, which places an emphasis on fresh ingredients and sometimes seafood, el Pollo Loco, a fast food chain that originated in Northern Mexico, is a common sight. Rubios Fresh Mexican Grill, Baja Fresh, Wahoos Fish Taco, Chronic Tacos, Chipotle, Qdoba, in Northern California and the Central Coastal region, Dungeness crab is abundant. Sardines and Salmon were formerly major industries, before declines in fish stocks, as one of the U. S. states nearest Asia and Oceania, and with long-standing Asian American and Oceanian American populations, the state tends to adopt foods from those national styles. The American sushi craze undoubtedly began in California, the term California roll is used to describe sushi with avocado as a primary ingredient and these days, items like mochi ice cream and boba are popular. Fusion cuisine is popular in California. The emphasis of California Cuisine is on the use of fresh, menus are changed to accommodate the availability of ingredients in season. Some restaurants create a new menu daily, California chef Wolfgang Puck is known as one of the pioneers of fusion cuisine, popularizing such dishes as Chinese chicken salad at the restaurant Ma Maison in Los Angeles. California-style pizza focuses on non-traditional pizza ingredients, such as fresh produce, first popularized by Wolfgang Pucks Spago restaurants, it was later brought to the masses by restaurants such as California Pizza Kitchen. Barbecue has been a part of California cuisine since the Mexicans cooked beef in pit barbecues on ranches in the 1840s, santa Maria is famous for the Tri-tip, a special kind of beef cut that can be grilled, baked, braised, or roasted
Cuisine of California
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Shrimp tostadas made with locally grown ingredients as served at Tacos Sinaloa in
Oakland, California
Cuisine of California
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An
In-N-Out "Double-Double" cheeseburger with french fries in a cardboard box for consumption inside an automobile
Cuisine of California
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Carne asada fries from El Chilé in south
San Diego, California
Cuisine of California
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Dungeness crab ready to eat at
Fisherman's Wharf in
San Francisco
47.
Music of California
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In the United States, California is commonly associated with the film, music, and arts industries, there are numerous world-famous Californian musicians. Hardcore punk, hip hop, country, and heavy metal have all appeared in California, furthermore, new genres of music, such as surf rock and third wave ska, have their origins in California. The official state song of California is I Love You, California, silverwood and composed by Alfred F. Frankenstein of the Los Angeles Symphony Orchestra. It was designated the song in 1951. Other songs, including California, Here I Come, have also been candidates for additional state songs since 1951, California also has an official fife and drum band, the California Consolidated Drum Band, which was so designated in 1997. The states official folk dance is the dance, which has been found in California since at least the Gold Rush. Many groups of Indigenous peoples of California lived and continue to live within the current geographic boundaries of California, before, in the late 19th century, American Indian music began to be incorporated by classical composers throughout the country, known as the Indianist movement. In San Francisco, Carlos Troyer published compositions like Apache Chief Geronimos Own Medicine song, the earliest Spanish and English explorers in California encountered Native Americans and established missions to convert them to Christianity. Chanted prayers and hymns were used, and choirs were eventually formed. As Californias European, Asian, and African population increased in the 19th century, as on the East Coast, music at the time was dominated by popular minstrel shows and the sale of sheet music. Performers included the Sacramento-born Hyers Sisters and Black Patti, Chinese immigrants came to California to work on the transcontinental railroad and soon became a large minority in the state, the San Francisco Chinese Opera House was built in 1880. However, two later the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed in order to prevent more immigration. The visit of King Kalakaua of Hawaii in 1874 saw the Hawaiian national anthem, in the 1880s, Carlos Troyer became a prominent composer, incorporating Spanish and Zuni influences. Polish composer Anton de Kontskis Polish Patrol and Awakening the Lion were also quite popular, the states large Mexican population brought traditional folk guitar to California, including virtuoso Luis T. Romero. The Spanish missions in California brought European music to the area, from the late 18th century to the late 19th century, many visitors to California remarked on the uniqueness of the Spanish language music in California. This music was distinctively Californian, different from both Mexican and Spanish music of the time, with the arrival of many Americans from the East Coast, as well as immigrants from as far away as China, however, Spanish folk music began to dwindle in popularity in California. Charles Fletcher Lummis, himself an immigrant to California, recorded many kinds of Spanish, later in the 20th century, other revivalists like Gabriel Eulogius Ruiz and Al Pill helped keep Spanish-California traditions alive. Popular music such as Ranchera, Norteño, son music can be heard on radio stations across the state from the San Francisco Bay Area to Central Valley
Music of California
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Manuela García was the most prolific performer recorded by Charles Fletcher Lummis
