1.
Motto
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A motto is a maxim, a phrase meant to formally summarize the general motivation or intention of an individual, family, social group or organization. A motto may be in any language, but Latin has been widely used, especially in the Western world. In heraldry, a motto is depicted below the shield in a banderole, this placement stems from the Middle Ages, in which the vast majority of nobles possessed a coat of arms. In the case of Scottish heraldry it is mandated to appear above the crest, spanish coats of arms may display a motto in the bordure of the shield. In heraldic literature, the rallying cry respectively battle banner are also common, which date back to the battle cry. In English heraldry mottos are not granted with armorial bearings, in Scottish heraldry, mottos can only be changed by re-matriculation, with the Lord Lyon King of Arms. Although very unusual and perhaps outside standard heraldic practice, there are examples of the particular appearance of the motto scroll. Ships and submarines in the Royal Navy each have a badge and motto, Latin has been very common for mottos, but for nation states their official language is generally chosen. A canting motto is one that contains word play, for example, the motto of the Earl of Onslow is Festina lente, punningly interpreting on-slow. In literature, a motto is a sentence, phrase, poem, or word prefixed to an essay, chapter, novel and it is a short, suggestive expression of a guiding principle for the written material that follows. For example, Robert Louis Stevensons Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes uses mottos at the start of each section, epigram Hendiatris Inscription List of Latin phrases List of mottos List of national mottos Slogan Tagline United in diversity United we stand, divided we fall
2.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
3.
Budget
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A budget is a quantitative expression of a financial plan for a defined period of time. It may include planned sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities, costs and expenses, assets, liabilities and it expresses strategic plans of business units, organizations, activities or events in measurable terms. A budget is the sum of money allocated for a particular purpose, a budget is a quantified financial plan for a forthcoming accounting period. A budget is an important concept in microeconomics, which uses a line to illustrate the trade-offs between two or more goods. In other terms, a budget is an organizational plan stated in monetary terms and it also helps to co-ordinate the activities of the organization by compelling managers to examine relationships between their own operation and those of other departments. Other essentials of budget include, To control resources To communicate plans to various responsibility center managers, to motivate managers to strive to achieve budget goals. Tools enable the actual operation of the business to be measured against the forecast. Lastly, tools establish the cost constraint for a project, program, on the other hand, if the figures diverge wildly from the budget, this sends an out of control signal, and the share price could suffer. Campaign planners incur two types of cost in any campaign, the first is the cost of human resource necessary to plan, the second type of expense that campaign planners incur is the hard cost of the campaign itself. A budget is a tool for an event director to predict with a reasonable accuracy whether the event will result in a profit. A budget can also be used as a pricing tool, there are two basic approaches or philosophies, when it comes to budgeting. One approach is telling you on mathematical models, and the other on people, the first school of thought believes that financial models, if properly constructed, can be used to predict the future. The focus is on variables, inputs and outputs, drivers, investments of time and money are devoted to perfecting these models, which are typically held in some type of financial spreadsheet application. The other school of thought holds that it’s not about models, no matter how sophisticated models can get, the best information comes from the people in the business. The focus is therefore in engaging the managers in the more fully in the budget process. The companies that adhere to this approach have their managers develop their own budgets, while many companies would say that they do both, in reality the investment of time and money falls squarely in one approach or the other. The budget of a government is a summary or plan of the revenues and expenditures of that government. There are three types of government budget, the operating or current budget, the capital or investment budget, the budget is prepared by the Treasury team led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer and is presented to Parliament by the Chancellor of the Exchequer on Budget Day
4.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
5.
Director (business)
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A director is a person from a group of managers who leads or supervises a particular area of a company, program, or project. Companies that use this term often have many directors spread throughout different business functions or roles, the director usually reports directly to a vice president or to the CEO directly in order to let them know the progress of the organization. Large organizations also sometimes have assistant directors or deputy directors, Director commonly refers to the lowest level of executive in an organization, but many large companies use the title of associate director more frequently. Some companies also have regional directors and area directors, regional directors are present in companies that are organized by location and have their departments under that. They are responsible for the operations for their particular country, though directors are the first stage in the executive team, area directors are seen as higher up, based on their area of control. Corporate titles are given to individuals within a business depending on the role they have. The larger the business, the titles that are present, such as CEO, COO. There are many titles within a company such as director, managing director, company director. The corporate structure consists of four key areas, Board of directors- Each director oversees a department, C-level executives- C-level is used to define the high ranking titles within a business/company. Management- The management area is next to the C-level executives in the corporate jobs hierarchy and they oversee daily tasks of the business or the company. Employees- This role is ranked at the bottom of the structure, employees work on daily tasks and objectives either in a group or individually aiming for that common goal. US law requires every company to create specific positions such as treasurer, president, american businesses are usually controlled by a chief executive officer. In the UK, a director is usually linked to the role of a CEO. The roles are similar and to some extent the same, the difference being the corporate title. Depending upon the size of an organization or a company, the number of directors can vary, start-up companies can have a single director, which is the minimum for a private limited company according to the law. However, as organizations and businesses expand, the number of directors can increase because more tasks, a board of directors ensures that a clearly outlined structure is in place which will help the business to work much more efficiently. Managing Director - A managing director is employed by the business, other roles include running the business and producing salaries. The managing director manages the board of directors and oversees the performance of the business, Executive Directors - A group of executive directors who each play a significant role within the company
6.
Employment
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Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment, benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws or regulations or legal contracts, employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. The main ways for employers to workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online. Employers and job seekers also find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees, a more traditional approach is with a Help Wanted sign in the establishment. Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments, employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview. Training and development refers to the effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve job satisfaction. There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, in sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions, employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets, employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover. Organizational justice is a perception and judgement of employers treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the relationship is also a part of organizational justice. Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working. Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time and this is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include such as notice periods, severance pay. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some jobs, some employees may have tenure
7.
Livermore, California
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Livermore is a city in Alameda County, California, in the United States. With an estimated 2014 population of 86,870, Livermore is the most populous city in the Tri-Valley, Livermore is located on the eastern edge of Californias San Francisco Bay Area. The incumbent Mayor of Livermore is John Marchand, a registered Democrat, Livermore was founded by William Mendenhall and named after Robert Livermore, his friend and a local rancher who settled in the area in the 1840s. Livermore is the home of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, for which the chemical element livermorium is named, Livermore is also the California site of Sandia National Laboratories, which is headquartered in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Its south side is home to local vineyards, the city has redeveloped its downtown district and is considered part of the Tri-Valley area, comprising Amador, Livermore and San Ramon valleys. Before its incorporation in 1796 under the Franciscan Mission San Jose, located in what is now the part of Fremont. Each mission had two to three friars and a contingent of up to five soldiers to keep order in the mission. Other tribes were coerced into other adjacent missions, the Mission Indians were restricted to the mission grounds where they lived in sexually segregated barracks that they built themselves with padre instruction. The Livermore-Amador Valley after 1800 to about 1837 was primarily used as grazing land for some of the Mission San Joses growing herds of cattle, sheep. The herds grew wild with no fences and were culled about once a year for cow hides, the dead animals were left to rot or feed the California grizzly bears which then roamed the region. Some Indians joined or re-joined some of the few surviving tribes, the about 48, 000-acre Rancho Las Positas grant, which includes most of Livermore, was made to ranchers Robert Livermore and Jose Noriega in 1839. Most land grants were given little or no cost to the recipients. Robert Livermore was a British citizen who had jumped from a British merchant sailing ship stopping in Monterey, California and he became a naturalized Mexican citizen who had converted to Catholicism in 1823 as was required for citizenship and legal residence. Typical of most early rancho dwellings, the first building on his ranch was an adobe on Las Positas Creek near the end of todays Las Positas Road. The non-Indian population exploded, and cattle were suddenly worth much more than the $1. 00-$3.00 their hides could bring and it is believed to be the first wooden building in the Livermore Tri-Valley. Most horse traffic went by way of Altamont Pass just east of Livermore, Robert Livermore was a very accommodating host and welcomed nearly all that stopped by with lodging and meals. Robert Livermore died in 1858 and was buried at Mission San Jose before the establishment of the town bears his name. His ranch included much of the present-day city, the city of Livermore, named in honor of Robert Livermore, was established in 1869 by William Mendenhall, who had first met Livermore while marching through the valley with John C
8.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
9.
Campus
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A campus is traditionally the land on which a college or university and related institutional buildings are situated. Usually a college campus includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls, student centers or dining halls, a modern campus is a collection of buildings and grounds that belong to a given institution, either academic or non-academic. Examples include the Googleplex and the Apple Campus, the word derives from a Latin word for field and was first used to describe the large field adjacent Nassau Hall of the College of New Jersey in 1774. The field separated Princeton from the nearby town. Some other American colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, a school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard. The tradition of a campus began with the medieval European universities where the students, the notion of the importance of the setting to academic life later migrated to America, and early colonial educational institutions were based on the Scottish and English collegiate system. The campus evolved from the model in Europe to a diverse set of independent styles in the United States. The meaning expanded to include the whole institutional property during the 20th century, sometimes the lands on which company office buildings sit, along with the buildings, are called campuses. The Microsoft Campus in Redmond, Washington is a good example, hospitals, and even airports sometimes use the term to describe the territory of their facilities
10.
United States Department of Energy
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The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States Government concerned with the United States policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material. It also directs research in genomics, the Human Genome Project originated in a DOE initiative, DOE sponsors more research in the physical sciences than any other U. S. federal agency, the majority of which is conducted through its system of National Laboratories. Former Governor of Texas Rick Perry is the current Secretary of Energy and he was confirmed by a 62 to 37 vote in the United States Senate on March 2,2017. In 1942, during World War II, the United States started the Manhattan Project, after the war in 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission was created to control the future of the project. The 1973 oil crisis called attention to the need to consolidate energy policy, on August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, which created the Department of Energy. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, who served under Presidents Nixon, a DOE spokesperson denied that phrases had been banned. In December 1999, the FBI was investigating how China obtained plans for a nuclear device. Wen Ho Lee was accused of stealing nuclear secrets from Los Alamos National Laboratory for the Peoples Republic of China, Federal officials, including then-Energy Secretary Bill Richardson, publicly named Lee as a suspect before he was charged with a crime. The U. S. Congress held hearings to investigate the Department of Energys mishandling of his case, republican senators thought that an independent agency should be in charge of nuclear weapons and security issues, not the Department of Energy. All but one of the 59 charges against Lee were eventually dropped because the investigation proved that the plans the Chinese obtained could not have come from Lee. Lee filed suit and won a $1.6 million settlement against the federal government, the department is under the control and supervision of a United States Secretary of Energy, a political appointee of the President of the United States. The Energy Secretary is assisted in managing the department by a United States Deputy Secretary of Energy, also appointed by the president, the department also has three under secretaries, each appointed by the president, who oversee the major areas of the departments work. The president also appoints seven officials with the rank of Assistant Secretary of Energy who have line management responsibility for major elements of the Department. The Energy Secretary assigns their functions and duties. S.4 billion budget request for DOE for fiscal year 2010, including $2.3 billion for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. The budget aims to expand the use of renewable energy sources while improving energy transmission infrastructure. It also makes significant investments in hybrids and plug-in hybrids, in smart grid technologies, most of the stimulus spending was in the form of grants and contracts. The contractor guarantees the energy improvements will generate savings, and after the contract ends, in loan guarantees, a conditional commitment requires to meet an equity commitment, as well as other conditions, before the loan guarantee is completed. The DOE budget includes $280 million to fund eight Energy Innovation Hubs, yet another hub will develop smart materials that will allow the electrical grid to adapt and respond to changing conditions
11.
Bechtel
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Bechtel Corporation is the largest construction and civil engineering company in the United States, and the 9th-largest privately owned American company in 2016. Its headquarters are in the South of Market, San Francisco, Bechtels business activities began in 1898 when cattle farmer Warren A. Bechtel moved from Peabody, Kansas, to the Oklahoma Territory to construct railroads with his own team of mules, Bechtel won his first subcontract to build part of the Oroville-to-Oakland section of the Western Pacific Railroad. That same year, he bought his own steam shovel, becoming a pioneer of the new technology, Bechtel Co. on the side of the steam shovel, effectively establishing Bechtel as a company, though it was not yet incorporated. Bechtel completed work on a series of railroad contracts during the early 1900s, starting with the construction of Klamath River Highway in California in 1919, Bechtel ventured into jobs outside of building railroads. The company built roads, bridges, and highways throughout the western United States, the company worked on its first hydroelectric projects in the 1920s for Pacific Gas and Electric Company in California. By the time Bechtel incorporated in 1925, it was the construction company in the western United States. In 1929, Warrens son, Stephen, urged his father to take on the companys first pipeline project, Bechtel began working with California Standard Oil Company to build pipelines and refineries. In January 1931, Bechtel joined other contractors in the west to form Six Companies, Six Companies won the bid in March and construction on the dam began in the summer of 1931. Warren Bechtel died unexpectedly in 1933 while in Moscow on business and he was succeeded by his son, Stephen Bechtel, Sr. who became both the head of Bechtel and chief executive of the Hoover Dam project. Under his leadership, the Hoover Dam was finished in 1935, the project was the largest of its kind in US history at the time and Bechtels first megaproject. During World War II, the United States Maritime Commission invited the company to bid for a contract to build half of their order of 60 cargo ships, the company had no prior experience in shipbuilding, but bid for the entire 60 ships. Between 1941 and 1945, Bechtels wartime shipyards, including Marinship and Calship, Bechtel also worked on a pipeline from the Yukon to Alaska called Canol for the United States Department of War during this time period. Under Stephen Bechtel, Sr. the company diversified its projects, the company also focused on turnkey projects, a concept Stephen Bechtel, Sr. pioneered, in which Bechtel handled a project from planning and design through construction. Bechtel’s first job outside the US was building the Mene Grande pipeline in Venezuela in 1940. In 1947, Bechtel began construction on what was then the worlds longest oil pipeline, the Trans-Arabian Pipeline, which began in Saudi Arabia, ran across Jordan and Syria, the company continued to expand globally throughout the 1940s, particularly in the Middle East. In 1949, Bechtel began working with power after being contracted to build the Experimental Breeder Reactor I in Idaho. The company later built the Dresden Generating Station, the first commercial power plant
12.
AECOM
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AECOM is an American multinational engineering firm that provides design, consulting, construction, and management services to a wide range of clients. AECOM has approximately 95,000 employees, and is number 156 on the 2016 Fortune 500 list, Fortune named AECOM as one of 2015 Worlds Most Admired Companies, and again in 2016 &2017. Engineering News-Record ranked AECOM as Number 1 Global Design Firm, the companys official name from 1990 to early January 2015 was AECOM Technology Corporation. Today, it is simply as AECOM. The company is listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol ACM and he gained control of some 200,000 acres and formed Swiss Oil Company in Lexington. In 1924 Miles launched an operation called Ashland Refining Company. In 1966 Ashland acquired Warren Brothers and became involved in the construction and construction materials business. The company was now able to take advantage of refinery byproducts used to produce asphalt. Ashland grew into one of the nations major road-construction firms and laid a foundation for AECOM. In the 1970s Ashland Oil & Refining became Ashland Oil, Inc, five years later the company consolidated its construction assets into a construction division and also formed a coal subsidiary, indicative of a changing focus at Ashland. Although it generated more than $1 billion a year in sales, by 1980 Ashland sold off its production assets, and a year later was reorganized as a modified holding company. A new corporate strategy was implemented as Ashland now focused on refining and marketing, in 1984 Ashland acquired Daniel, Mann, Johnson & Mendenall, a global provider of transportation-related engineering services. Originally focused on projects, after World War II it had become one of the first integrated engineering. The acquisition of DMJM also included its president, Richard G. Newman, AECOMs future chief executive, in 1985 DMJM became part of a new subsidiary, Ashland Technology Corporation. Two years later Newman was named its new president, architects Ellerbe Becket and Davis Langdon, the quantity surveyors and construction consultants. AECOM went public during May 2007 with a public offering on the NYSE. On January 8,2008 AECOM acquired The Services Group, Inc. a provider of consulting services to the US Agency for International Development and other multi-lateral donor organizations. On July 28,2008, AECOM completed its purchase of Earth Tech Inc. a consulting and engineering firm, from Tyco International for $510 million
13.
Battelle Memorial Institute
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Battelle Memorial Institute is a private nonprofit applied science and technology development company headquartered in Columbus, Ohio. The institute opened in 1929 but traces its origins to the 1923 will of Ohio industrialist Gordon Battelle which provided for its creation, Carlson had been turned down for funding by more than a dozen agencies including the U. S. Navy. Work led to the first commercial equipment, and to the formation of Xerox corporation. In 1987, PIRI, a fiber optics venture with Mitsubishi and NTT, was launched, in conjunction with Kevin M. Amula, Battelle Geneva developed No-melt chocolate in 1988. The Battelle Center for Science and Technology Policy began official operation in July 2011, chester Carlson John Crout Raymond Davis, Jr. Top 100 US Federal Contractors Future Attribute Screening Technology Official website
14.
Texas A&M University System
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The Texas A&M University System is a state university system in Texas and is one of the states six independent university systems. A&M System members educate more than 140,000 students and reach another 22 million people through each year. With more than 26,000 faculty and staff, the A&M System has a presence in 250 of the state’s 254 counties. System-wide, externally funded research expenditures exceed $972 million, the Systems flagship institution is Texas A&M University in College Station. The oldest institution and founding member of the A&M System is Texas A&M University, many of the member universities and agencies joined the A&M System decades after being established. Its flagship institution is Texas A&M University, the institution now named The University of Texas at Arlington was a member from 1917 to 1965. With a direct presence in all 254 Texas counties, A&M System agencies offer research, the agencies focused on addressing and improving the social, economic, educational, health and environmental conditions of Texans. The HSC received full accreditation in December 2002 from the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award baccalaureate, master’s and its components are accredited by accrediting organizations specific to their areas. The Health Science Center in 2013 was merged into Texas A&M University proper and is no longer an independent institution, each member is appointed by the Governor of Texas for a six-year term and the terms overlap. In addition, a student regent is appointed by the Governor for a one-year term. Martinez In addition to the Board of Regents, System governance is also assisted by the System Executive Committee, the Texas A&M University System Executive Committee provides the chancellor with assessment, advice and recommendations on issues within the A&M System and the System Offices. The 14-member committee may also aid the Board of Regents in implementing and overseeing strategic plans and policies as they relate to the system. Byington, M. D. Vice Chancellor for Health Services M. Katherine Banks, Vice Chancellor & Dean of Engineering Mark Hussey, Vice Chancellor & Dean of Agriculture, the Texas A&M University System Texas A&M Health Science Center
15.
Livermorium
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Livermorium is a synthetic superheavy element with symbol Lv and atomic number 116. It is a radioactive element that has only been created in the laboratory and has not been observed in nature. The name of the laboratory refers to the city of Livermore, California where it is located, the name was adopted by IUPAC on May 30,2012. Four isotopes of livermorium are known, with numbers between 290 and 293 inclusive, the longest-lived among them is livermorium-293 with a half-life of about 60 milliseconds. In the periodic table, it is a transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in group 16 as the heaviest chalcogen, Livermorium is calculated to have some similar properties to its lighter homologues, and be a post-transition metal, although it should also show several major differences from them. In late 1998, Polish physicist Robert Smolańczuk published calculations on the fusion of atomic nuclei towards the synthesis of atoms, including oganesson. His calculations suggested that it might be possible to make these two elements by fusing lead with krypton under carefully controlled conditions. In June 2002, the director of the lab announced that the claim of the discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by principal author Victor Ninov. Livermorium was first synthesized on July 19,2000, when scientists at Dubna bombarded a target with accelerated calcium-48 ions. A single atom was detected, decaying by alpha emission with decay energy 10.54 MeV to an isotope of flerovium, the results were published in December 2000. Later work in December 2002 indicated that the synthesized flerovium isotope was actually 289Fl, two further atoms were reported by the institute during their second experiment during April–May 2001. In the same experiment they detected a decay chain which corresponded to the first observed decay of flerovium in December 1998. No flerovium isotope with the properties as the one found in December 1998 has ever been observed again. Later it was found that 289Fl have different decay properties and that the first observed flerovium atom may have been its nuclear isomer 289mFl, neither possibility is certain, and research is required to positively assign this activity. The team repeated the experiment in April–May 2005 and detected 8 atoms of livermorium, the measured decay data confirmed the assignment of the first-discovered isotope as 293Lv. In this run, the team also observed the isotope 292Lv for the first time, in further experiments from 2004 to 2006, the team replaced the curium-248 target with the lighter curium isotope curium-245. Here evidence was found for the two isotopes 290Lv and 291Lv, in May 2009, the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party reported on the discovery of copernicium and acknowledged the discovery of the isotope 283Cn
16.
Research and development
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Research and development, also known in Europe as research and technical development, is a general term for activities in connection with corporate or governmental innovation. Research and development is situated at the front end of the life cycle. R&D differs from the vast majority of activities in that it is not intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk. New product design and development is more often not a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In an industry that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and this is necessary due to continuous technology change and development as well as other competitors and the changing preference of customers. Without an R&D program, a firm must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, a system driven by marketing is one that puts the customer needs first, and produces goods that are known to sell. Market research is carried out, which establishes what is needed, if the development is technology driven R&D is directed toward developing products to meet the unmet need. Statistics on organizations devoted to R&D may express the state of an industry, some common measures include, budgets, numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are maintained, public. In the United States, a ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3. 5% of revenues. A high technolog company, such as a manufacturer, might spend 7% or a pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co.14. 1% or Novartis 15. 1%. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, most industrial companies get 40% revenues only. On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and they often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems. Research from 2000 has shown that firms with a persistent R&D strategy outperform those with an irregular or no R&D investment program. Research and development are very difficult to manage, since the feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not guarantee more creativity, research is the most risky financing area because both the development of an invention and its successful realization carries uncertainty including the profitability of the invention. One way of reducing the uncertainty of researching know-hows is to obtain already researched know-hows, president Barack Obama requested $147.696 billion for research & development in FY2012. Much of this spending was devoted to research on the mechanisms of disease
17.
National security
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The concept developed all in the United States after World War II. Accordingly, in order to possess national security, a nation needs to possess economic security, energy security, environmental security, the variety of definitions provide an overview of the many usages of this concept. National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively, in 1990, Harvard University history professor Charles Maier defined national security through the lens of national power, National security. The variety of definitions provide an overview of the usages of this concept. National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively, in 1990, Harvard University history professor Charles Maier defined national security through the lens of national power, National security. To be truly secure, a nation needs other forms of security, authorities differ in their choice of nation security elements. Besides the military aspect of security, the aspects of diplomacy or politics, society, environment, energy and natural resources, the elements of national security correlate closely to the concept of the elements of national power. Romm lists security from narcotic cartels, economic security, environmental security, military security is traditionally the earliest recognised form of national security. Military security implies the capability of a nation to defend itself, alternatively, military security implies the capability of a nation to enforce its policy choices by use of military force. The term military security is considered synonymous with security in much of its usage, diplomacy, negotiation and other interactions form the means of interaction between the objects. Historically, conquest of nations has made conquerors rich through plunder, access to new resources, economic security today forms, arguably, as important a part of national security as military security. The creation and protection of jobs that supply defense and non-defense needs are vital to national security, third world countries are less secure due to lack of employment for their citizens. Environmental security deals with issues which threaten the national security of a nation in any manner. The scope and nature of environmental threats to security and strategies to engage them are a subject of debate. While all environmental events are not considered significant of being categorised as threats, many transnational issues, romm classifies these as, Transnational environmental problems that threaten a nations security, in its broad defined sense. These include global environmental problems such as climate change due to warming, deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Environmental or resource problems that threaten a nations security, traditionally defined and these would be problems whose outcomes would result in conventional threats to national security as first or higher order outcomes. Environmentally threatening outcomes of warfare, e. g. Prabhakaran Paleris 2008 definition of a resource is. a support inventory, biotic or abiotic, renewable or expendable. for sustaining life at a heightened level of well-being
18.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
19.
Weapons of mass destruction
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The scope and usage of the term has evolved and been disputed, often signifying more politically than technically. Who can think without horror of another widespread war would mean. At the time, nuclear weapons had not been developed, japan conducted research on biological weapons, and chemical weapons had seen wide battlefield use in World War I. They were outlawed by the Geneva Protocol of 1925, Italy used mustard gas against civilians and soldiers in Ethiopia in 1935–36. Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that ended World War II and during the Cold War, the application of the term to specifically nuclear and radiological weapons is traced by William Safire to the Russian phrase Оружие массового поражения – oruzhiye massovogo porazheniya. That exact phrase, says Safire, was used by Bernard Baruch in 1946. The resolution also created the Atomic Energy Commission, an exact use of this term was given in a lecture Atomic Energy as an Atomic Problem by J. Robert Oppenheimer. The lecture was delivered to the Foreign Service and the State Department, the lecture is reprinted in The Open Mind. The term was used in the introduction to the hugely influential U. S. government document known as NSC-68 written in April 1950. During a speech at Rice University on 12 September 1962, President John F. Kennedy spoke of not filling space with weapons of mass destruction, but with instruments of knowledge and understanding. The following month, during a presentation about the Cuban Missile Crisis on 22 October 1962. An early use of the phrase in an international treaty was in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. During the Cold War, the weapons of mass destruction was primarily a reference to nuclear weapons. This policy of action against real or perceived weapons of mass destruction became known as the Begin Doctrine. Reagans successor, George H. W. Bush, used the term in an 1989 speech to the United Nations, the end of the Cold War reduced U. S. reliance on nuclear weapons as a deterrent, causing it to shift its focus to disarmament. With the 1990 invasion of Kuwait and 1991 Gulf War, Iraqs nuclear, biological, following the war, Bill Clinton and other western politicians and media continued to use the term, usually in reference to ongoing attempts to dismantle Iraqs weapons programs. After the 11 September 2001 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, however, American forces found none in Iraq. Iraq, however, declared a chemical weapons stockpile in 2009, the stockpile contained mainly chemical precursors, but some warheads remained usable
20.
Energy
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In physics, energy is the property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on – or to heat – the object, and can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton. Mass and energy are closely related, for example, with a sensitive enough scale, one could measure an increase in mass after heating an object. Living organisms require available energy to stay alive, such as the humans get from food. Civilisation gets the energy it needs from energy resources such as fuels, nuclear fuel. The processes of Earths climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun, the total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways. It may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, thermal energy, several types of energy, electric energy. Many of these overlap, for instance, thermal energy usually consists partly of kinetic. Some types of energy are a mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is energy which is the sum of kinetic. Whenever physical scientists discover that a phenomenon appears to violate the law of energy conservation. Heat and work are special cases in that they are not properties of systems, in general we cannot measure how much heat or work are present in an object, but rather only how much energy is transferred among objects in certain ways during the occurrence of a given process. Heat and work are measured as positive or negative depending on which side of the transfer we view them from, the distinctions between different kinds of energy is not always clear-cut. In contrast to the definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness. The modern analog of this property, kinetic energy, differs from vis viva only by a factor of two, in 1807, Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term energy instead of vis viva, in its modern sense. Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described kinetic energy in 1829 in its modern sense, the law of conservation of energy was also first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. It was argued for years whether heat was a physical substance, dubbed the caloric, or merely a physical quantity. In 1845 James Prescott Joule discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat and these developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson as the field of thermodynamics
21.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
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It is managed and operated by the University of California. The laboratory overlooks the University of California, Berkeleys main campus, the laboratory was founded in August 26,1931 by Ernest Lawrence as the Radiation Laboratory of the University of California, Berkeley associated with the Physics Department. It centered physics research around his new instrument, the cyclotron, throughout the 1930s, Lawrence pushed to create larger and larger machines for physics research, courting private philanthropists for funding. The lab moved to its site atop the hill above campus in 1940 as its machines, specifically the 184-inch cyclotron, lawrences lab helped contribute to what has been judged to be the three most valuable technology developments of the war. The cyclotron was finished in November 1946, the Manhattan Project shut down two months later, after the war, Lawrence maintained strong government and military ties at his lab, which became incorporated into the new system of Atomic Energy Commission National Laboratories. For security purposes, classified weapons research was assigned to the isolated locations, the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico. Livermore, about an hours drive southeast of Berkeley, was established at a naval air station in 1952 by Lawrence. Weapons-related and collaborative research continued at Berkeley Lab until the 1970s, shortly after the death of Lawrence in August 1958, the UC Radiation Laboratory was renamed the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. The Berkeley location became the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1971, although continued to call it the Rad Lab. Gradually, another shortened form came into common usage, LBL and its formal name was amended to Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1995, when National was added to the names of all DOE labs. Ernest Orlando was later dropped to shorten the name, today, the lab is commonly referred to as Berkeley Lab. Over 1700 memos are available on-line, hosted by the Laboratory and it was Lawrence’s belief that scientific research is best done through teams of individuals with different fields of expertise, working together. His teamwork concept is a Berkeley Lab tradition that continues today, about 2,500 scientist-users carry out research at ALS every year. Berkeley Lab is proposing an upgrade of ALS which would increase the coherent flux of soft x-rays by two-three orders of magnitude, the Joint Genome Institute supports genomic research in support of the DOE missions in alternative energy, glocal carbon cycling, and environmental management. The JGIs partner laboratories are Berkeley Lab, Lawrence Livermore National Lab, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, approximately 1,200 scientist-users take advantage of JGIs capabilities for their research every year. The Molecular Foundry is a multidisciplinary nanoscience research facility that provides users access to cutting-edge instrumentation. Approximately 700 scientist-users make use of facilities in their research every year. The National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center is the computing facility that provides large-scale state-of-the-art computing for the DOEs unclassified research programs
22.
Los Alamos National Laboratory
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Los Alamos National Laboratory is one of two laboratories in the United States in which classified work towards the design of nuclear weapons has been undertaken. LANL is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory, managed and operated by Los Alamos National Security, located in Los Alamos, the laboratory is one of the largest science and technology institutions in the world. It conducts multidisciplinary research in such as national security, space exploration, renewable energy, medicine, nanotechnology. General Leslie Groves wanted a central laboratory at a location for safety. It should be at least 200 miles from international boundaries and west of the Mississippi, major John Dudley suggested Oak City, Utah or Jemez Springs, New Mexico but both were rejected. Manhattan Project scientific director J. Robert Oppenheimer had spent much time in his youth in the New Mexico area, Dudley had rejected the school as not meeting Groves’ criteria, but as soon as Groves saw it he said in effect This is the place. Oppenheimer became the laboratorys first director, during the Manhattan Project, Los Alamos hosted thousands of employees, including many Nobel Prize-winning scientists. The location was a total secret and its only mailing address was a post office box, number 1663, in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Eventually two other post office boxes were used,180 and 1539, also in Santa Fe, though its contract with the University of California was initially intended to be temporary, the relationship was maintained long after the war. The work of the laboratory culminated in the creation of several devices, one of which was used in the first nuclear test near Alamogordo, New Mexico, codenamed Trinity. The other two were weapons, Little Boy and Fat Man, which were used in the attacks on Hiroshima, the Laboratory received the Army-Navy ‘E’ Award for Excellence in production on October 16,1945. Many of the original Los Alamos luminaries chose to leave the laboratory, in the years since the 1940s, Los Alamos was responsible for the development of the hydrogen bomb, and many other variants of nuclear weapons. In 1952, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was founded to act as Los Alamos competitor, Los Alamos and Livermore served as the primary classified laboratories in the U. S. national laboratory system, designing all the countrys nuclear arsenal. Additional work included basic research, particle accelerator development, health physics. Many nuclear tests were undertaken in the Marshall Islands and at the Nevada Test Site, during the late-1950s, a number of scientists including Dr. J. Robert Bob Beyster left Los Alamos to work for General Atomics in San Diego. Three major nuclear-related accidents have occurred at LANL, criticality accidents occurred in August 1945 and May 1946, and a third accident occurred during an annual physical inventory in December 1958. Several buildings associated with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos were declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965, Los Alamos nuclear work is currently thought to relate primarily to computer simulations and stockpile stewardship. The development of the Dual-Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test Facility will allow complex simulations of nuclear tests to take place without full explosive yields, the lab has made intense efforts for humanitarian causes through its scientific research in medicine
23.
New Mexico
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New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
24.
Manhattan Project
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The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom, from 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs, the Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District, Manhattan gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, the Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion. Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and to produce material, with less than 10% for development. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war, a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium-238, and with almost the same mass, three methods were employed for uranium enrichment, electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, in parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. The plutonium was then separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design, the project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, despite the Manhattan Projects tight security, Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was a bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexicos Alamogordo Bombing. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947, there were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter and it urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner, the committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known. The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940, Briggs proposed that the spend $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium-235 isotope, and the recently discovered plutonium
25.
Atomic weapons
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
26.
Edward Teller
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Edward Teller was a Hungarian-American theoretical physicist who was born in Hungary, and is known colloquially as the father of the hydrogen bomb, although he claimed he did not care for the title. He made numerous contributions to nuclear and molecular physics, spectroscopy, Teller also made contributions to Thomas–Fermi theory, the precursor of density functional theory, a standard modern tool in the quantum mechanical treatment of complex molecules. Teller emigrated to the United States in the 1930s, and was an member of the Manhattan Project. During this time he made a push to develop the first fusion-based weapons as well. After his controversial testimony in the security clearance hearing of his former Los Alamos Laboratory superior J. Robert Oppenheimer, Teller was ostracized by much of the scientific community. He was a co-founder of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and was both its director and associate director for many years and he was a vigorous advocate of Ronald Reagans Strategic Defense Initiative. Strangelove in the 1964 movie of the same name, ede Teller was born on January 15,1908, in Budapest, Hungary, into a Jewish family. His parents were Ilona, a pianist, and Max Teller, raised in a Jewish family, he later on became an agnostic. Religion was not an issue in my family, he wrote, indeed. My only religious training came because the Minta required that all students take classes in their respective religions and my family celebrated one holiday, the Day of Atonement, when we all fasted. Yet my father said prayers for his parents on Saturdays and on all the Jewish holidays, the idea of God that I absorbed was that it would be wonderful if He existed, We needed Him desperately but had not seen Him in many thousands of years. Like Einstein and Feynman, Teller was a late talker and he developed the ability to speak later than most children but became very interested in numbers, and would calculate large numbers in his head for fun. Teller left Hungary in 1926, partly due to the discriminatory numerus clausus rule under Miklós Horthys regime, the political climate and revolutions in Hungary during his youth instilled a lingering animosity for both Communism and Fascism in Teller. When he was a student, his right foot was severed in a streetcar accident in Munich, requiring him to wear a prosthetic foot. Werner Heisenberg said that it was the hardiness of Tellers spirit, rather than stoicism, Teller graduated in chemical engineering at the University of Karlsruhe, and received his Ph. D. in physics under Werner Heisenberg at the University of Leipzig. Tellers dissertation dealt with one of the first accurate quantum mechanical treatments of the molecular ion. In 1930 he befriended Russian physicists George Gamow and Lev Landau, Tellers lifelong friendship with a Czech physicist, George Placzek, was also very important for his scientific and philosophical development. It was Placzek who arranged a stay in Rome with Enrico Fermi in 1932
27.
Ernest Lawrence
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Ernest Orlando Lawrence was a pioneering American nuclear scientist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1939 for his invention of the cyclotron. A graduate of the University of South Dakota and University of Minnesota, in 1928, he was hired as an associate professor of physics at the University of California, becoming the youngest full professor there two years later. In its library one evening, Lawrence was intrigued by a diagram of an accelerator that produced high-energy particles and he contemplated how it could be made compact, and came up with an idea for a circular accelerating chamber between the poles of an electromagnet. The result was the first cyclotron, Lawrence went on to build a series of ever larger and more expensive cyclotrons. His Radiation Laboratory became a department of the University of California in 1936. In addition to the use of the cyclotron for physics, Lawrence also supported its use in research into medical uses of radioisotopes, during World War II, Lawrence developed electromagnetic isotope separation at the Radiation Laboratory. It used devices known as calutrons, a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer, a huge electromagnetic separation plant was built at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, which came to be called Y-12. The process was inefficient, but it worked, Lawrence strongly backed Edward Tellers campaign for a second nuclear weapons laboratory, which Lawrence located in Livermore, California. After his death, the Regents of the University of California renamed the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, chemical element number 103 was named lawrencium in his honor after its discovery at Berkeley in 1961. Ernest Orlando Lawrence was born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8,1901 and he had a younger brother, John H. Lawrence, who would become a physician, and was a pioneer in the field of nuclear medicine. Growing up, his best friend was Merle Tuve, who would go on to become a highly accomplished nuclear physicist. Lawrence attended the schools of Canton and Pierre, then enrolled at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. He completed his bachelors degree in chemistry in 1922, and his Master of Arts degree in physics from the University of Minnesota in 1923 under the supervision of William Francis Gray Swann. For his masters thesis, Lawrence built an apparatus that rotated an ellipsoid through a magnetic field. He was elected a member of Sigma Xi, and, on Swanns recommendation, instead of using it to travel to Europe, as was customary at the time, he remained at Yale University with Swann as a researcher. With Jesse Beams from the University of Virginia, Lawrence continued to research the photoelectric effect and they showed that photoelectrons appeared within 2 x 10−9 seconds of the photons striking the photoelectric surface—close to the limit of measurement at the time. Reducing the emission time by switching the light source on and off rapidly made the spectrum of energy emitted broader, in conformance with Werner Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. In 1926 and 1927, Lawrence received offers of assistant professorships from the University of Washington in Seattle, Yale promptly matched the offer of the assistant professorship, but at a salary of $3,000
28.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
29.
Berkeley Hills
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The Berkeley Hills are a range of the Pacific Coast Ranges that overlook the northeast side of the valley that encompasses San Francisco Bay. They were previously called the Contra Costa Range/Hills, but with the establishment of Berkeley and the University of California, the Berkeley Hills are bounded by the major Hayward Fault along their western base, and the minor Wildcat fault on their eastern side. The highest peaks are Vollmer Peak, Grizzly Peak and Round Top, an extinct volcano, Vollmer Peak was named for the first police chief of the City of Berkeley, August Vollmer. It was formerly known as Bald Peak, from the top on a clear winter day Davis, Sacramento and the snowy Sierra are visible. Much of the west slope of the Berkeley Hills has residential neighborhoods of single family homes. Most streets are narrow and tend to follow the contours of the land, other roads to the ridgeline wind their way up the canyons. Grizzly Peak and Skyline Blvds follow the top of the ridge, the east slope of the Berkeley Hills is mostly preserved or partially developed wildland, much of it owned by the East Bay Regional Park District and the East Bay Municipal Utility District. Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve, and Temescal Regional Park are lower on the western slopes while Las Trampas Regional Wilderness is lower on the slope above Danville. The Berkeley Hills are pierced by several tunnels, two are aqueducts of EBMUD, the Berkeley Hills Tunnel serves the Pittsburg/Bay Point–SFO/Millbrae line of the Bay Area Rapid Transit system. The four bores of the Caldecott Tunnel carry State Highway 24 between Oakland and Contra Costa County and it is common to hear the term, Oakland Hills to refer to that section of the Berkeley Hills that runs along the east side of Oakland. In colloquial usage, the Oakland hills are south of Claremont Avenue or Highway 24, as a proper name or recognized toponym, it is technically incorrect. When used on maps, the south end of the Berkeley Hills is unclear. It does not, in any case, correspond to any political boundaries, the ridge extends south through Oakland and San Leandro to the drainage of San Leandro Creek called Castro Valley, and geologically, continues southward above the line of the Hayward Fault. In the section above East Oakland to Castro Valley, the ridge appears on most maps as the San Leandro Hills, the eastern slopes of the Berkeley Hills lie entirely outside of the city of Berkeley within Contra Costa County. Another common usage is East Bay Hills, but its application to any particular range is unclear and it may refer to all of the ranges east of the Bay, from the Berkeley Hills to the Diablo Range and all the ranges between. The Berkeley Hills affect the climate by their elevation. The oceanic marine layer, which develops during the summer, bringing fog and low clouds with it, is less than 2,000 feet deep. This produces a fog shadow effect to the east, which is warmer than areas west of the hills, especially cold storms occasionally deposit wet snow on the peaks
30.
Herbert York
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Herbert Frank York was a part-Mohawk American nuclear physicist. He held numerous research and administrative positions at various United States government and educational institutes. York was born in Rochester, New York where he received his B. S. and M. S. from the University of Rochester in 1943, and went on to obtain his Ph. D. from the University of California, Berkeley in 1949. During World War II he was a physicist at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory and at Oak Ridge and he was the first director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory from 1952 to 1958. York was a professor of physics at the University of California and he was the founding Chancellor of the University of California, San Diego. He later served as U. S. ambassador to the Comprehensive Test Ban negotiations in Geneva and he also served on the board of the Council for a Livable World, a nonpartisan arms control organization in Washington, D. C. York occasionally guest lectured for UC San Diego and other institutions, Herbert York died 19 May 2009 in San Diego at age 87. Race to Oblivion, A Participants View of the Arms Race, making Weapons, Talking Peace, A Physicists Journey from Hiroshima to Geneva A Shield in Space. York Herbert F. York Papers MSS107, special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library
31.
Nuclear test
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Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield, and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the twentieth century, most nations that developed nuclear weapons tested them, the first nuclear device was detonated as a test by the United States at the Trinity site on July 16,1945, with a yield approximately equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. The first thermonuclear weapon technology test of engineer device, codenamed Mike, was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1,1952, also by the United States. The largest nuclear weapon ever tested was the Tsar Bomba of the Soviet Union at Novaya Zemlya on October 30,1961, with the largest yield ever seen, the treaty permitted underground nuclear testing. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, and China continued until 1980, underground tests in the United States continued until 1991, the Soviet Union until 1990, the United Kingdom until 1991, and both China and France until 1996. Non-signatories India and Pakistan last tested nuclear weapons in 1998, North Korea conducted nuclear tests in 2006,2009,2013, and 2016. The most recent confirmed nuclear test occurred in September 2016 in North Korea, Nuclear weapons tests have historically been divided into four categories reflecting the medium or location of the test. Atmospheric testing designates explosions that take place in the atmosphere, Nuclear explosions close enough to the ground to draw dirt and debris into their mushroom cloud can generate large amounts of nuclear fallout due to irradiation of the debris. This definition of atmospheric is used in the Limited Test Ban Treaty, underground testing refers to nuclear tests conducted under the surface of the earth, at varying depths. True underground tests are intended to be contained and emit a negligible amount of fallout. Unfortunately these nuclear tests do occasionally vent to the surface, producing from nearly none to considerable amounts of debris as a consequence. In 1976, the United States and the USSR agreed to limit the maximum yield of underground tests to 150 kt with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty. Underground testing also falls into two categories, tunnel tests in generally horizontal tunnel drifts, and shaft tests in vertically drilled holes. Exoatmospheric testing refers to tests conducted above the atmosphere. The test devices are lifted on rockets, underwater testing results from nuclear devices being detonated underwater, usually moored to a ship or a barge. Tests of this nature have usually been conducted to evaluate the effects of weapons against naval vessels. Another way to nuclear tests are by the number of explosions that constitute the test.1 second. The USSR has exploded up to eight devices in a single salvo test, Pakistans second, almost all lists in the literature are lists of tests, in the lists in Wikipedia, the lists are of explosions
32.
Polaris missile
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The UGM-27 Polaris missile was a two-stage solid-fueled nuclear-armed submarine-launched ballistic missile built during the Cold War by Lockheed Corporation for the United States Navy. It was designed to be used for second strike countervalue as part of the Navys contribution to the United States arsenal of nuclear weapons, replacing the Regulus cruise missile. Known as a Fleet Ballistic Missile, the Polaris was first launched from the Cape Canaveral, Florida, following the Polaris Sales Agreement in 1963, Polaris missiles were also carried on British Royal Navy submarines between 1968 and the mid-1990s. Plans to equip the Italian Navy with the missile ended in the mid-60s, despite the successful launching tests, the plan was abandoned due to the completion of initial SSBN vessels. The Polaris missile was replaced on 31 of the 41 original SSBNs in the US Navy by the MIRV-capable Poseidon missile beginning in 1972. During the 1980s, these missiles were replaced on twelve of these submarines by the Trident I missile, the ten George Washington- and Ethan Allen-class SSBNs retained Polaris A-3 until 1980 because their missile tubes were not large enough to accommodate Poseidon. With USS Ohio commencing sea trials in 1980, these submarines were disarmed and redesignated as attack submarines to avoid exceeding the SALT II strategic arms treaty limits. Many new project management techniques were introduced during the development of the Polaris missile program and this includes the use of the Program Evaluation and Review Technique. This technique replaced the simpler Gantt chart methodology which was largely employed prior to this program, the Polaris missile replaced an earlier plan to create a submarine-based missile force based on a derivative of the U. S. Army Jupiter Intermediate-range ballistic missile. Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke appointed Rear Admiral W. F, red Raborn as head of a Special Project Office to develop Jupiter for the Navy in late 1955. The Jupiter missiles large diameter was a product of the need to keep the length short enough to fit in a reasonably-sized submarine, Polaris was spearheaded by the Special Project Offices Missile Branch under Rear Admiral Roderick Osgood Middleton, and is still under the Special Project Office. Admiral Burke later was instrumental in determining the size of the Polaris submarine force, eventually, the number of Polaris submarines was fixed at 41. There is a contention that the Navys Jupiter missile program was unrelated to the Army program, a huge surfaced submarine would carry four Jupiter missiles, which would be carried and launched horizontally. This was probably the never-built SSM-N-2 Triton program, however, a history of the Armys Jupiter program states that the Navy was involved in the Army program, but withdrew at an early stage. Submarines were very vulnerable to attack during launch, and a fully or partially fueled missile on deck was a serious hazard, rough weather was another major drawback for these designs, but rough sea conditions did not unduly affect Polaris submerged launches. The prime contractor for all three versions of Polaris was Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, now Lockheed Martin, the Polaris program started development in 1956. USS George Washington, the first US missile submarine, successfully launched the first Polaris missile from a submarine on July 20,1960. The A-2 version of the Polaris missile was essentially an upgraded A-1 and it was fitted on a total of 13 submarines and served until June 1974
33.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
34.
Warhead
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The term warhead refers to the explosive or toxic material that is delivered by a missile, rocket, or torpedo. Types of warheads include, Explosive, An explosive charge is used to disintegrate the target, conventional, Chemicals such as gunpowder and high explosives store significant energy within their molecular bonds. This energy can be released quickly by a trigger, such as an electric spark, thermobaric weapons enhance the blast effect by utilizing the surrounding atmosphere in their explosive reactions. Blast, A strong shock wave is provided by the detonation of the explosive, fragmentation, Metal fragments are projected at high velocity to cause damage or injury. Continuous rod, Metal bars welded on their ends form a cylinder of interconnected rods. The rapidly expanding ring produces a planar cutting effect that is devastating against military aircraft, shaped charge, The effect of the explosive charge is focused onto a specially shaped metal liner to project a hypervelocity jet of metal, to perforate heavy armour. Nuclear, A runaway nuclear fission or nuclear fusion reaction causes immense energy release, chemical, A toxic chemical, such as poison gas or nerve gas, is dispersed, which is designed to injure or kill human beings. Biological, An infectious agent, such as spores, is dispersed. Often, a biological or chemical warhead will use a charge for rapid dispersal. Type of detonators include Guidance system List of aircraft weapons List of missiles Nuclear weapon yield Missile The Nuclear Weapon Archive, the B61 Bomb - Intermediate yield strategic and tactical thermonuclear bomb. Atomic Audit - The Costs and Consequences of U. S, ogden Air Logistics Center at Hill AFB, Utah. NNSA Achieves Significant Milestone for B61 Bomb, Nuclear Weapons, The Secret History, pp. 162–164
35.
MGM-52 Lance
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The MGM-52 Lance was a mobile field artillery tactical surface-to-surface missile system used to provide both nuclear and conventional fire support to the United States Army. The missiles warhead was developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and it was replaced by MGM-140 ATACMS, which was initially intended to likewise have a nuclear capability during the cold war. A Lance battery consisted of two M752 launchers and two M688 auxiliary vehicle, for a total six missiles, the firing rate per unit was approximately three missiles per hour. The payload consisted either of a W70 nuclear warhead with a yield of 1–100 kt or a variety of conventional munitions, the W70-3 nuclear warhead version was one of the first warheads to be battlefield-ready with an enhanced radiation capability. The original design considered a chemical weapon warhead option, but this development was cancelled in 1970
36.
LIM-49A Spartan
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For actual deployment, a five-megaton thermonuclear warhead was planned to destroy the incoming ICBM warheads. It was part of the Safeguard Program, Spartan was initially developed as part of the Nike-X project, later becoming the Sentinel Program. This was eventually cancelled and replaced with the much smaller Safeguard Program, spartans were deployed as part of the Safeguard system from October 1975 to early 1976. The US Army started their first serious efforts in the anti-ballistic missile arena when they asked the Bell Labs missile team to prepare a report on the topic in February 1955. The Nike team had designed the Nike Ajax system that was in widespread use around the US. Work began on the resulting LIM-49 Nike Zeus system in January 1957, however, several developments that year, including the development of the first Soviet ICBMs and the launch of Sputnik I, caused the schedule to be pushed up several times. In January 1958 Zeus was given S-Priority, the highest national priority, to test the system fully, the Army took control of Kwajalein Island from the US Navy, and began building an entire Zeus site on the island. By 1962 the system was ready for testing, and after initial problems. Eventually fourteen all up tests were carried out over the two years, with ten of them bringing the missile within the lethal radius of its warhead. In spite of Zeus successful testing program and interceptions, it was becoming clear that the fully integrated system would not be effective in an actual operational scenario. The former problem was becoming increasingly apparent beginning in approximately 1957, Missiles designed to carry a specific warhead began having increasing levels of excess throw-weight as warhead physics improved missile design, resulting in smaller and lighter warheads. Adding more decoys was extremely inexpensive, requiring very expensive ABMs to be added in response. At the same time, both the US and USSR were in the midst of introducing their first truly mass-produced ICBMs, Zeus, like Hercules and Ajax before it, used mechanically directed radar dishes that could track only one target and one interceptor at a time. The solution to both of these problems was to speed of both the defending missiles, and the defensive system as a whole. Decoys are less dense than warheads, though with the same aerodynamics, therefore, they are subject to more deceleration when they begin their reentry of the upper atmosphere. The warhead, which is dense and streamlined, experiences less deceleration from air resistance, eventually passing by the decoys. The rate at which this happens depends on the types of decoys used, at this point the warhead is vulnerable to attack, but is only 5 to 10 seconds from impact. To address these issues, a high speed missile was required
37.
B41 nuclear bomb
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The B-41 was a thermonuclear weapon deployed by the United States Strategic Air Command in the early 1960s. It was the most powerful bomb ever developed by the United States. The B-41 was the only three-stage thermonuclear weapon fielded by the U. S, the development of the B-41 began in 1955 with a USAF requirement for a Class B weapon. It was based on the Fagotti test device first fired in the Redwing Zuni test of 27 May 1956, an ICBM warhead version of the weapon was cancelled in 1957 while still in the design stage. The B-41 was the only three-stage thermonuclear weapon fielded by the U. S and it had a deuterium-tritium boosted primary, probably with lithium-6-enriched deuteride fuel for the fusion reaction in the secondary stage. This was followed by a yet-larger third fusion stage, the tertiary stage, finally, there was a fission jacket. Two versions were deployed, Y1, a dirty version with a tertiary stage encased with U-238, and Y2 and it was the highest-yield nuclear weapon ever deployed by the United States, with a maximum yield of 25 megatons, and weighing in at 4,850 kg. It remains the highest yield-to-weight ratio of any weapon created, the US claimed in 1963 that it could produce a 35 Mt fusion bomb, and put it on a Titan II, almost doubling the yield-to-weight ratio of the B-41. The B-41 was of the long cylindrical shape. The nuclear fusion warhead was of the Teller-Ulam type and used a 40–100 kiloton implosion type nuclear fission primary fueled by HEU to trigger the lithium-6 deuteride fusion fuel, the Y1 version, the third stage was enclosed in a uranium tamper. The B-41 was an example of a fission-fusion-fusion-fission type thermonuclear weapon, the additional tertiary fusion stage, compressed by a previous fusion stage, could be used to make a bomb with yields as large as desired. The weapon was 12 ft 4 in long, with a diameter of 4 ft 4 in. It was carried only by the B-52 Stratofortress and B-47 Stratojet and it could be deployed in free-fall or aerial configuration, and could be set for airburst, groundburst, or laydown delivery. The B-41 entered service in 1961, about 500 of these weapons were manufactured between September 1960 and June 1962. The B-41 was progressively phased out of service beginning in 1963, the last B-41s were retired in July 1976. During its operation, the B-41 was the most efficient known thermonuclear weapon in terms of yield to actual weight, with a 5.2 Megaton/tonne ratio. Its blast yield was 25 to 50% that of the AN602 Tsar Bomba, in the case of a surface burst, the fallouts maximum downwind cloud distance could possibly reach 658 miles from ground zero. List of nuclear weapons Nuclear weapon yield
38.
W45
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The W45 was a multipurpose American nuclear warhead developed in the early 1960s, first built in 1962 and fielded in some applications until 1988. It had a diameter of 11.5 inches, a length of 27 inches, the yields of different W45 versions were 0.5,1,5,8,10, and 15 kilotons. The W45 was designed at the Livermore branch of the University of California Radiation Laboratory, the W45 used a common nuclear fission core called the Robin primary, which was used as the fission primary in the thermonuclear W38 and W47 weapons
39.
W47
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The W47 was an American thermonuclear warhead used on the Polaris A-1 sub-launched ballistic missile system. Various models were in service from 1960 through the end of 1974, the warhead was developed by the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory between 1957 and 1960. The W47 was 18 in in diameter and 47 in long, the Y1 model had design yield of 600 kilotons and the Y2 model had a doubled design yield of 1.2 megatons. The W47 was the first warhead with a new, miniaturized pit, the aerodynamic flare at the base provided stability of orientation during descent. Two small rocket motors were used to spin the warhead for better stability, the W47 is the only US ICBM or SLBM warhead to have been live fired in an atmospheric missile and warhead test, on May 6,1962. This event took place during shot Frigate Bird which was part of the Dominic test series, while stationed off Johnston Island, the American submarine USS Ethan Allen fired a Polaris-A2 missile at an open ocean target point in the vicinity of Palmyra Atoll, south of Hawaii. The missile traveled a distance of 1,020 nmi, the test was observed by two submerged US submarines stationed approximately 30 miles from the target point, the USS Carbonero and the USS Medregal. The missile warhead detonated at 23,30 GMT on May 6,1962, approximately 2 km from the target point. The detonation was successful and had the design yield of approximately 600 kilotons. The shot was designed to improve confidence in the US ballistic missile systems and this was partly because it was revealed that the warhead selected for the test had undergone modifications before testing and was not necessarily representative of the stockpile. The history of the W47 warhead had a series of reliability problems with the warhead design. 300 of the EC-47 production prototype model were produced from April 1960 through June 1960, production of Y1 and Y2 models then proceeded in 1960 through 1964. A total of 1060 Y1 and Y2 models were produced, in 1966, 75% of the stockpiled Y2 warheads were thought to be defective and unusable. Repair programs continued for some time, a number of the Polaris warheads were replaced in the early 1960s, when corrosion of the pits was discovered during routine maintenance. Failures of the W45, W47, and W52 warheads are still a part of the debate about the reliability of the US nuclear weapons force moving into the future. A one-point safety test performed on the W47 warhead just prior the 1958 moratorium failed, unfortunately, this wire had a tendency to become brittle during storage, and break or get stuck during arming, which prevented complete removal and rendered the warhead a dud. It was estimated that 50-75% of warheads would fail and this required a complete rebuild of the W47 primaries. The oil used for lubricating the wire also promoted corrosion of the pit, uGM-27 Polaris List of nuclear weapons Dominic nuclear test series, including Frigate Bird Polaris/W47 flight test
40.
W48
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The W48 was an American nuclear artillery shell, capable of being fired from any standard 155 mm howitzer, e. g. the M114, M198 or M109. It was manufactured starting in 1963, and all units were retired in 1992, the W48 was 6.1 inches in diameter and 33.3 inches long. It came in two models, Mod 0 and Mod 1, which are reported to have weighed 118 and 128 pounds respectively and it had an explosive yield equivalent to 72 tons of TNT, which is very small for a nuclear weapon. The W48 was a small diameter linear implosion nuclear fission weapon, a bare critical mass of plutonium at normal density and without additional neutron reflector material is roughly 10 kilograms. This amount of alpha-phase plutonium takes up 657 cm3, giving a sphere of radius 5.4 cm ), to achieve a large explosive yield, a linear implosion weapon needs somewhat more material, about 13 kilograms. The mass, known as the pit, is configured in a lower density non-spherical configuration, to fit weapons into small artillery shells bare pits are required. Linear implosion weapons have much lower due to low pressure. They are also heavier, and much smaller than conventional implosion weapons. The W54 nuclear warhead used in the Davy Crockett nuclear artillery unit was about 11 inches diameter, the W48 is 6 inches in diameter and weighs over twice as much, and probably requires twice as much plutonium. Linear implosion weapons requiring 2-3 times more plutonium are proportionally more expensive, the W82 was the most successful, but not complete, replacement for the W48. Nuclear weapon design List of nuclear weapons On page 10 A heavy spring is used to hold the pit in place. As there are no pits in a gun system like that of, it is likely the W48 was most certainly an implosion type device. Denotes a spherical system, for an artillery piece. The B61 Earth Penetrator Allbombs. html list of all US nuclear weapon models at nuclearweaponarchive. org Linear Implosion in the Nuclear Weapons FAQ at nuclearweaponarchive. org
