1.
Newspaper
–
A newspaper is a serial publication containing news about current events, other informative articles about politics, sports, arts, and so on, and advertising. A newspaper is usually, but not exclusively, printed on relatively inexpensive, the journalism organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers. As of 2017, most newspapers are now published online as well as in print, the online versions are called online newspapers or news websites. Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly, News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format. General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news, typically the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings. Papers also include articles which have no byline, these articles are written by staff writers, a wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. As of 2017, newspapers may also provide information about new movies, most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue. Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded, their reliance on advertising revenue, the editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high quality. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting from around the world, circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day. Worldwide annual revenue approached $100 billion in 2005-7, then plunged during the financial crisis of 2008-9. Revenue in 2016 fell to only $53 billion, hurting every major publisher as their efforts to gain online income fell far short of the goal. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet has also challenged the business models of the era by crowdsourcing both publishing in general and, more specifically, journalism. In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from online newspapers. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects, the oldest newspaper still published is the Gazzetta di Mantova, which was established in Mantua in 1664. While online newspapers have increased access to newspapers by people with Internet access, literacy is also a factor which prevents people who cannot read from being able to benefit from reading newspapers. Periodicity, They are published at intervals, typically daily or weekly. This ensures that newspapers can provide information on newly-emerging news stories or events, currency, Its information is as up to date as its publication schedule allows
Newspaper
–
Front page of
The New York Times on
Armistice Day, 11 November 1918.
Newspaper
–
Journalism
Newspaper
–
Title page of Carolus'
Relation from 1609, the earliest newspaper
Newspaper
–
Diario de Pernambuco, founded in November 1825 is the second oldest circulating newspaper in South America, after
El Peruano, founded in October of that same year.
2.
Berliner (format)
–
Berliner, or midi, is a newspaper format with pages normally measuring about 315 by 470 millimetres. The Berliner format is slightly taller and marginally wider than the tabloid/compact format, the Berliner format is an innovation in press and an alternative to the broadsheet format. The name refers to the city of Berlin, and was contrasted with North German. The French business newspaper Les Échos changed to this format in September 2003, a recent European newspaper to join this trend is Het Financieele Dagblad, the daily Dutch newspaper that is focused on business and financial matters on 26 March 2013. Student publication The University Observer became Irelands first Berliner-sized paper in September 2009, the Independent in London considered adopting this format, but could not afford to buy new presses, it ultimately became a tabloid size. The most recent European newspaper using the format is the UKs post-referendum pop-up The New European, although the daily Berliner Zeitung is occasionally called simply Berliner, it is not printed in Berliner format. The majority of the national quality dailies use the larger broadsheet format known as nordisch, the daily Journal and Courier in Lafayette, Indiana, began using Berliner format for its daily edition on 31 July 2006. It was the first newspaper in North America to be produced in this format, the Chronicle in Laurel, Mississippi, which began publication in April 2012 uses the Berliner layout. The Bucks County Herald in Lahaska, Pennsylvania, began using Berliner format in 2009, major papers such as the Chicago Tribune and The Cincinnati Enquirer have tested the format. Since then, numerous newspapers throughout the United States and Canada have adopted a page format similar to Berliner. In some instances, only the width has changed from the broadsheet page. For example, the New York Times used a 22-inch tall by 13. 5-inch wide page and it still refers to itself as a broadsheet, even though its size is closer to Berliner. In Nepal, the Nepali Times became the first and the newspaper using this format. In Pakistan, the English daily Pakistan Today is published in the Berliner format, the Israeli newspaper Haaretz has been published in this format since 18 February 2007. Though very rarely used in Metropolitan Manila, the Berliner is the most popular format in the Philippines, in the Ilocandia, some of the well-known names are the Zigzag Weekly, the Northern Dispatch—commonly called as Nordis—and the Northern Philippine Times. In the Visayas, the Panay News also uses this format, though not published for commercial purposes, the official publication of the Caritas Manila uses a slightly narrower Berliner format. In March 2009, South Koreas JoongAng Ilbo adopted the Berliner format, also in the same month, Turkeys Gazete Habertürk and Zaman adopted a variation of this format as 350 by 500 mm and become two of the first Turkish newspaper to do so. The format is called Ciner format in Turkey because it is unique, on 1 June 2012, the UAEs leading English language newspaper, Gulf News, adopted the Berliner format, the first ever in the Middle East
Berliner (format)
–
Comparison of some newspaper sizes with metric paper sizes. Approximate nominal dimensions are in millimetres.
3.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
French language
–
The
"arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
–
Regions where French is the main language
French language
–
Town sign in
Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of
Rechmaya in
Lebanon.
French language
–
An obsolete 100
Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
4.
International Standard Serial Number
–
An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
International Standard Serial Number
–
ISSN encoded in an EAN-13 barcode with sequence variant 0 and issue number 5
5.
List of newspapers in France
–
Below is a list of newspapers in France. Paris Newspapers and the American Civil War, Press and politics in pre-revolutionary France Chalaby, Jean K. Twenty years of contrast, The French and British press during the inter-war period, european Journal of Sociology 37.01, 143-159. The government and the press in France, 1814-1881 Collins, Ross F. and E. M. Palmegiano. The Rise of Western Journalism 1815-1914, Essays on the Press in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, the Failings of Popular News Censorship in Nineteenth-Century France. La Feuille villageoise, the Revolutionary Press, and the Question of Rural Political Participation, columbia Journalism Review 18.1, 58-61 Freiberg, J. W. The French press, class, state, and ideology Goldstein, the newspaper press in the French Revolution (Taylor & Francis,19880 Isser, Natalie. The national daily press of France, 370pp Trinkle, Dennis A, the Napoleonic press, the public sphere and oppositionary journalism Weigle, Clifford. The Paris Press from 1920 to 1940 Journalism Quarterly 18, 376-84, the Rise and Fall of the Havas News Agency Journalism Quarterly 19, 277-86 Williams, Roger Lawrence. Henri Rochefort, prince of the gutter press Zerner, Elisabeth H
List of newspapers in France
–
This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (September 2012) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
6.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
7.
Newspapers of record
–
A newspaper of record is a major newspaper that has a large circulation and whose editorial and news-gathering functions are considered professional and typically authoritative. A newspaper of record, sometimes referred to as an official newspaper. In some jurisdictions, privately owned newspapers may register with the authorities to publish public and legal notices. Likewise, a newspaper may be designated by the courts for publication of legal notices. These are sometimes referred to as legally adjudicated newspapers, a variation of newspapers of public record are those newspapers controlled by governments or political parties that serve as official newspapers reflecting the positions of their controlling bodies. State organs such as the Soviet-era Izvestia and the Peoples Daily in China are examples of this type, the second type of newspaper of record is not defined by any formal criteria and its characteristics can be variable. Despite changes in society, such newspapers have historically tended to maintain a similar tone, coverage, style, and traditions. In recognition of the usage, the Times held an essay contest in 1927 in which entrants had to demonstrate The Value of The New York Times Index and Files as a Newspaper of Record. The Times, and other newspapers of its type, then sought to be chroniclers of events, acting as a record of the announcements, schedules, directories, proceedings. The Times no longer considers itself a newspaper of record in the original, literal sense. Over time, historians began to rely on The New York Times and similar titles as an archival record of significant past events. The term newspaper of record thus evolved from its literal sense to its currently understood meaning
Newspapers of record
–
The New York Times Building in
New York City; some meanings of the term "newspaper of record" originated in reference to
The New York Times
Newspapers of record
–
The Globe and Mail!
Newspapers of record
–
Le Monde!
8.
Le Figaro
–
Le Figaro is a French daily morning newspaper founded in 1826 and published in Paris. The oldest national daily in France, Le Figaro is one of the two French newspapers of record, along with Le Monde, and is one of the most widely respected newspapers in the world. In 2012, the paper had a circulation of 330,952 copies per issue. The paper is published in the format, switching from a broadsheet in 2009. The newspaper is owned by Le Figaro Group, whose publications include TV Magazine and Evene, the companys chairman is Serge Dassault, whose Dassault Group has controlled the paper since 2004. Le Figaro was founded as a weekly in 1826, taking its name and motto from Le Mariage de Figaro. Its motto, from Figaros monologue in the final act, is Sans la liberté de blâmer. In 1833, editor Nestor Roqueplan fought a duel with a Colonel Gallois, who was offended by an article in Le Figaro, albert Wolff, Émile Zola, Alphonse Karr and Jules Claretie were among the papers early contributors. It was published irregularly until 1854, when it was taken over by Hippolyte de Villemessant. In 1866 Le Figaro became a daily newspaper and its first daily edition, that of 16 November 1866, sold 56,000 copies, having highest circulation of any newspaper in France. In 1922, Le Figaro was purchased by perfume millionaire François Coty, abel Faivre did cartoons for the paper. By the start of World War II, Le Figaro had become Frances leading newspaper, after the war it became the voice of the upper middle class, and continues to maintain a conservative position. In 1975, Le Figaro was bought by Robert Hersants Socpresse, in 1999, the Carlyle Group obtained a 40% stake in the paper, which it later sold in March 2002. Dassault owns 80% of the paper, in 2006, Le Figaro was banned in Egypt and Tunisia for publishing articles allegedly insulting Islam. Le Figaro switched to Berliner format in 2009, the paper has published The New York Times International Weekly on Friday since 2009, an 8-page supplement featuring a selection of articles from The New York Times translated into French. In 2010, Lefigaro. fr created a section called Le Figaro in English, Le Figaro has traditionally held a conservative editorial stance, becoming the voice of the French upper and middle classes. His son Olivier Dassault is a member of the French National Assembly, Dassault has remarked in an interview in 2004 on the public radio station France Inter that newspapers must promulgate healthy ideas and that left-wing ideas are not healthy ideas. They requested more pluralism and honesty and accused the paper of one-sided political reporting, mougeotte had previously said that Le Figaro would do nothing to embarrass the government and the right
Le Figaro
–
Front page of Le Figaro, August 4, 1914
Le Figaro
–
First issue, 15 January 1826
Le Figaro
–
Figaro Illustré 01-08-1906
Le Figaro
–
Logo during the 1820s
9.
Bankruptcy
–
Bankruptcy is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay the debts it owes to creditors. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, Bankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term bankruptcy is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, in the United States, bankruptcy is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In France, the cognate French word banqueroute is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, in Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into debt slavery, until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years, debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime. An exception to rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt, as a consequence. The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency, Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times, a failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1575 and 1596, at the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well. For private households, it is argued to be insufficient to merely dismiss debts after a certain period and it is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur. In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation, in the United States, discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system, the Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. It is almost impossible to discharge student loan debt by filing bankruptcy, unlike most other debtors, the individual with student debt must give a series of reasons and tests to prove that the debtor could not pay the debt. If the person were to file bankruptcy, he or she is encouraged to do so under Chapter 13. In order to avoid bankruptcy, one could negotiate with the lender to lower monthly payments, student loan bankruptcy is considered a last resort. However, some find themselves being forced to file bankruptcy, as the lender refused to lower payments
Bankruptcy
–
Notice of closure attached to the door of a Computer Shop outlet the day after its parent company declared "bankruptcy" (strictly, put into administration) in the
United Kingdom
Bankruptcy
–
Insolvency
Bankruptcy
–
Bankruptcy according to
Salvation Army,
Switzerland.
Bankruptcy
–
In 2013, Detroit filed the
largest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history.
10.
Xavier Niel
–
He is also co-owner of the newspaper Le Monde, and co-owner of the rights of the song My Way and owner of Monaco Telecom. He currently acts as Deputy Chairman of the Board of Directors & Chief Strategy Officer for Iliad and his net worth is about $7.4 billion USD. Xavier Niel was born in 1967 in the suburbs of Paris, at 19, he successfully created then sold his first company, a Minitel service company. This minitel-site provided sex oriented chat services, in 1995, he invested in the first Internet Service Provider in France, World-NET, created the previous year by Sébastien Socchard, Philippe Langlois and Pierre Séguret. This company was sold the year before the bubble burst. After taking over a company subsequently renamed Iliad, Xavier Niel launched in 1996 the 1st reversed directory service on the Minitel and this service is still responsible for 1 million euros of revenue per year for Iliad. In 1999, he created Free, a French Internet service provider, the name came from the fact that modem access was really free, which caused some stir among other French Internet providers, as well as it raised some questions about Frees business model. In 2002, Free launched a broadband package at a low price, at the same time, Free developed and launched the Freebox, the first triple-play multi-service box in France. The free modem service had brought to the company a strong potential customers portfolio, Niel remains Iliad’s majority shareholder, holding 63. 93% of the share capital. In March 2010, Xavier Niel cofounded with Jeremie Berrebi Kima Ventures, Kima Ventures already invested in 330 companies from February 2010 to August 2014 in 32 countries. Business Insider described Xavier Niel and Jeremie Berrebi as almost certainly the most active investors in the world. In late 2010 Niel was a member of a group of investors which acquired a stake in the newspaper Le Monde. In 2012, he created Free Mobile, which revolutionizes mobile telephony in France, with a 25 US$ plan, including unlimited voice calls, text and data. In 2013, Xavier Niel created a school named 42, which is a free school with no teachers, no books. In 2014, Cable & Wireless Communications sold its 55% economic interest in Monaco Telecom to NJJ Capital, an investment vehicle controlled by Xavier Niel for US$445 million. On 28 May 2004, Xavier Niel was indicted and detained for a month for alleged procuring and misuse of company assets, which occurred in several sex shops in which he was a shareholder. On 30 August 2005, a Nolle prosequi was pronounced for the part of his indictment. Free Iliad Media related to Xavier Niel at Wikimedia Commons
Xavier Niel
–
Xavier Niel in September 2009
11.
The New York Times
–
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
The New York Times
–
Cover of The New York Times (November 15, 2012), with the headline story reporting on
Operation Pillar of Defense.
The New York Times
–
First published issue of New-York Daily Times, on September 18, 1851.
The New York Times
–
The Times Square Building, The New York Times ' publishing headquarters, 1913–2007
The New York Times
–
The New York Times newsroom, 1942
12.
Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior
–
Fernando Pereira, a photographer, drowned on the sinking ship. France initially denied responsibility, but two French agents were captured by New Zealand Police and charged with arson, conspiracy to commit arson, willful damage, as the truth came out, the scandal resulted in the resignation of the French Defence Minister Charles Hernu. The two agents pleaded guilty to manslaughter and were sentenced to ten years in prison and they spent just over two years confined to the French island of Hao before being freed by the French government. French agents posing as interested supporters or tourists toured the ship while it was open to public viewing, DGSE agent Christine Cabon, posing as environmentalist Frederique Bonlieu, volunteered to work in the Greenpeace office in Auckland. Cabon was no ordinary lieutenant. a veteran of many dangerous missions in the Middle East. Cabon secretly monitored communications from the Rainbow Warrior, collected maps, after sufficient information had been gathered, two DGSE divers, Jacques Camurier and Alain Tonel, attached two limpet mines to the Rainbow Warrior berthed at Marsden Wharf. They were detonated 10 minutes apart, the first bomb went off at 23,38, blasting a hole about the size of an average car. Agents intended the first mine to cripple the ship so that it would be evacuated safely by the time the mine was detonated. However, the crew did not react to the first explosion as the agents had expected, while the ship was initially evacuated, some of the crew returned to the ship to investigate and film the damage. A Portuguese-Dutch photographer, Fernando Pereira, returned below decks to fetch his camera equipment, at 23,45, the second bomb went off. The Rainbow Warrior sank four minutes later, operation Satanique was a public relations disaster. France, being an ally of New Zealand, initially denied involvement, the French embassy in Wellington denied involvement, stating that the French Government does not deal with its opponents in such ways. After the bombing, the New Zealand Police started one of the countrys largest police investigations, most of the agents of the French team escaped from New Zealand but two, Captain Dominique Prieur and Commander Alain Mafart were identified as possible suspects. Posing as the married couple Sophie and Alain Turenge, Prieur and Mafart were identified with the help of a Neighbourhood Watch group, because they were carrying Swiss passports, their true identities were discovered, along with the French governments responsibility. They were then picked up by the French submarine Rubis, which scuttled the Ouvéa, a sixth agent, Louis-Pierre Dillais, commander of the operation, was never captured and never faced charges. He acknowledged his involvement in an interview with New Zealand state broadcaster TVNZ in 2005, more than 30 years on, TVNZs Sunday programme tracked down the French spy who planted the bombs. Jean Cammas, who retired from the DGSE in about 2000, reporter John Hudson, who spent two days with Cammas in France, said At the end of the day he was a guy who wanted an opportunity to talk about his role in the bombing. It has been on his conscience for 30 years and he said to us, secret agents dont talk, but he is talking
Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior
–
Fernando Pereira
Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior
–
A 2D profile drawing of
Rainbow Warrior.
Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior
–
Rainbow Warrior (1981)
Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior
–
Hao atoll
13.
Charles de Gaulle
–
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman. He was the leader of Free France and the head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, in 1958, he founded the Fifth Republic and was elected as the 18th President of France, a position he held until his resignation in 1969. He was the dominant figure of France during the Cold War era, born in Lille, he graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1912. He was an officer of the First World War, wounded several times. During the interwar period, he advocated mobile armoured divisions, during the German invasion of May 1940, he led an armoured division which counterattacked the invaders, he was then appointed Under-Secretary for War. Refusing to accept his governments armistice with Nazi Germany, de Gaulle exhorted the French population to resist occupation and he led a government in exile and the Free French Forces against the Axis. Despite frosty relations with Britain and especially the United States, he emerged as the leader of the French resistance. He became Head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic in June 1944, frustrated by the return of petty partisanship in the new Fourth Republic, he resigned in early 1946 but continued to be politically active as founder of the RPF party. He retired in the early 1950s and wrote his War Memoirs, when the Algerian War was ripping apart the unstable Fourth Republic, the National Assembly brought him back to power during the May 1958 crisis. De Gaulle founded the Fifth Republic with a presidency. He granted independence to Algeria and progressively to other French colonies and he restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between the Anglo-American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring a Europe of sovereign nations, De Gaulle openly criticised the US intervention in Vietnam and the exorbitant privilege of the US dollar. In his later years, his support for an independent Quebec, De Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing a referendum in which he proposed more decentralization. He died a year later at his residence in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, leaving his Presidential memoirs unfinished, many French political parties and figures claim the Gaullist legacy. De Gaulle was ranked as Le Plus Grand Français de tous les temps, De Gaulle was born in the industrial region of Lille in the Nord departement, the third of five children. He was raised in a devoutly Catholic and traditional family and his father, Henri de Gaulle, was a professor of history and literature at a Jesuit college who eventually founded his own school. Henri de Gaulle came from a line of parliamentary gentry from Normandy and Burgundy. De Gaulles mother, Jeanne, descended from a family of entrepreneurs from Lille
Charles de Gaulle
–
Charles de Gaulle in 1961
Charles de Gaulle
–
De Gaulle's birth house in
Lille, now a national museum
Charles de Gaulle
–
A plaque in
Dinant commemorating the place where Charles de Gaulle, then an infantry lieutenant, was wounded while crossing the
Meuse in 1914
Charles de Gaulle
–
Charles de Gaulle (far right) with
Andrew McNaughton,
Władysław Sikorski, and
Winston Churchill
14.
German Army (Wehrmacht)
–
The German Army was the land forces component of the Wehrmacht, the regular German Armed Forces, from 1935 until it was demobilized and later dissolved in August 1946. The Wehrmacht also included the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe, during World War II, a total of about 13 million soldiers served in the German Army. Only 17 months after Adolf Hitler announced publicly the rearmament program, during the autumn of 1937, two more corps were formed. In 1938, four corps were formed with the inclusion of the five divisions of the Austrian Army after the Anschluss in March. During the period of its expansion by Adolf Hitler, the German Army continued to develop concepts pioneered during World War I, combining ground, the German Army entered the war with a majority of its infantry formations relying on horse-drawn transport. The infantry remained foot soldiers throughout the war, artillery also remained primarily horse-drawn, however their motorized and tank formations accounted for only 20% of the Heers capacity at their peak strength. The armys lack of trucks was a handicap to infantry movement especially during. Panzer movements also depended upon rail, driving a tank over 150 kilometers wore out its tracks, the Oberkommando des Heeres was Germanys Army High Command from 1936 to 1945. In theory the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht served as the military General Staff for the German Reichs armed forces, in practice OKW acted in a subordinate role as Hitlers personal military staff, translating his ideas into military plans and orders, and issuing them to the three services. However, as the war progressed the OKW found itself exercising increasing amounts of direct command authority over military units and this created a situation where by 1943 the OKW was the de facto command of Western Theatre forces while the Army High Command is the same on the Eastern Front. The Abwehr was the Army intelligence organization from 1921 to 1944, the term Abwehr was used as a concession to Allied demands that Germanys post-World War I intelligence activities be for defensive purposes only. After 4 February 1938, its title was Overseas Department/Office in Defence of the Armed Forces High Command, the method OKW adopted was to separate the Field Army from the Home Command, and to entrust the responsibilities of training, conscription, supply and equipment to Home Command. The German Army was mainly structured in Army groups consisting of several armies that were relocated, restructured or renamed in the course of the war, Forces or allied states as well as units made up of non-Germans were also assigned to German units. The army used the German term Kampfgruppe which equates to the English combat group or battle group and these provisional combat groupings ranged from an Army Corps size such as Army Detachment Kempf to commands composed of several companies and even platoons. They were named for their commanding officers, German operational doctrine emphasized sweeping pincer and lateral movements meant to destroy the enemy forces as quickly as possible. This approach, referred to as Blitzkrieg, was an operational doctrine instrumental in the success of the offensives in Poland, the military strength of the German army was managed through mission-based tactics, and an almost proverbial discipline. Once an operation began, whether offensive or defensive, speed in response to changing circumstances was considered more important than careful planning and coordination of new plans. These technologies were featured by propaganda, but were only available in small numbers or late in the war, as overall supplies of raw materials
German Army (Wehrmacht)
–
Adolf Hitler with generals
Keitel,
Paulus and
von Brauchitsch, discussing the situation on the
Eastern Front in October 1941
German Army (Wehrmacht)
–
Balkenkreuz, a stylized version of the
Iron Cross, used after
Operation Weserübung on Army vehicles
German Army (Wehrmacht)
–
German soldiers in Greece, April 1941
German Army (Wehrmacht)
–
An ex-Soviet volunteer, serving in the German army on the Eastern Front, January 1943
15.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
16.
Le Temps (Paris)
–
Le Temps was one of Pariss most important daily newspapers from 25 April 1861 to 30 November 1942. It was the paper of record. He was succeeded by his sons Émile, and Adrien Jr. soon after Mills death in 1931, Le Temps became a public limited company. Adrien Hébrard and his successors left substantial freedom to the editorial room, Le Temps always remained moderate politically. The early issues of the newspaper reflected Nefftzers liberal philosophy had considerable trouble achieving readership and he had to frequently turn to friends in Alsace who were able to help support Le Temps financially. However, circulation continued to grow, from scarcely 3,000 in 1861, during the interwar period it varied between 50,000 to 80,000. Despite this comparatively modest circulation, Le Temps soon became the most important newspaper of the French Republic particularly among the French political, the political and diplomatic information and commentaries contained in this quality newspaper, serious to the point of boredom, also carried considerable clout elsewhere in Europe. Journalists and correspondents included Georges Bruni, and Adolphe Cohn in the United States, the Paris edition of Le Temps was suspended by the Paris Commune, and as such, lacks issues from 7 May –19 May 1871. The St. Germain edition, however, ran continuously for 81 years, on 28 November 1942, following the German invasion of the Zone Libre, Jacques Chastenet and Émile Mireaux, the two co-directors of Le Temps, jettisoned the newspaper. At Charles de Gaulles request, Le Monde was founded on 19 December 1944 to replace Le Temps as the newspaper of record, borrowing the layout, history of French journalism Le Temps digital archives from 1861 to 1940 in Gallica, the digital library of the BnF
Le Temps (Paris)
–
Front page of Le Temps from March 1890.
17.
German occupation of France during World War II
–
The Military Administration in France was an interim occupation authority established by Nazi Germany during World War II to administer the occupied zone in areas of northern and western France. This so-called zone occupée was renamed zone nord in November 1942, for instance, France agreed that its soldiers would remain prisoners of war until the cessation of all hostilities. Replacing the French Third Republic that had dissolved during Frances defeat was the French State, as Paris was located in the occupied zone, its government was seated in the spa town of Vichy in Auvergne, and therefore it was more commonly known as Vichy France. While the Vichy government was nominally in charge of all of France, the Vichy government remained in existence, even though its authority was now severely curtailed. The military administration in France ended with the Liberation of France after the Normandy and it formally existed from May 1940 to December 1944, though most of its territory had been liberated by the Allies by the end of summer 1944. Another forbidden zone were areas in north-eastern France, corresponding to Lorraine and roughly about half each of Franche-Comté, Champagne, War refugees were prohibited from returning to their homes, and it was intended for German settlers and annexation in the coming Nazi New Order. The occupied zone consisted of the rest of northern and western France and it constituted a land area of 246,618 square kilometres, approximately 45 percent of France, and included approximately 33 percent of the total French labor force. The demarcation line between the zone and the occupied zone was a de facto border, necessitating special authorisation. These restrictions remained in place after Vichy was occupied and the zone renamed zone sud, the Italian occupation zone consisted of small areas along the Alps border, and a 50-kilometre demilitarised zone along the same. As it was done at the place and in the same railroad carriage where the armistice ending the First World War when Germany surrendered. France was roughly divided into a northern zone and an unoccupied southern zone. The French colonial empire remained under the authority of Marshall Pétains Vichy regime, the French government undertakes to facilitate in every way possible the implementation of these rights, and to provide the assistance of the French administrative services to that end. The military administration was responsible for affairs in occupied France. It was divided into Kommandanturen, in decreasing hierarchical order Oberfeldkommandanturen, Feldkommandanturen, Kreiskommandanturen and it also had the help of collaborationists auxiliaries like the Milice, the Franc-Gardes and the Legionary Order Service. The two main collaborationist political parties were the French Popular Party and the National Popular Rally, each with 20,000 to 30,000 members. Some Frenchmen also volunteered directly in German forces to fight for Germany and/or against Bolsheviks, Volunteers from this and other outfits later constituted the cadre of the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne. Examples of these are PPF leader Jacques Doriot, writer Robert Brasillach or Marcel Déat, a principal motivation and ideological foundation among collaborationnistes was anti-communism. The Wehrmacht maintained a number of divisions in France
German occupation of France during World War II
–
German (pink) and
Italian (green) occupation zones of France: the
zone occupée, the
zone libre, the
zone interdite, the
Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France, and annexed
Alsace-Lorraine.
German occupation of France during World War II
–
Flag
German occupation of France during World War II
–
German soldiers march through the
Arc de Triomphe on the
Avenue des Champs-Élysées in Paris (June 1940).
German occupation of France during World War II
–
German control post on the Demarcation Line
18.
French presidential election, 1995
–
Presidential elections took place in France on 23 April and 7 May 1995, to elect the fifth president of the Fifth Republic. The Socialist incumbent president, François Mitterrand, who had been in office since 1981 and he was 78, had terminal cancer, and his party had lost the 1993 legislative election in a landslide defeat. Since then, he had been cohabiting with a cabinet led by Prime Minister Edouard Balladur. The competition within the right between Balladur and Chirac was a feature of the campaign. Meanwhile, the left was weakened by scandals and disappointments regarding Mitterrands presidency along with the Unemployment rate hovering around 10%, in June 1994, former Prime Minister Michel Rocard was dismissed as leader of the Socialist Party after the partys poor showing in the European Parliament elections. Then, Jacques Delors decided not to stand as a candidate because he disagreed with the re-alignment on the left orchestrated by new party leader Henri Emmanuelli. Former party leader and education minister Lionel Jospin was chosen by PS members as the candidate in a primary election pitting him against Emmanuelli. He promised to restore the credibility and moral reputation of his party, the economy was also still struggling with a depression which began in mid-1990, and the governments policies were widely blamed for both the recession and its slow recovery. The French Communist Party tried to stop its electoral decline and its new leader Robert Hue campaigned against king money and wanted to represent a renewed communism. He was faced with competition for the far left vote by the Trotskyist candidacy of Arlette Laguiller, both of these candidates had a better result than their parties had in 1988, but came nowhere near being able to participate in the next round. In choosing Dominique Voynet, the Greens opted for their integration with the left, on the far-right, Jean-Marie Le Pen tried to repeat his surprising result that he obtained in the 1988 presidential election. His main rival for the vote was Philippe de Villiers. Both candidates primarily focused over the financial situation, in January 1995, when he announced his candidacy, Balladur was the favourite of the political right. According to the SOFRES polls institute, he held an advantage of 14 points over Chirac and he took advantage of his positive assessment as Prime Minister and advocated a moderately liberal economic policy. Chirac denounced the social fracture and criticised the dominant thought, targeting Balladur, Chirac argued that the pay slip is not the enemy of employment. Indeed, unemployment was the theme of the campaign. From the start of March, Chirac gained ground on Balladur in the polls, another factor that contributed to Balladurs fall in popularity was the revelation of a bugging scandal which had implicated Balladur. Chiracs campaign slogan was La France pour tous, Balladurs Believe in France, Lionel Jospin won the first round, in what appeared to be an electoral recovery for the Socialist Party
French presidential election, 1995
French presidential election, 1995
–
Nominee
19.
2007 presidential election in France
–
The 2007 French presidential election, the ninth of the Fifth French Republic was held to elect the successor to Jacques Chirac as president of France for a five-year term. The winner, decided on 5 and 6 May 2007, was Nicolas Sarkozy, the first round of voting took place on Saturday,21 April 2007 and Sunday,22 April 2007. As no candidate obtained a majority, a second round between the two leading candidates, Nicolas Sarkozy and Ségolène Royal, took place on Saturday,5 May and Sunday,6 May 2007, Sarkozy and Royal both represented a generational change. Both main candidates were born after World War II, along with the first to have seen adulthood under the Fifth Republic, and the first not to have been in politics under Charles de Gaulle. The first round saw a high turnout of 83. 8% –36.7 million of the 44.5 million electorate voted from a population of 64.1 million. The results of that round saw Sarkozy and Royal qualify for the round with Sarkozy getting 31%. François Bayrou came third and Jean-Marie Le Pen fourth, unlike in 2002 when Le Pen got a surprising 16. 9% and this was the first time since 1981 that Laguiller had endorsed the Socialist Partys candidate. Olivier Besancenot called his supporters to vote against Sarkozy, frédéric Nihous and Gérard Schivardi never officially supported either Royal or Sarkozy. Philippe de Villiers called for a vote for Sarkozy, Le Pen told his voters to abstain massively in the second round. On 25 April, Bayrou declared he would not support either candidate in the runoff and he criticised both major candidates, and offered to debate them. Royal agreed to hold a debate, while Sarkozy offered to have a private discussion. The final CSA estimate showed him winning with 53% of the votes cast, Royal conceded defeat to Sarkozy that evening. Nationwide, Nicolas Sarkozy obtained 31% and Ségolène Royal 26% – while in 2002, Jacques Chirac had obtained 20%, the right-of-centre François Bayrou obtained 18. 6% this time, nearly tripling his 2002 result. National Front candidate, Jean-Marie Le Pen, made only 10. 4%, along with the April–May shift to the far right made by Sarkozy, this has led many commentators to allege that traditional voters of the FN had been tempted by Sarkozy. On a global scale, the left-wing reached 36% of the votes, against 19% for the centre, 33% for the right wing and 11% for the far right. Other candidates received a lower share of the vote than they had in 2002. Besancenot received 4. 1%, compared to 4. 3% in 2002. 3%. With an overall turnout of 83. 8%, a level not achieved since the 1965 presidential election when turnout was 84. 8%
2007 presidential election in France
–
Nominee
2007 presidential election in France
2007 presidential election in France
2007 presidential election in France
–
Voting booth in
Vaulnaveys-le-Haut.
20.
Mitrokhin Archive
–
When he defected to the United Kingdom in 1992 he brought the archive with him. The official historian of the MI5 Christopher Andrew wrote two books, Sword and the Shield and The KGB and the Battle for the Third World, the books give alleged details about much of the Soviet Unions clandestine intelligence operations around the world. In July 2014, the Churchill Archives Centre at Churchill College released Mitrokhins edited Russian-language notes for public research, the original handwritten notes by Vasili Mitrokhin are still classified. The publication of the books provoked parliamentary inquiries in the UK, Italy, in the UK, the inquiry was conducted by the Intelligence and Security Committee after the first book was published in 1999, and it was named The Mitrokhin Inquiry Report. The report was presented to the Parliament in June 2000, the committee believed that this decision corresponded to the Law Offices, not to the SIS. He wished that he had had full control over the handling of his material, additionally, the Committee thought that misleading stories were allowed to receive wide circulation, and they found that SIS didnt handle the publication and the media matters appropriately. However, after not being able to verify any of the information in the book, the Mitrokhin Commission ended in a scandal, and without evidence to tie any Italian politician. In India, a leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party, L. K. Advani. Vasili Nikitich Mitrokhin originally started his career with the First Chief Directorate of the KGB in Undercover operations, after Nikita Khrushchevs Secret Speech, Mitrokhin became critical of the existing KGB system and was transferred from Operations to the Archives. The transfer of the massive archive eventually took over 12 years, Mitrokhin made no attempt to contact any Western intelligence service during the Soviet Era. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union he traveled to Latvia with copies of material from the archive, Central Intelligence Agency officers there did not consider him to be credible, concluding that the copied documents could be faked. In France, some 35 senior politicians were alleged to have worked for the KGB during the Cold War, in West Germany, the KGB was said to have infiltrated the major political parties, the judiciary, and the police. For example, FSLN leader Carlos Fonseca Amador was described as an agent in KGB files. Nikolai Leonov was Sub-Director of the Latin American Department of the KGB between 1968–1972, in 1998 he gave a lecture where he made statements that contradicted these claims. For instance he said that the KGB was not allowed to members from communist or other left wing parties. Daniel Ortega agreed to unofficial meetings with KGB officers and he gave Nikolai Leonov a secret program of the Sandinista movement, which stated the FSLNs intent to lead class struggle in Central America, in alliance with Cuba and the Soviet bloc. However Leonov stated that he became friends with many Latin Americans including some leaders, but he clarifies that he did not let people know that he was a KGB agent and that his relationships with them did not involve Intelligence. On September 2016, a work by two researchers stated that Mahmoud Abbas, the President of the Palestinian National Authority, worked for the Soviet intelligence agency
Mitrokhin Archive
–
The
KGB sword and shield emblem appears on the covers of the six published books by
Vasili Mitrokhin and
Christopher Andrew
21.
KGB
–
The KGB, an initialism for Komitet gosudarstvennoy bezopasnosti, was the main security agency for the Soviet Union from 1954 until its break-up in 1991. Formed in 1954, as a successor of such preceding agencies as the Cheka, NKGB, and MGB. It was the government agency of union-republican jurisdiction, acting as internal security, intelligence. Similar agencies were constituted in each of the republics of the Soviet Union aside from Russia and consisted of ministries, state committees. The KGB was a service and was governed by army laws and regulations. While most of the KGB archives remain classified, two documentary sources are available. After the dissolution of the USSR, the KGB was split into the Federal Security Service, after breaking away from the Republic of Georgia in the early 1990s with Russian help, the self-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia established its own KGB. A1983 Time magazine article reported that the KGB was the worlds most effective information-gathering organization, at best, the compromised spy was either returned to the Soviet Union or was declared persona non grata and expelled by the government of the target country. The illegal resident spied, unprotected by diplomatic immunity, and worked independently of Soviet diplomatic, in its early history, the KGB valued illegal spies more than legal spies, because illegal spies infiltrated their targets with greater ease. The KGB classified its spies as agents and controllers, the false-identity or legend assumed by a USSR-born illegal spy was elaborate, using the life of either a live double or a dead double. In the 1980s, the glasnost liberalisation of Soviet society provoked KGB Chairman Vladimir Kryuchkov to lead the August 1991 Soviet coup détat attempt to depose President Mikhail Gorbachev, the thwarted coup détat ended the KGB on 6 November 1991. The KGBs successors are the police agency FSB and the espionage agency SVR. The GRU recruited the ideological agent Julian Wadleigh, who became a State Department diplomat in 1936, the NKVDs first US operation was establishing the legal residency of Boris Bazarov and the illegal residency of Iskhak Akhmerov in 1934. Throughout, the Communist Party USA and its General Secretary Earl Browder, helped NKVD recruit Americans, working in government, business, moreover, when Whittaker Chambers, formerly Alger Hisss courier, approached the Roosevelt Government—to identify the Soviet spies Duggan, White, and others—he was ignored. To wit, British Manhattan Project team physicist Klaus Fuchs was the agent of the Rosenberg spy ring. In 1944, the New York City residency infiltrated the top secret Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, by recruiting Theodore Hall, the KGB failed to rebuild most of its US illegal resident networks. The aftermath of the Second Red Scare and the crisis in the CPUSA hampered recruitment, the last major illegal resident, Rudolf Abel, was betrayed by his assistant, Reino Häyhänen, in 1957. One notable KGB success occurred in 1967, with the recruitment of US Navy Chief Warrant Officer John Anthony Walker
KGB
–
Lubyanka Building in 1991
KGB
–
The 1954
ukase establishing the KGB.
KGB
–
KGB Regulation seen in Museum of Genocide Victims Vilnius
KGB
–
Vladimir Putin worked as a high-ranking KGB officer in
Dresden,
East Germany during the 1980s.
22.
Russian influence operations in France
–
France–Russia relations date back to the early modern period. France–Russia relations date back to modern period, with sporadic contact even earlier. Diplomatic ties go back at least to 1702 when France had an ambassador in Moscow, the geographical separation between the two countries meant that their spheres of influence rarely overlapped. When involved in the war, their troops rarely fought together as allies in or directly against each other as enemies on the same battlefields. However both were crucial states in the European balance of power and they were on opposite sides of the 1733–1738 War of the Polish Succession and were allies during the Seven Years War of 1756 to 1763. After the French Revolution, Russia became a center of reactionary antagonism against the revolution and this led to the establishment of a French-backed Polish state, the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807, which threatened Russia and caused tensions that led to the French invasion of Russia in 1812. This was major defeat for France and a point in the Napoleonic Wars, leading to Bonapartes removal. Russia was part of the conservative Concert of Europe which sought to stifle revolution, Russia was again hostile when the Revolutions of 1848 broke out across Europe, bringing Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte to power in France. Frances challenges to Russias influence led France to participate in the Crimean War, imperial Russias foreign policy was hostile to republican France in the 19th century and very pro-German. Otto von Bismarck drew the conclusion and worked hard to keep France diplomatically isolated. In 1890, the German government refused the Russian request to renew the three-year old Reinsurance treaty of 1887 for another three years. Rejected by Germany, Russia cautiously began a policy of rapprochement with France starting in 1891 while the French for their part were very interested in the Russian offers of an alliance. In August 1891, France and Russia signed a pact where both nations agreed to consult each other if another power were to threaten the peace of Europe. In 1893-94, French and Russian diplomats negotiated a defensive alliance meant to counter the power of Germany. Under the terms of the Franco-Russian alliance of 1894 if Germany attacked France, then Russia would attack Germany and if Germany attacked Russia, France would attack Germany. Furthermore, if Italy supported by Germany attacked France, then Russia would go to war with Germany and if Austria supported by Germany attacked Russia, after France was humiliated by Britain in the Fashoda Incident of 1898, the French wanted the alliance to become an anti-British alliance. Tashkent in its turn would be the base from which the Russians would invade Afghanistan as the prelude to invading India, despite their alliance, both Russia and France pursued their own interests. In 1908-09 during the Bosnia crisis, France declined to support Russia as a quarrel in the Balkans with Austria supported by Germany threatening war against Russia over Bosnia did not concern them
Russian influence operations in France
–
Dmitry Medvedev (right),
President of Russia, with
Nicolas Sarkozy,
President of France, in 2008.
Russian influence operations in France
–
France–Russia relations
Russian influence operations in France
–
Tsar Peter the Great & young Louis XV
23.
Khmer Rouge
–
The Khmer Rouge, French, Red Khmers, Khmer, ខ្មែរក្រហម Khmer Kraham) was the name given to the followers of the Communist Party of Kampuchea in Cambodia. This was followed by the Cambodian genocide from 1975 until 1979, the military power of the Khmer Rouge organization was not broken however, and a long era of guerrilla warfare involving large swaths of the Cambodian countryside began. Many different military factions were involved in the war era. The Khmer Rouge organization is remembered especially for orchestrating the Cambodian genocide, arbitrary executions and torture carried out by its cadres against perceived subversive elements, or during purges of its own ranks between 1975 and 1978, are considered to have constituted genocide. The governments-in-exile held onto Cambodias UN seat until 1993, when the monarchy was restored, a year later, thousands of Khmer Rouge guerrillas surrendered themselves in a government amnesty. In 1996, a new party, the Democratic National Union Movement, was formed by Ieng Sary. The organization was dissolved by the mid-1990s, and finally surrendered completely in 1999. The term Khmers rouges, French for Red Khmers, was coined by Cambodian head of state Norodom Sihanouk and it was used to refer to a succession of communist parties in Cambodia which evolved into the Communist Party of Kampuchea and later the Party of Democratic Kampuchea. The organization was known as the Kampuchea or Khmer Communist Party. The Khmer Rouges ideology combined elements of Marxism with a version of Khmer nationalism. It combined an idealization of the Angkor Empire, with a fear for the existence of the Cambodian state. The spillover of Vietnamese fighters from the Vietnam War further aggravated anti-Vietnamese feeling, some people with partial Chinese or Vietnamese ancestry were present in the Khmer Rouge leadership, they either were purged or participated in the ethnic cleansing campaigns. The Khmer Rouges social policy focused on working towards a purely agrarian society, Pol Pot strongly influenced the propagation of this policy. Pol Pot wanted to remove social institutions and to transform the society into an agrarian one and this was his way of a complete Communist society without wasting time on the intermediate steps, as the Khmer Rouge said to China in 1975. The Khmer Rouge had a policy of state atheism, all religions were banned, and the repression of adherents of Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism was extensive. Nearly 25,000 Buddhist monks were massacred by the regime, in 1930, Ho Chi Minh founded the Communist Party of Vietnam by unifying three smaller communist movements that had emerged in northern, central, and southern Vietnam during the late 1920s. The name was changed almost immediately to the Indochinese Communist Party, ostensibly to include revolutionaries from Cambodia, almost without exception, all the earliest party members were Vietnamese. By the end of World War II, a handful of Cambodians had joined its ranks, on April 17,1950, the first nationwide congress of the Khmer Issarak groups convened, and the United Issarak Front was established
Khmer Rouge
–
Pol Pot, leader of the Khmer Rouge and Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea, in 1978.
Khmer Rouge
–
The flag of Democratic Kampuchea. The design was used by Khmer guerrillas since the 1950s with the building design varying.
Khmer Rouge
–
Khmer Rouge bullet holes left at Angkor Wat temple
Khmer Rouge
–
Rooms of the
Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum contain thousands of photos taken by the Khmer Rouge of their victims.
24.
Edwy Plenel
–
Hervé Edwy Plenel is a French political journalist. Plenel spent his childhood in Martinique and his youth in Algeria and he studied at the Institut dÉtudes Politiques de Paris. His career began in 1976 as a journalist for Rouge, the newspaper of the Trotskyist Revolutionary Communist League. In 2001, he was awarded the Prix Médicis essai for his essay Secrets de jeunesse and he resigned from the editorial staff of Le Monde in November 2004, and left the newspaper on 31 October 2005. He is currently the publisher of Mediapart, an Internet-based subscription journal which he founded in 2008, lEffet Le Pen, Paris, La Découverte-Le Monde,1984. LÉtat et lécole en France, Paris, Payot,1985, Stock,1997, Le tournant calédonien, Paris, La Découverte-Le Monde,1988. Voyage avec Colomb, Paris, Le Monde-Éditions,1991, La Part dombre, Paris, Stock,1992, Gallimard, « Folio Actuel »,1994. Un temps de chien, Paris, Stock,1994, Gallimard, les Mots volés, Paris, Stock,1997, Gallimard, « Folio Actuel »,1999. Secrets de jeunesse, Paris, Stock,2001, Gallimard, La Découverte du monde, Paris, Stock,2002, Gallimard, « Folio Actuel »,2004. Procès, Paris, Stock,2006, Gallimard, « Folio »,2007, Le Journaliste et le Président, Paris, Stock,2006. Le manifeste de Mediapart, Paris, Galaade,2009, vertus de lantisarkozysme, vices du présidentialisme, Paris, Don Quichotte,2011. Le 89 arabe, Paris, Stock,2011, notre France, Paris, Sindbad/Actes Sud,2011. Le Droit de savoir, Paris, Don Quichotte,2013, Seuil, dire non, Paris, Don Quichotte,2014, Seuil, « Points »,2015. Pour les musulmans, Paris, La Découverte,2014, La Découverte/Poche,2016, souvenirs de laffaire Greenpeace, Paris, Don Quichotte,2015, Seuil, « Points »,2016. Contre les peurs et les haines, nos causes communes, Paris, voyage en terres despoir, Paris, Editions de lAtelier,2016. Le blog de Edwy Plenel Edwy Plenel at the Internet Movie Database
Edwy Plenel
–
Edwy Plenel
25.
Bias
–
Bias is an inclination or outlook to present or hold a partial perspective, often accompanied by a refusal to consider the possible merits of alternative points of view. Biases can be learned implicitly within cultural contexts, biased means one-sided, lacking a neutral viewpoint, or not having an open mind. Bias can come in forms and is related to prejudice. In science and engineering, a bias is a systematic error, statistical bias results from an unfair sampling of a population, or from an estimation process that does not give accurate results on average. A cognitive bias is a repeating or basic misstep in thinking, assessing, recollecting and that is, a pattern of deviation from standards in judgment, whereby inferences may be created unreasonably. People create their own subjective social reality from their own perceptions, thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly called irrationality. However some cognitive biases are taken to be adaptive, and thus may lead to success in the appropriate situation, furthermore, cognitive biases may allow speedier choices when speed is more valuable than precision. Other cognitive biases are a by-product of human processing limitations, coming about because of an absence of appropriate mental mechanisms, anchoring is a psychological heuristic that describes the propensity to rely on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions. According to this heuristic, individuals begin with an implicitly suggested reference point, apophenia, also known as patternicity, or agenticity, is the human tendency to perceive meaningful patterns within random data. Apophenia is well documented as a rationalization for gambling, gamblers may imagine that they see patterns in the numbers which appear in lotteries, card games, or roulette wheels. One manifestation of this is known as the gamblers fallacy, pareidolia is the visual or auditory form of apophenia. It has been suggested that combined with hierophany may have helped ancient societies organize chaos. An attribution bias can happen when individuals assess or attempt to discover explanations behind their own, people make attributions about the causes of their own and others’ behaviors, but these attributions dont necessarily precisely reflect reality. Rather than operating as objective perceivers, individuals are inclined to perceptual slips that prompt biased understandings of their social world, there are a wide range of sorts of attribution biases, such as the ultimate attribution error, fundamental attribution error, actor-observer bias, and self-serving bias. The effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs, people also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position. Biased search, interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization, belief perseverance, confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts, framing involves the social construction of social phenomena by mass media sources, political or social movements, political leaders, and so on. It is an influence over how people organize, perceive, and it can be positive or negative - depending on the audience and what kind of information is being presented
Bias
–
Confirmation bias has been described as an internal " yes man ", echoing back a person's beliefs like
Charles Dickens ' character
Uriah Heep.
Bias
–
Box offered by the
tobacco lobbyists to
Kartika Liotard in September 2013
26.
Jacques Chirac
–
Jacques René Chirac is a French politician, who served as the President of France and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra from 1995 to 2007. Chirac served as Prime Minister of France from 1974 to 1976, from 1986 to 1988, Chirac occupied various senior positions, including Minister of Agriculture, Minister of the Interior, Prime Minister, Mayor of Paris, and President of the French Republic. Chiracs internal policies initially included lower tax rates, the removal of controls, strong punishment for crime and terrorism. After pursuing these policies as Prime Minister, Chirac changed his method, Jacques Chirac has emerged as an improbable icon of retro taste and a figure of public affection. On 15 December 2011, the Paris court declared him guilty of diverting public funds and abusing public confidence, and gave Chirac a two-year suspended prison sentence. Chirac, born in the Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire clinic, is the son of Abel François Marie Chirac, an executive for an aircraft company, and Marie-Louise Valette. His great grandparents on both sides were peasants, but his two grandfathers were teachers from Sainte-Féréole in Corrèze, according to Chirac, his name originates from the langue doc, that of the troubadours, therefore that of poetry. He was educated in Paris at the Cours Hattemer, a private school and he then attended the Lycée Carnot and at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand. After his baccalauréat, he served for three months as a sailor on a coal-transporter, Chirac played rugby union for Brives youth team, and also played at university level. He played no.8 and second row, in 1956, he married Bernadette Chodron de Courcel, with whom he had two daughters, Laurence and Claude. Chirac is the grandfather of Martin Rey-Chirac by the relationship of Claude with French judoka Thierry Rey, Jacques and Bernadette Chirac also have a foster daughter, Anh Dao Traxel. Inspired by General Charles de Gaulle, Chirac started to pursue a civil career in the 1950s. During this period, he joined the French Communist Party, sold copies of LHumanité, in 1950, he signed the Soviet-inspired Stockholm Appeal for the abolition of nuclear weapons – which led him to be questioned when he applied for his first visa to the United States. Chirac trained as a military officer in armoured cavalry at Saumur. He then volunteered to fight in the Algerian War, using connections to be sent despite the reservations of his superiors. His superiors did not want to make him an officer because they suspected he had communist leanings, after leaving the ENA in 1959, he became a civil servant in the Court of Auditors. In April 1962, Chirac was appointed head of the staff of Prime Minister Georges Pompidou. This appointment launched Chiracs political career, Pompidou considered Chirac his protégé, and referred to him as my bulldozer for his skill at getting things done
Jacques Chirac
–
Chirac at the
Élysée Palace in June 1999
Jacques Chirac
–
Chirac during his second term as Prime Minister
Jacques Chirac
–
Chirac with
Bill Clinton outside the
Élysée Palace in Paris, June 1999
Jacques Chirac
–
Chirac with German Federal Chancellor
Gerhard Schröder.
27.
Irish of Vincennes
–
The Irish of Vincennes affair was a major political scandal which occurred in France during the presidency of François Mitterrand. Following a 1982 terrorist attack in Paris, a secret police anti-terrorist cell established by Mitterrand arrested three Irish nationals in Vincennes, on 9 August 1982, the Jo Goldenberg restaurant on the Rue des Rosiers in the Jewish quarter of Paris, was attacked by two terrorists. Two men approached the restaurant, threw a grenade into the main room, the three Irish were tried in Créteil and later in Paris. The prosecution attempted to link them with Action Directe, Reid, Plunkett and King were each sentenced to five years imprisonment. The inquiry revealed that documents certifying that the search had been carried out following proper procedure had been fabricated. The falsification of the documents was a violation of Section 57 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, and on 5 October 1983. On 24 June 1991, Christian Prouteau, José Windels and Jean-Michel Beau were put on trial for fabrication of a criminal case. On 24 September, Prouteau and Beau were convicted of perverting the course of justice, and conspiracy to do so, in an appeal judgement on 15 January 1992, Beaus sentence was reduced to twelve months, suspended, and Prouteau was acquitted. On 31 October 1985, the French newspaper Le Monde published an article by Edwy Plenel alleging that Captain Paul Barril had supplied the incriminating evidence in the Vincennes case, the article was based on the testimony of Jean-François Jegat during questioning by the French intelligence service on other matters. Jegat alleged that he had supplied the material and handguns found in the Vincennes flat to Barril. The article referred to Beau and Jegats evidence, a memorandum from the Presidential office regarding Jegat. On 26 April 1991, Barril brought libel proceedings against Le Monde, its editor-in-chief, in May, Le Monde applied to prove its allegation to the court by providing documents and naming witnesses. In November, the paper part of its application, notably the request to call Prouteau as a witness. In addition, the court ordered a stay of proceedings pending the decision in the cases against Beau. In March 2003, the Criminal Division of the Court of Cassation annulled the proceedings against Barril on procedural grounds. Mary Reid became an academic, and had an interest in researching a medieval pilgrimage site near Lough Derg and she was found drowned on a beach on the Isle of Doagh near Ballyliffin on 29 January 2003, after leaving her home in Derry to walk her two dogs
Irish of Vincennes
–
Jo Goldenberg restaurant in 2005. The restaurant was attacked by terrorists in August 1982.
28.
Rainbow Warrior (1978)
–
Rainbow Warrior was a former UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food trawler called the Sir William Hardy. The ship was active in supporting a number of Greenpeace anti-whaling, -seal hunting, -nuclear testing and -nuclear waste dumping campaigns during the late 1970s and early 1980s. She was sunk whilst in Auckland harbour in New Zealand by operatives of the French intelligence service on 10 July 1985, Sir William Hardy was built in 1955, in Aberdeen, Scotland and entered service with the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. She served until 1977 when she was put up for sale by the Ministry and she was acquired by Greenpeace UK at a cost of £37,000 and underwent a four-month refit. She was re-launched on 2 May 1978 as Rainbow Warrior, in early 1985, Rainbow Warrior was in the Pacific Ocean campaigning against nuclear testing. In May, she relocated some 300 Marshall Islanders from Rongelap Atoll and she then travelled to New Zealand to lead a flotilla of yachts protesting against French nuclear testing at the Moruroa Atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago of French Polynesia. During previous nuclear tests at Moruroa, protest ships had been boarded by French commandos after sailing into the exclusion zone around the atoll. For the 1985 tests, Greenpeace intended to monitor the impact of nuclear tests, the French Government infiltrated the Auckland offices of the organisation and discovered these plans. A murder enquiry began and two French agents were tracked and arrested, the revelations of French involvement caused a political scandal and the French Minister of Defence Charles Hernu resigned. The captured French agents were imprisoned, but later transferred to French custody and they were confined to the French military base on the Island of Hao for a brief period before being released. After facing international pressure, France agreed to pay compensation to Greenpeace, in addition to those successfully prosecuted, a two-man team had carried out the actual bombing, but their identities have never been officially confirmed. Following the sinking, Greenpeace and the French Republic entered into an agreement to submit Greenpeaces claims against France to international arbitration. The arbitral tribunal, seated in Geneva, Switzerland, was composed of three members and rendered an award in 1987 in favor of Greenpeace, ordering France to pay it some $8.1 million. David McTaggart, Greenpeaces chairman, described the award as a victory for those who support the right of peaceful protest. Greenpeace was represented by Lloyd Cutler and Gary Born of Wilmer Cutler & Pickering, the wreck of Rainbow Warrior was refloated on 21 August 1985 and moved to a naval harbour for forensic examination. The hull is now covered with a colony of vari-coloured sea anemones. The masts were salvaged and now stand outside the Dargaville Museum, a second ship, also named Rainbow Warrior, was acquired in 1989 whilst a third ship of the same name was built from scratch and launched in October 2011. Several books have been written about both the history of Greenpeace and the genesis of Rainbow Warrior, a Bonfire in my Mouth, Life, Passion and the Rainbow Warrior by Susi Newborn was published in 2003 and Rex Wylers Greenpeace, An Insiders Account
Rainbow Warrior (1978)
–
Rainbow Warrior (Amsterdam, 1981)
Rainbow Warrior (1978)
–
A
vector drawing of the Rainbow Warrior
Rainbow Warrior (1978)
–
Memorial to the Rainbow Warrior at
Matauri Bay, Northland
Rainbow Warrior (1978)
–
Reef dives
29.
Controversial
–
Controversy is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate, usually concerning a matter of conflicting opinion or point of view. The word was coined from the Latin controversia, as a composite of controversus – turned in a direction, from contra – against – and vertere – to turn, or versus, hence. The most applicable or well known controversial subjects, topics or areas are politics, religion, philosophy, parenting and sex. Other prominent areas of controversy are economics, science, finances, culture, education, the military, society, celebrities, organisation, the media, age, gender, Controversy in matters of theology has traditionally been particularly heated, giving rise to the phrase odium theologicum. In the theory of law, a controversy differs from a case, while legal cases include all suits, criminal as well as civil. For example, the Case or Controversy Clause of Article Three of the United States Constitution states that the judicial Power shall extend, to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party. Controversies are frequently thought to be a result of a lack of confidence on the part of the disputants – as implied by Benfords law of controversy, which only talks about lack of information. A study of 1540 US adults found instead that levels of scientific literacy correlated with the strength of opinion on climate change, in other controversies – such as that around the HPV vaccine, the same evidence seemed to license inference to radically different conclusions. Kahan et al. explained this by the biases of biased assimilation. Similar effects on reasoning are seen in non-scientific controversies, for example in the gun control debate in the United States. As with other controversies, it has suggested that exposure to empirical facts would be sufficient to resolve the debate once. In computer simulations of cultural communities, beliefs were found to polarize within isolated sub-groups, Bayesian decision theory allows these failures of rationality to be described as part of a statistically optimized system for decision making. As such, it appears neurobiologically plausible that the brain implements decision-making procedures that are close to optimal for Bayesian inference, in addition, the preferences of the agent also cause the beliefs formed to change – this explains the biased assimilation shown above. Argument Bipartisanship Dialectic ProCon. org Scandal Brian Martin, The Controversy Manual
Controversial
–
Auseinandersetzung ("controversy"), by Karl-Henning Seemann.
Controversial
–
Controversy has been feared, analyzed, dramatized - and often parodied, as here in
Wild Side Story in Florida in 1974
30.
Boulevard Auguste-Blanqui
–
The Boulevard Auguste-Blanqui is a boulevard in the 13th arrondissement of Paris. It is one of the main arteries linking the Place dItalie with the Place Denfert-Rochereau and it traverses the ancient valley of the Bièvre. The boulevard is named after the French thinker and socialist revolutionary Louis Auguste Blanqui, the boulevard occupies the site of the ancient Wall of the Farmers-General. Originally, the roadways ran alongside the wall, which was knocked down in the 1860s, the central reservation of the boulevard lies directly underneath the entire width of the overhead line 6. At its junction with Rue de la Glacière, there is a court. Close to the Place dItalie, is a dedicated to the Children of the 13th arrondissement who died for France. 18, Boulevard Auguste-Blanqui – École Estienne, the Graduate School of Arts and Printing Industry
Boulevard Auguste-Blanqui
–
Boulevard Auguste-Blanqui
Boulevard Auguste-Blanqui
–
The "boulodrome" and musical kiosk
Boulevard Auguste-Blanqui
–
the central reservation below the métro's overhead section
Boulevard Auguste-Blanqui
–
n°25
31.
13th arrondissement of Paris
–
The 13th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. The neighborhood features a concentration of ethnic Chinese and Vietnamese businesses. The 13th arrondissement also hosts the Bibliothèque François Mitterrand and the newly built district of Paris Rive Gauche. The 13th arrondissement is still growing in population, mainly because of an influx of Asian immigrants, during the late 1970s and early 1980s, the first wave of Vietnamese refugees from the Vietnam War settled in the arrondissement, largely concentrated near Masséna Boulevard. Later waves of refugees and Asian immigrants transitioned from being exclusively ethnic Vietnamese to include ethnic Chinese from Vietnam and these migrants largely settled in the southern area of the arrondissement, creating an Asian quarter and establishing a commercial district and community institutions. Teochew, Cantonese, Vietnamese, Lao and Khmer are spoken by residents in the community. At the last census in 1999, the population was 171,533, the 13th arrondissement is also rapidly growing in business activity, thanks to the new business district of Paris Rive Gauche. In 1999, the arrondissement contained 89,316 jobs, the head office of Accor, including the companys executive management, is in the Immeuble Odyssey in the 13th arrondissement. This facility is the registered office. Ubisoft has its business office in the arrondissement, the teaching and learning center is settled at the number 151. Pariss main Asian district, the Quartier Asiatique, also called la Triangle de Choisy or la petite Asie, is located in the southeast of the arrondissement. The following can be found in area, Les Olympiades, Super-Italie and various other towers among the tallest in Paris Tang Frères and Paristore Asian supermarkets. Chinese community in Paris Vietnamese community in Paris 13th arrondissement travel guide from Wikivoyage
13th arrondissement of Paris
–
Main campus in
Paris (1912).
13th arrondissement of Paris
–
Paris and its closest suburbs
13th arrondissement of Paris
–
City hall in the 13th arrondissement
13th arrondissement of Paris
–
Public housing built in the first half of the 20th century
32.
Air France
–
Air France, stylized as AIRFRANCE, is the French flag carrier headquartered in Tremblay-en-France. It is a subsidiary of the Air France–KLM Group and a member of the SkyTeam global airline alliance. The airlines global hub is at Charles de Gaulle Airport with Orly Airport, Air Frances corporate headquarters, previously in Montparnasse, Paris, are located on the grounds of Charles de Gaulle Airport, north of Paris. During the Cold War, from 1950 until 1990, it was one of the three main Allied scheduled airlines operating in Germany at West Berlins Tempelhof and Tegel airports. In 1990, it acquired the operations of French domestic carrier Air Inter and it served as Frances primary national flag carrier for seven decades prior to its 2003 merger with KLM. Between April 2001 and March 2002, the airline carried 43.3 million passengers and had a revenue of €12. 53bn. In November 2004, Air France ranked as the largest European airline with 25. 5% total market share, Air France operates a mixed fleet of Airbus and Boeing widebody jets on long-haul routes, and uses Airbus A320 family aircraft on short-haul routes. Air France introduced the A380 on 20 November 2009 with service to New York Citys JFK Airport from Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, the carriers regional airline subsidiary, HOP. operates the majority of its regional domestic and European scheduled services with a fleet of regional jet aircraft. Of these airlines, SGTA was the first commercial company in France. The constituent members of Air France had already built extensive networks across Europe, to French colonies in North Africa, during World War II, Air France moved its operations to Casablanca. In 1936, Air France added French-built twin engine Potez 62 aircraft to its featuring a two compartment cabin that could accommodate 14 to 16 passengers. A high wing monoplane, it had a fuselage with composite coating while the wings were fabric covered with a metal leading edge. Equipped with Hispano-Suiza V-engines, they were used on routes in Europe, South America, on 26 June 1945 all of Frances air transport companies were nationalised. On 29 December 1945, a decree of the French Government granted Air France the management of the entire French air transport network, Air France appointed its first flight attendants in 1946. The same year the airline opened its first air terminal at Les Invalides in central Paris and it was linked to Paris Le Bourget Airport, Air Frances first operations and engineering base, by coach. At that time the network covered 160,000 km, claimed to be the longest in the world, Société Nationale Air France was set up on 1 January 1946. European schedules were initially operated by a fleet of Douglas DC-3 aircraft, on 1 July 1946, Air France started direct flights between Paris and New York via refuelling stops at Shannon and Gander. Douglas DC-4 piston-engine airliners covered the route in just under 20 hours, in September 1947 Air Frances network stretched east from New York, Fort de France and Buenos Aires to Shanghai
Air France
–
The inauguration of the Aérogare des Invalides on 21 August 1951
Air France
–
Air France
Douglas DC-3 at
Manchester Airport in 1952
Air France
–
Lockheed Super Constellation of Air France at London (Heathrow) Airport in April 1955
Air France
–
Passengers disembarking from a Sud-Est SE-161
33.
Bouygues
–
Bouygues S. A. is an industrial group headquartered in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, France. Bouygues is listed on Euronext Paris exchange and is a chip in the CAC40 stock market index. The company was founded in 1952 by Francis Bouygues and since 1989 has been led by his son Martin Bouygues, in 2015 it had over approximately 120,000 employees in 100 countries, generating €32.428 billion in revenue. The group specialises in construction, real development, media. The company was founded by Francis Bouygues in 1952, in 1970 Bouygues became listed on the Paris Stock Exchange. In 1985 and 1986 Bouygues acquired road construction groups Screg, Sacer and Colas, in 1987 the company started operating the television channel TF1 and in 1988 Bouygues moved into its new head office, the Challenger complex, in Saint-Quentin en Yvelines. In 1996 the company launched Bouygues Télécom and in 2006 the company acquired 23. 26% of Alstom, TF1 also owns 100% of Publications Metro France, a free-distribution press group. Construction of the Iqaluit Airport terminal with a completion date of 2017. The Kipchak Mosque completed in 2004, the Singapore Sports Hub completed in 2014 The Bouygues head office is located at 32 Avenue Hoche in the 8th arrondissement of Paris. The American architect Kevin Roche worked on building, as well as the previous head office location. This complex, situated in a 30 hectares tract in Guyancourt, is now occupied by Bouygues Construction, Bouygues focuses its patronage on education, social issues and medical research. Each subsidiary supports its own foundation, The Francis Bouygues Foundation sponsors deserving high school students with a scholarship, terre Plurielle, Bouygues Construction’s foundation, grants financial support to projects selected by employees. These projects concern access to health, education, and the insertion of people facing major difficulties. The Bouygues Immobilier Corporate Foundation created in 2009 aims at raising awareness about the need of sustainable construction, the Colas Foundation supports contemporary arts through the acquisition of paintings. The TF1 Foundation helps young talents from underprivileged neighbourhoods to succeed in the broadcasting sector, the Bouygues Telecom Foundation is committed to environmental protection, helping people in social or medical difficulty, and promoting the French language. Official website Bouygues Telecom Bouygues Construction Bouygues Immobilier Colas Offizieller TF1 Dominique Barjot, Bouygues, 1952-1989, From the building industry to the service sector, www. econ. upf
Bouygues
–
Bouygues head office, avenue Hoche
Bouygues
–
Bouygues S.A.
34.
Christian de Portzamparc
–
Christian de Portzamparc is a French architect and urbanist. He won the Pritzker Prize in 1994, De Portzamparc was born in Casablanca, Morocco in 1944, when that country was a French protectorate, to a family of Breton noble descent. I also began to criticize my first influences like Le Corbusier, nevertheless, he returned to his studies in the 1967 academic year and would graduate from the Beaux-Arts in 1969. He created his agency in 1980, supported by Marie-Élisabeth Nicoleau, Étienne Pierrès and Bertrand Beau, and later welcomed Bruno Durbecq, Céline Barda, Léa Xu, André Terzibachian and Clovis Cunha. Based in Paris, the agency has ‘satellite’ offices near building sites, in addition to offices in New York and Rio de Janeiro, both an architect and urban planner, Christian de Portzamparc is implicated in the research of form and meaning, as well as being a constructer. His work focuses on research over speculation and concerns the quality of life, aesthetics are conditioned by ethics, the growth of Christian de Portzamparc’s urban projects through competitions and studies led to an evolution of methods, a practical result of theoretical research and analysis. Christian de Portzamparc’s iconic buildings, urban poles of attraction, create environments wherein the interior and exterior spaces interpenetrate, in 1994, Christian de Portzamparc became the first French architect to gain the prestigious “Pritzker Architectural Prize”, at the age of 50. In 1999, he created the twenty-three story LVMH Tower on East 57th Street in New York City and, later, in 2006, the Collège de France created a 53rd chair dedicated ‘artistic creation’, and called on Christian de Portzamparc to be its first occupant. La tour LVMH, entretien avec C. de Portzamparc «Portzamparc ou l’esprit des lieux». «Christian de Portzamparc The LVMH Tower», J. Giovannini, F. Rambert, De la danse - école du ballet de L’Opéra de Paris, C. de Portzamparc La cité de la musique, M. Bleuse, P. Boulez, S. Goldberg, J-C
Christian de Portzamparc
–
2003-2008 Hotel Renaissance Wagram in
Paris
Christian de Portzamparc
–
2001-2009 Hergé museum, Louvain-la-Neuve in
Belgium
Christian de Portzamparc
–
1984-1995 The City of Music in
Paris Photo Nicolas Borel
Christian de Portzamparc
–
Philharmonie Luxembourg (1997-2005)
35.
Fresco
–
Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly-laid, or wet lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the fresco technique has been employed since antiquity and is closely associated with Italian Renaissance painting. Buon fresco pigment mixed with water of temperature on a thin layer of wet, fresh plaster, for which the Italian word for plaster. Because of the makeup of the plaster, a binder is not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink into the intonaco. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster, after a number of hours, many artists sketched their compositions on this underlayer, which would never be seen, in a red pigment called sinopia, a name also used to refer to these under-paintings. Later, new techniques for transferring paper drawings to the wall were developed. The main lines of a drawing made on paper were pricked over with a point, the paper held against the wall, if the painting was to be done over an existing fresco, the surface would be roughened to provide better adhesion. This area is called the giornata, and the different day stages can usually be seen in a large fresco, buon frescoes are difficult to create because of the deadline associated with the drying plaster. Once a giornata is dried, no more buon fresco can be done, if mistakes have been made, it may also be necessary to remove the whole intonaco for that area—or to change them later, a secco. An indispensable component of this process is the carbonatation of the lime, the eyes of the people of the School of Athens are sunken-in using this technique which causes the eyes to seem deeper and more pensive. Michelangelo used this technique as part of his trademark outlining of his central figures within his frescoes, in a wall-sized fresco, there may be ten to twenty or even more giornate, or separate areas of plaster. After five centuries, the giornate, which were nearly invisible, have sometimes become visible, and in many large-scale frescoes. Additionally, the border between giornate was often covered by an a secco painting, which has fallen off. One of the first painters in the period to use this technique was the Isaac Master in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi. A person who creates fresco is called a frescoist, a secco or fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster. The pigments thus require a medium, such as egg. Blue was a problem, and skies and blue robes were often added a secco, because neither azurite blue nor lapis lazuli. By the end of the century this had largely displaced buon fresco
Fresco
–
Fresco in the church Mariä Verkündigung in Fuchstal,
Bavaria, Germany from Thomas Springer
Fresco
–
Fresco
Sistine Chapel in the
Vatican, Rome, Italy.
Fresco
–
Etruscan fresco of Velia Velcha from the
Tomb of Orcus,
Tarquinia.
Fresco
–
Fresco of "
Sappho " from
Pompeii, c. 50 CE.
36.
Plantu
–
Jean Plantureux, who goes by the professional name Plantu, is a French cartoonist specializing in political satire. His work has appeared in the French newspaper Le Monde since 1972. Jean Plantureux received his Baccalaureate from Lycée Henri-IV in 1969, though he initially intended to pursue the study of medicine, he soon gave this up and moved to Brussels, where he enrolled in drawing courses at the École Saint-Luc. Plantu returned to Paris and attempted to sell his cartoons to the French daily newspapers and he was hired by Bernard Lauzanne of Le Monde and his first cartoon, about the Vietnam War, was published on October 1,1972. In 1974, Claude Julien, then-director of Le Monde Diplomatique, in 1980 Plantu began to work with Le Journal Phosphore, a relationship which would continue until 1986. In 1982, André Laurens and Claude Lamotte, respectively the director and editor in chief of Le Monde, in September 1987, Plantu appeared on the television show Droit de Réponse, with Michel Polac, on TF1. In 1985, the head of Le Monde, André Fontaine, started to publish Plantus cartoons daily, in 1988 Plantu received the Mumm prize for his cartoon Gordji chez le juge, followed by a prix de lhumour noir in 1989. In 1991, Plantu began to publish a comic in the weekly magazine LExpress, in 1991 Plantu met Yasser Arafat during a showing of his cartoons in Tunis. Arafat liked Plantus cartoons so much that he drew a Star of David on a Plantu cartoon, colored it in, the following year, Plantu traveled to Israel and met Shimon Peres, whom he convinced to sign the cartoon as well. This was the first time that signatures from both the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Israeli government had been affixed to the same document, Le Monde changed its methodology in 1995, causing Plantu to lose control over the subject matter of his cartoons. In 1996, Plantu had a showing of his cartoons and sculptures at the Cour de cassation in Paris, later that year he received the Spanish Gat Perich. Some of his drawings and sculptures were auctioned at the Drouot Hotel in Paris, in 1997 Plantu opened a gallery in Khartoum, Sudan. In Budapest, the president of the Hungary, Árpád Göncz, inaugurated an exhibit of Plantu and he also opened a new gallery opens at the French Arts centre of Mexico City. Finally, a collection of his work was exhibited at CRAC in Valence, France, in 1998 a stamp worth three French francs was produced by the French postal service, with the proceeds dedicated to Médecins Sans Frontières. A total of 8.5 million stamps were produced, to celebrate the 50th anniverseray of the universal Declaration of Human Rights, UNESCO published several foreign collections illustrated by Plantu. His drawings were translated into Chinese, Japanese, Ukrainian, and that same year he opened a gallery at the French Institute of Port-au-Prince, Haiti. In 1999, Plantu opened a gallery at the University of Colombo, some of his drawings were exhibited in Iran at the Museum of Contemporary Art of Teheran, in the Hotel of Rohan, at the Museum Jean-Jaurès de Castres, and at the French Arts centre of Singapore. In September 2000 a controversy involving the distribution of a Plantu drawing showing Jacques Chirac copulating with a sleeping Marianne
Plantu
–
Plantu in 2015
37.
Victor Hugo
–
Victor Marie Hugo was a French poet, novelist, and dramatist of the Romantic movement. He is considered one of the greatest and best-known French writers, outside France, his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables,1862, and The Hunchback of Notre-Dame,1831. In France, Hugo is known primarily for his collections, such as Les Contemplations. He produced more than 4,000 drawings and also campaigned for causes such as the abolition of capital punishment. He is buried in the Panthéon in Paris and his legacy has been honoured in many ways, including his portrait being placed on French currency. Victor Hugo was the son of Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo and Sophie Trébuchet, his brothers were Abel Joseph Hugo. He was born in 1802 in Besançon in the region of Franche-Comté. On 19 November 1821, Léopold Hugo wrote to his son that he had conceived on one of the highest peaks in the Vosges Mountains. This elevated origin, he went on, seems to have had effects on you so that your muse is now continually sublime, Hugos childhood was a period of national political turmoil. Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor of the French two years after Hugos birth, and the Bourbon Monarchy was restored before his 13th birthday, since Hugos father was an officer, the family moved frequently and Hugo learned much from these travels. On a childhood trip to Naples, Hugo saw the vast Alpine passes and the snowy peaks, the magnificently blue Mediterranean. Though he was five years old at the time, he remembered the six-month-long trip vividly. They stayed in Naples for a few months and then headed back to Paris, at the beginning of her marriage, Hugos mother Sophie followed her husband to posts in Italy and Spain. Thereafter she dominated Hugos education and upbringing, as a result, Hugos early work in poetry and fiction reflect her passionate devotion to both King and Faith. It was only later, during the leading up to Frances 1848 Revolution. Young Victor fell in love and, against his mothers wishes, because of his close relationship with his mother, Hugo waited until after her death to marry Adèle in 1822. Adèle and Victor Hugo had their first child, Léopold, in 1823, on 28 August 1824, the couples second child, Léopoldine was born, followed by Charles on 4 November 1826, François-Victor on 28 October 1828, and Adèle on 24 August 1830. Hugos eldest and favourite daughter, Léopoldine, died aged 19 in 1843, on 4 September, she drowned in the Seine at Villequier, pulled down by her heavy skirts when a boat overturned
Victor Hugo
–
Woodburytype of Victor Hugo by
Étienne Carjat, 1876.
Victor Hugo
–
Illustration by
Luc-Olivier Merson for
Notre-Dame de Paris (1881), showing the recently restored
galerie des chimères.
Victor Hugo
–
Victor Hugo in 1853
Victor Hugo
–
Portrait of "
Cosette " by
Émile Bayard, from the original edition of
Les Misérables (1862)
38.
Freedom of the press
–
Freedom of the press or freedom of the media through various mediums, such as electronic media and published materials. Wherever such freedom exists mostly implies the absence of interference from an overreaching state, with respect to governmental information, any government may distinguish which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public. Many governments are subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest. This philosophy is usually accompanied by legislation ensuring various degrees of freedom of research, publishing. The depth to which laws are entrenched in a countrys legal system can go as far down as its constitution. The concept of freedom of speech is often covered by the laws as freedom of the press, thereby giving equal treatment to spoken. This idea was famously summarized by the 20th century American journalist, A. J. Liebling, Freedom of the press gives the printer or publisher exclusive control over what the publisher chooses to publish, including the right to refuse to print anything for any reason. If the author cannot reach a agreement with a publisher to produce the authors work. CPJ shares information on breaking cases with other press freedom organizations worldwide through the International Freedom of Expression Exchange, CPJ also tracks journalist deaths and detentions. CPJ staff applies strict criteria for each case, researchers independently investigate, so the concept of independence of the press is one closely linked with the concept of press freedom. Every year, Reporters Without Borders establishes a ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of the press, the survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as non-governmental groups. RWB is careful to note that the only deals with press freedom. In 2016, the countries where press was the most free were Finland, Netherlands, Norway, Denmark and New Zealand, followed by Costa Rica, Switzerland, Sweden, Ireland and Jamaica. The country with the least degree of freedom was Eritrea, followed by North Korea, Turkmenistan, Syria, China, Vietnam. The problem with media in India, the worlds largest democracy, is enormous, India doesnt have a model for a democratic press. The report written by Ravi S Jha says Indian journalism, with its lack of freedom and self-regulation, cannot be trusted now—it is currently known for manipulation, levels of freedom are scored on a scale from 1 to 100. Depending on the basics, the nations are then classified as Free, Partly Free, in 2009 Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Sweden topped the list with North Korea, Turkmenistan, Myanmar, Libya, Eritrea at the bottom. According to Reporters Without Borders, more than a third of the people live in countries where there is no press freedom
Freedom of the press
–
Journalism
Freedom of the press
–
Georgiy Gongadze,
Ukrainian journalist, founder of a popular Internet newspaper
Ukrayinska Pravda, who was kidnapped and murdered in 2000.
39.
List of French newspapers
–
Below is a list of newspapers in France. Paris Newspapers and the American Civil War, Press and politics in pre-revolutionary France Chalaby, Jean K. Twenty years of contrast, The French and British press during the inter-war period, european Journal of Sociology 37.01, 143-159. The government and the press in France, 1814-1881 Collins, Ross F. and E. M. Palmegiano. The Rise of Western Journalism 1815-1914, Essays on the Press in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, the Failings of Popular News Censorship in Nineteenth-Century France. La Feuille villageoise, the Revolutionary Press, and the Question of Rural Political Participation, columbia Journalism Review 18.1, 58-61 Freiberg, J. W. The French press, class, state, and ideology Goldstein, the newspaper press in the French Revolution (Taylor & Francis,19880 Isser, Natalie. The national daily press of France, 370pp Trinkle, Dennis A, the Napoleonic press, the public sphere and oppositionary journalism Weigle, Clifford. The Paris Press from 1920 to 1940 Journalism Quarterly 18, 376-84, the Rise and Fall of the Havas News Agency Journalism Quarterly 19, 277-86 Williams, Roger Lawrence. Henri Rochefort, prince of the gutter press Zerner, Elisabeth H
List of French newspapers
–
This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (September 2012) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
40.
Jean-Louis de Rambures
–
Jean-Louis Vicomte de Bretizel Rambures was a French journalist, author, translator of literature, literary critic, and cultural attaché. He introduced contemporary German literature to a broader French audience by interviewing German authors and he also contributed to the rapprochement of the French and the Germans as head of the Institut Français, e. g. in Frankfurt. His parents were Lucille Calogera, from Brazil, and her husband, Vicomte Bernard de Bretizel Rambures from Picardy, France. Besides learning both their languages, Portuguese and French, he was also taught German at an early age and acquired a taste for German literature. He went to school in Toulouse and Paris and then enrolled at the Institut dÉtudes Politiques in Paris, where he earned a diploma, a Licence en droit and he learned to speak English fluently, and also studied German literature at the university of Tübingen. In 1958 he started writing for the monthly magazine Realités, portraying famous artists, as e. g. Herbert von Karajan, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Luchino Visconti et al. From 1968 on he contributed to the art magazine Connaissances des Arts, to LExpress and the daily Le Monde and he developed a special interest in the way authors work and analysed the genesis of literature. These talks were printed in Le Monde and a selection was presented in his book Comment travaillent les écrivains, in the early 1970s de Rambures was a cultural attaché for his country in Bonn. In 1975 he began working for the department of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From 1987 to 1995 he headed the Institut Français, first in Saarbrücken, then in Frankfurt and he translated German literature into French, e. g. Paul Nizon, who thus became known in France. Jean-Louis de Rambures was made a Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres and was honoured with the Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, Comment travaillent les écrivains Jean-Louis de Rambures by Nicole Zand, Le Monde Photograph by M. Thelen Short portrait of Jean-Louis de Rambures
Jean-Louis de Rambures
–
Jean-Louis de Rambures
41.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
–
Wayback Machine
42.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
43.
Christopher Andrew (historian)
–
Andrew is also co-editor of Intelligence and National Security, and a presenter of BBC Radio and TV documentaries, including the Radio Four series What If. His twelve previous books include a number of studies on the use and abuse of secret intelligence in modern history. He is currently a governor of Norwich School where in the 1950s he was a pupil, Andrew studied under the historian and wartime cryptanalyst Sir Harry Hinsley, in common with fellow historian Peter Hennessy. Andrew produced two studies in collaboration with two defectors and former KGB officers, Oleg Gordievsky and Vasili Mitrokhin, exfiltrated by the Secret Intelligence Service in 1992, Mitrokhin and his documents were made available to Andrew after an initial and thorough review by the security services. The Cambridge Intelligence Seminar, chaired by Andrew, convenes regularly at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, Professor Andrew is on the Editorial Board of Journal of Intelligence and Terrorism Studies. In February 2003, Andrew accepted the post of official historian for the Security Service MI5 and this appointment - which entailed Andrews enrollment into the Security Service - drew criticism from some historians and commentators. Persistent—if unfounded—rumours that Andrew was MI5s main recruiter in Cambridge have done little to quiet critics, Andrews response to these criticisms has been that he cannot afford to be biased towards the service. As The Guardian quoted Andrew, Posterity and postgraduates are breathing down my neck, I tell my PhD students, I know you can only get on in the profession by assaulting teachers. You are not going to make a reputation by saying Look, fifty Years of the CIA The Mitrokhin Archive. Vol. I, The KGB in Europe and the West The Mitrokhin Archive, vol. II, The KGB and the World The Defence of the Realm, The Authorised History of MI5 ISBN 978-0-307-26363-6
Christopher Andrew (historian)
–
The Cambridge Intelligence Seminar
44.
Vasili Mitrokhin
–
The intelligence files given by Mitrokhin to the MI6 exposed an unknown number of Russian agents, including Melita Norwood. He was co-author with Christopher Andrew of The Mitrokhin Archive, The KGB in Europe and the West, the second volume, The Mitrokhin Archive II, The KGB in the World, was published in 2005, soon after Mitrokhins death. Mitrokhin was born in Yurasovo, in Central Russia, Ryazan Oblast, after leaving school, he entered artillery school, then attended university in Kazakh SSR, graduating with degrees in history and law. Towards the end of the second World War, Mitrokhin took a job in the military office in Kharkiv in the Ukrainian SSR. He entered the MGB as an intelligence officer in 1948. His first foreign posting was in 1952, during the 1950s he served on various undercover assignments overseas. In 1956, for example, he accompanied the Soviet team to the Olympic Games in Australia, for years he had listened to broadcasts on the BBC and Voice of America, noting the gulf between their reports and party propaganda. Yet when he began looking into the archives, he claimed to have been shocked by what he discovered about the KGBs systematic repression of the Soviet people, I could not believe such evil, he recalled. It was all planned, prepared, thought out in advance and it was a terrible shock when I read things. Between 1972 and 1984 he supervised the move of the archive of the First Chief Directorate from the Lubyanka to the new KGB headquarters at Yasenevo, while doing so he made copies and immensely detailed notes of documents from the archive. During the Soviet era, Mitrokhin made no attempts to contact any western intelligence services, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union he traveled to Latvia with copies of material from the archive, and walked into the American embassy in Riga. Central Intelligence Agency officers there did not consider him to be credible and he then went to the British embassy, and a young diplomat there saw his potential. These works are referred to as the Mitrokhin Archives. Ltd,451 pages, ISBN 0-7146-5257-1 “Chekisms”, Tales of the Cheka, A KGB Anthology, the Yurasov Press,435 pages, ISBN 978-0-10-850709-0
Vasili Mitrokhin
–
Vasili Mitrokhin, source of the
Mitrokhin Archive
45.
Agence France Presse
–
Agence France-Presse is an international news agency headquartered in Paris, France. Founded in 1944, AFP is the third largest news agency in the world, after the Associated Press, journalists of the French Resistance established the AFP in the headquarters of the former Office Français dInformation, a Vichy news agency, following the liberation of Paris. Currently, the CEO is Emmanuel Hoog and the News Director is Michèle Léridon, AFP has regional offices in Nicosia, Montevideo, Hong Kong, and Washington, D. C. and bureaux in 150 countries. AFP transmits news in French, English, Arabic, Portuguese, Spanish, the Agence Havas was founded in 1835 by a Parisian translator and advertising agent, Charles-Louis Havas as Agence Havas. Two of his employees, Paul Reuter and Bernhard Wolff, later set up rival news agencies in London and Berlin respectively and this arrangement lasted until the 1930s, when the invention of short-wave wireless improved and cut communications costs. To help Havas extend the scope of its reporting at a time of international tension. Established as an enterprise, AFP devoted the post-war years to developing its network of international correspondents. One of them was the first Western journalist to report the death of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin on March 6,1953, AFP was keen to shake off its semi-official status, and on January 10,1957 the French Parliament passed a law establishing its independence. Since that date, the proportion of the revenues generated by subscriptions from government departments has steadily declined. Such subscriptions represented 115 million Euros in 2011, in 1982, the agency began to decentralize its editorial decision-making by setting up the first of its five autonomous regional centres, in Hong Kong, then a British Crown colony. Each region has its own budget, administrative director and chief editor, in September 2007, the AFP Foundation was launched to promote higher standards of journalism worldwide. The Mitrokhin archive identified six agents and two confidential KGB contacts inside Agence France-Presse who were used in Soviet operations in France, in 1991, AFP set up a joint venture with Extel to create a financial news service, AFX News. It was sold in 2006 to Thomson Financial, in October 2008, the Government of France announced moves to change AFPs status, including the involvement of outside investors. On February 24,2010, Pierre Louette unexpectedly announced his intention to resign as CEO by the end of March, AFP is a government-chartered public corporation operating under a 1957 law, but is officially a commercial business independent of the French government. One is named by the minister, another by the minister of finance. The board elects the CEO for a term of three years. The AFP also has a council charged with ensuring that the agency operates according to its statutes, editorially, AFP is governed by a network of senior journalists. The primary client of AFP is the French government, which purchases subscriptions for its various services, in practice, those subscriptions are an indirect subsidy to AFP
Agence France Presse
–
AFP headquarters in
Paris.
Agence France Presse
–
Agence France-Presse
46.
Le Parisien
–
Le Parisien is a French daily newspaper covering both international and national news, and local news of Paris and its suburbs. The newspaper is owned by Éditions Philippe Amaury, the paper was established as Le Parisien libéré by Émilien Amaury in 1944, and was published for the first time on 22 August 1944. The paper was launched as the organ of the French underground during the German occupation of France in World War II. The name was changed to the current one in 1986, a national edition exists, called Aujourdhui en France. Le Parisien had a circulation near to one million copies in the early 1970s, the paper reached a circulation of 659,200 copies on 24 April 1995 the day after the first round of the presidential election. In the period of 1995-1996 the paper had a circulation of 451,159 copies, the combined circulation of Le Parisien was 485,000 copies in 2001. The paper had a circulation of 147,143 copies and a circulation of 360,505 copies in 2002. It was the second largest regional newspaper in France with a circulation of 530,000 copies in 2008, behind Ouest-France. The circulation of Le Parisien was 229,638 copies in 2014, official website Regular French Press Review – Radio France International
Le Parisien
–
Le Parisien
47.
La Croix
–
La Croix is a daily French general-interest Roman Catholic newspaper. It is published in Paris and distributed throughout France, with a circulation of just under 110,000 as of 2009 and it is not explicitly left or right on major political issues, rather adopting the Churchs position. However, La Croix ought not be confused with a religious newspaper—its topics are of general interest, world news and it vigorously advocated for traditional Catholicism while at the same time innovating with the most modern technology and distribution systems. Upon its appearance in 1880, the first version of la Croix was a news magazine. Accordingly, La Croix transitioned into a daily on 16 June 1883, Father Emmanuel dAlzon, the founder of the Assumptionists and the Oblates of the Assumption, started the paper, although its biggest early advocate was Father Vincent-de-Paul Bailly. The founding company was Bonne Presse, which would be called Bayard Presse in 1950, La Croix succeeded in bringing together certain groups of Roman Catholics who were seeking to position themselves outside of party politics and ideologies. At the end of the 19th century, it was the most widely read Roman Catholic publication in France and it gained more readers when it took the lead in attacking Dreyfus as a traitor and stirred up anti-Semitism. The Radical government, under Waldeck-Rousseau, forced the Assumptionists into exile from France, the newspapers publishing house, la Bonne Presse, was purchased by Paul Féron-Vrau, who oversaw operations until the Assumptionists returned to France under the amnesty laws of 1905. For many years, la Croix appeared in two formats, the first was a small-format periodical aimed at popular readership, the second a large-format newspaper aimed at a more intellectual audience. In 1927, Father Leon Merklen having become editor in chief and this was led to the initiative founding Catholic Action and also helped to create a formal link between the Catholic working youth and the French Roman Catholic Church. During the Second World War La Croix moved its editorial offices first to Bordeaux, the paper was shut down comparatively late in the occupation, on 21 June 1944. It would not reappear until February 1945, Father Gabel oversaw the relaunch of the paper. Editor in chief from 1949, he introduced new sections, such as sports, cinema, fashion, on 1 February 1956, La Croix began to appear for the first time without a crucifix as a part of its header. In March 1968, the adopted a tabloid format. In January 1972, the changed its name to la Croix-l’Événement. The choice of the new title was a reflection of the desire to show that the paper was not just a religious paper. The paper has a loyal readership, as expressed by the fact that 87% of its sales are by subscription. To celebrate its centennial in 1983, la Croix-l’Événement took on a newer, more attractive layout, added new sections, Bayard Press is reacting to this with a double strategy
La Croix
–
La Croix
La Croix
–
For the brand of sparkling water, see
La Croix Sparkling Water.
48.
Metro International
–
Metro International is a Swedish media company based in Luxembourg that publishes the Metro newspapers. Metro Internationals advertising sales have grown at an annual growth rate of 41 percent since launch of the first newspaper edition in 1995. It is a freesheet, meaning that distribution is free, with revenues thus generated entirely through advertising and this newspaper is primarily intended for commuters who move daily in and out of big cities business areas, mainly during rush hours. The company was founded by Per Andersson and started as a subsidiary of the Modern Times Group along with Viasat Broadcasting and it is now controlled through investment company Kinnevik. The first edition of the newspaper was published as Metro Stockholm, as of 2012, all European editions have been sold, reportedly so that Metro International can focus on Latin America, considered the last growth market for free newspapers. Metro newspaper editions are distributed in high-traffic commuter zones or in public networks, via a combination of self-service racks. Saturday editions are published in Stockholm, Santiago, São Paulo, Metro International launched several editions in Canada during 2000, leading to the creation of several commuter newspaper competitors, such as Sun Medias 24 Hours. The local name of the Metro newspaper editions may vary due to trademark issues, peruvian, Chilean, and Mexican editions are called Publimetro, and the Spanish edition is named Metro Directo. Not all newspapers named Metro are part of the Metro International group, Associated Newspapers publishes another freesheet called Metro in twelve areas around Britain. This UK Metro is not related to Metro International, which used the name Morning News for its freesheet distributed there, however, Metro International and Associated Metro do collaborate on the Dublin Metro Herald newspaper, which they both own a third of, along with The Irish Times. The Dublin Metro newspaper uses the Associated Metro logo and format and it is reported that Metro International has plans to launch a rival free evening newspaper in London. There are also examples of newspapers named Metro that are not part of the Metro International Group. In Belgium, Mass Transit Media, a joint venture of Concentra and Rossel, in California, Metro Silicon Valley is a free weekly newspaper which was founded in 1985. Neither of these newspapers have links to Metro International, Metro was first launched in Stockholm on 13 February 1995. A German-language edition is published in Switzerland by Metro Publication AG under the name Metropol on 31 January 2000 as a competitor to 20 Minuten. The newspaper ceased publication without announcement on 13 February 2002, in 2000, a Spanish edition named Publimetro is published in Buenos Aires, Argentina, with a circulation of 390,000. Facing competition from the free daily La Razón published by Grupo Clarín, a weekly magazine named Metropop starts publication in Hong Kong on 27 April 2006. At the end of 2006, Metro started a dedicated technology paper, Metro Teknik which is distributed weekly to companies, science parks, and technical universities around Sweden
Metro International
–
The Dutch Amsterdam Metro from 31 August 2007
Metro International
–
Metro newspaper vending boxes in Canada
49.
Ouest-France
–
Ouest-France is a daily French newspaper known for its emphasis on both local and national news. The paper is produced in 47 different editions covering events in different French départments within the régions of Brittany, Lower Normandy and its readership has been unaffected by the decline of newspaper reading in France, unlike most other dailies. With 2.5 million daily readers, it is by far the most read newspaper in the world, ahead of French national newspapers Le Figaro. Ouest-France was founded in 1944 by Adolphe Le Goaziou and others following the closure of Ouest-Éclair and it is based in Rennes and Nantes and has a circulation about 792,400, mostly in Brittany. Its editorial line has been strongly pro-European integration from the beginning, influenced by Christian democracy, now MoDem, the paper had a circulation of 773,471 copies in 2001 and 764,731 copies in 2002 with a market share of 14. 41%. The 47 different editions are divided among twelve départements, List of French newspapers Ouest-France website
Ouest-France
–
Ouest-France
Ouest-France
–
Original Ouest-France building in Rennes
