1.
Deerskin (novel)
–
Deerskin is a dark fantasy novel by Robin McKinley, first published in 1993. It is based on an old French fairy tale by Charles Perrault called Peau dâne and it was nominated for the Mythopoeic Fantasy Award for Adult Literature. The book contains numerous adult themes including incest, rape, and it features McKinleys typical protagonist, the resourceful heroine overcoming psychological trauma, and her favored motif of the animal helper. Although Lissar is the daughter of the most beautiful queen and most handsome king in all the land, she is a child whose only true companion is her dog. She was mostly ignored during her childhood due to the fact that her parents were the two most splendid people in all the seven kingdoms, lissars mother falls ill and starts to lose her beauty. This causes her to lose her will to live, because she wants to be remembered as the most beautiful person and she sends for artists from all the kingdoms, and eventually one is chosen to paint a portrait of her as she was before her illness. He works nonstop, as if driven, for a fortnight until the painting is completed and shown to the queen. After looking at the painting, she forces the king to swear that he will only remarry if he can find a more beautiful than she. This seemingly impossible condition is not, however, insurmountable, as Lissar matures, she not only the very image of her mother. The king becomes obsessed with his daughter, and insists that he wants to marry her, Lissar refuses him and locks herself in a room. Eventually the king finds a way into the room, rapes Lissar, Lissar and Ash escape from the king and find their way to a cabin in the mountains. Lissar, impregnated by her father the king, miscarries and nearly dies, as another gift the goddess gives Lissar time to heal and to forget what happened to her. Lissar travels to a different kingdom and offers to work for the king, the prince, Ossin, assigns her to raise a litter of puppies whose mother had died. The goddesss alterations, however, were more than physical, Lissar, now identified as Deerskin, discovers that she has supernatural powers, including the ability to find lost children and objects. She falls in love with Ossin and he with her, but, still burdened by her past, she flees when Ossin proposes to her at a ball and returns to the cabin in the mountains with Ash and the puppies. After spending the winter recovering, Deerskin feels compelled to return to Ossins city, as she nears the city, she hears about a wedding and assumes that it is Ossins. She realizes to her horror that the king, her father, is going to marry Ossins younger sister, Deerskin reveals her true identity as the bridegrooms daughter and calls her father to account for his actions, using the goddesss powers to punish him for his crimes. Confronting her father finally frees Lissar to accept Ossins love, the story ends with Lissar tentatively coming back to Ossin, offering to give their relationship a chance
2.
Rawhide (textile)
–
Rawhide is a hide or animal skin that has not been exposed to tanning. It is similar to parchment, much lighter in color than leather made by traditional vegetable tanning, the skin from buffalo, deer, elk or cattle from which most rawhide originates is prepared by removing all fur, meat and fat. The hide is then stretched over a frame before being dried. The resulting material is hard and translucent and it can be shaped by rewetting and forming before being allowed to thoroughly re-dry. It can be rendered more pliable by working, i. e. bending repeatedly in multiple directions, often by rubbing it over a post and it may also be oiled or greased for a degree of waterproofing. It is often used for such as whips, drumheads or lampshades. It is thought to be more durable than leather, especially in items suffering abrasion during use and it can also be used as a backing on a wooden bow. Such a backing prevents the bow from breaking by taking a share of the tension stress, bows made from weaker woods such as birch or cherry benefit more from a rawhide backing. Rawhide is more susceptible to water than leather, and it quickly softens, rawhide laces often sold for boots or baseball gloves are made of normal tanned leather rather than actual rawhide. Rawhide is not pliable when dry and would be unsuitable for that use, traditional gauchos boots are made with horse feet rawhide. Gauchos skin the animal and put the freshly skinned hides on their feet like socks, like ancient Roman cothurnus, the rudimentary boots have no toe box and do not cover the toes completely. As a chew toy for dogs, it is effective when used for training dogs. Wet rawhide has been used by earlier cultures as a means of torture or execution
3.
Cottage industry
–
The putting-out system is a means of subcontracting work. Historically, it was known as the workshop system and the domestic system. In putting-out, work is contracted by an agent to subcontractors who complete the work in off-site facilities. Early factory owners sometimes had to build dormitories to house workers, especially girls, putting-out workers had some flexibility to balance farm and household chores with the putting-out work, this being especially important in winter. The development of this trend is considered to be a form of proto-industrialization. At that point, it underwent name and geographical changes, however, bar some technological advancements, the putting-out system has not changed in essential practice. Contemporary examples can be found in China, India, and South America, in small arms making as in lock production, the workshop system rather than the factory system was the rule. All of the processes were carried out under different cottage roofs and it was replaced by inside contracting and the factory system. The domestic system was a system of cloth production in Europe. It was also used in other industries, including the manufacture of wrought iron ironware such as pins, pots. It existed as early as the 15th century, but was most prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries and it served as a way for capitalists and workers to bypass the guild system, which was thought to be cumbersome and inflexible. Workers would work from home, manufacturing individual articles from raw materials, then bring them to a place of business, such as a marketplace or a larger town, to be assembled. The raw materials were provided by the merchant, who received the finished product. As the woman of a family usually worked at home, someone was there to look after any children. These considerable sums of money led to a much wealthier peasantry with more furniture, higher-quality food. It was mostly centralized in Western Europe and did not take a hold in Eastern Europe. Of course, the acquisition of profit largely depended on which part of the system one was associated with. If one was a worker in the London textiles industry, for example, likewise, the fourteen-hour days led to many untimely deaths
4.
Heavy industry
–
Heavy industry is industry that involves one or more characteristics such as large and heavy products, large and heavy equipment and facilities, or complex of numerous processes. Because of those factors, heavy industry involves higher capital intensity than light industry does, traditional examples from the mid-19th century through the early 20th included steelmaking, artillery production, locomotive erection, machine tool building, and the heavier types of mining. Modern shipbuilding is considered heavy industry, many East Asian countries rely on heavy industry as part of their overall economies. Heavy industry is sometimes a special designation in local zoning laws. Morris Teubal, Heavy and Light Industry in Economic Development The American Economic Review, Vol.63, some Definitions in the Vocabulary of Geography, IV, British Association Glossary Committee, The Geographical Journal, Vol.118, No.3. Definition of Heavy Industry according to Investopedia. com
5.
Bookbinding
–
Bookbinding is the process of physically assembling a book from an ordered stack of paper sheets that are folded together into sections or sometimes left as a stack of individual sheets. The stack is then bound together along one edge by either sewing with thread through the folds or by a layer of flexible adhesive, for protection, the bound stack is either wrapped in a flexible cover or attached to stiff boards. Finally, a cover is adhered to the boards and a label with identifying information is attached to the covers along with additional decoration. Bookbinding is a trade that relies on basic operations of measuring, cutting. A finished book depends on a minimum of two dozen operations to complete but sometimes more than double that according to the specific style. All operations have an order and each one relies on accurate completion of the previous step with little room for back tracking. An extremely durable binding can be achieved by using the best hand techniques, Bookbinding combines skills from other trades such as paper and fabric crafts, leather work, model making, and graphic arts. It requires knowledge about numerous varieties of book structures along with all the internal and external details of assembly, a working knowledge of the materials involved is required. Bookbinding is a craft of great antiquity, and at the same time. The division between craft and industry is not so wide as might at first be imagined and it is interesting to observe that the main problems faced by the mass-production bookbinder are the same as those that confronted the medieval craftsman or the modern hand binder. Before the computer age, the bookbinding trade involved two divisions, second was Letterpress binding which deals with making new books intended to be read from and includes fine binding, library binding, edition binding, and publishers bindings. A result of the new bindings is a third division dealing with the repair, restoration, with the digital age, personal computers have replaced the pen and paper based accounting that used to drive most of the work in the stationery binding industry. There is a grey area between the two divisions. There are cases where the printing and binding jobs are combined in one shop, a step up to the next level of mechanization is determined by economics of scale until you reach production runs of ten thousand copies or more in a factory employing a dozen or more workers. The craft of bookbinding probably originated in India, where religious sutras were copied on to palm leaves with a metal stylus, the leaf was then dried and rubbed with ink, which would form a stain in the wound. The finished leaves were given numbers, and two long twines were threaded through each end through wooden boards, making a palm-leaf book, when the book was closed, the excess twine would be wrapped around the boards to protect the manuscript leaves. Buddhist monks took the idea through Afghanistan to China in the first century BC, similar techniques can also be found in ancient Egypt where priestly texts were compiled on scrolls and books of papyrus. Another version of bookmaking can be seen through the ancient Mayan codex, writers in the Hellenistic-Roman culture wrote longer texts as scrolls, these were stored in boxes or shelving with small cubbyholes, similar to a modern winerack
6.
Chromium(III) sulfate
–
Chromium sulfate usually refers to the inorganic compounds with the formula Cr23. x, where x can range from 0 to 18. Additionally, ill-defined but commercially important basic chromium sulfates are known and these salts are usually either violet or green solids that are soluble in water. Three chromium sulfates are well characterized, Anhydrous chromium sulfate, Cr23, is a solid that dissolves in water upon addition of a reducing agent. Hydrated chromium sulfate, Cr23. 18H2O, is a solid that readily dissolves in water to give the metal aquo complex. The formula of this compound can be more descriptively as 23. 6H2O. Six of the 18 water molecules in this unit are water of crystallization. Hydrated chromium sulfate, Cr23.15, is a solid that also readily dissolves in water. It is obtained by heating the 18H2O material above 70 °C, further heating yields the anhydrous sulfate. A variety of other chromium sulfates are known, but also contain hydroxide or oxide ligands, most important commercially is basic chromium sulfate, which is thought to be SO4. It results from the neutralization of the hexahydrates. It is associated with environmental damage, other chromium hydroxides have been reported. The most useful source of sulfate are the Cr wastes from the chromate oxidation of various organic compounds. Anthroquinone and quinone are produced by on large scale by treatment of anthracene, a chromium oxide coproduct is generated which is readily extracted into sulfuric acid. Evaporation of these acidic solutions affords the hydrate salt described above, the hydrated salts of chromium sulfate can also be produced, albeit impure, by extraction of various other chromium compounds, but these routes are not economically viable. Extraction of chromite ore with sulfuric acid in the presence of some chromate gives solutions of chromium sulfate contaminated with metal ions. Similarly, dissolution of chrome alloys gives chromium sulfate together with ferrous sulfate, basic chromium sulfate is produced from chromate salts by reduction with sulfur dioxide, although other methods exist. The reduction could formally be written, Na2Cr2O7 +3 SO2 + H2O → Cr23 + 2NaOH Since 33% of the charges are due to hydroxy ions the basicity is 33%. Products with higher basicities, e. g.42 or 50% may be obtained by the addition of sodium carbonate, the sodium sulfate is often left in the technical product since it is inert with respect to the tanning process
7.
Chromium
–
Chromium is a chemical element with symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is the first element in Group 6 and it is a steely-grey, lustrous, hard and brittle metal which takes a high polish, resists tarnishing, and has a high melting point. The name of the element is derived from the Greek word χρῶμα, chrōma, meaning color, Chromium metal is of high value for its high corrosion resistance and hardness. A major development was the discovery that steel could be highly resistant to corrosion and discoloration by adding metallic chromium to form stainless steel. Stainless steel and chrome plating together comprise 85% of the commercial use, trivalent chromium ion is an essential nutrient in trace amounts in humans for insulin, sugar and lipid metabolism, although the issue is debated. While chromium metal and Cr ions are not considered toxic, hexavalent chromium is toxic and carcinogenic, abandoned chromium production sites often require environmental cleanup. Chromium is remarkable for its properties, it is the only elemental solid which shows antiferromagnetic ordering at room temperature. Above 38 °C, it changes to paramagnetic, Chromium metal left standing in air is passivated by oxidation, forming a thin, protective, surface layer. This layer is a structure only a few molecules thick. It is very dense, and prevents the diffusion of oxygen into the underlying metal and this is different from the oxide that forms on iron and carbon steel, through which elemental oxygen continues to migrate, reaching the underlying material to cause incessant rusting. Passivation can be enhanced by short contact with oxidizing acids like nitric acid, passivated chromium is stable against acids. Passivation can be removed with a reducing agent that destroys the protective oxide layer on the metal. Chromium metal treated in this way readily dissolves in weak acids, Chromium, unlike such metals as iron and nickel, does not suffer from hydrogen embrittlement. However, it suffer from nitrogen embrittlement, reacting with nitrogen from air. Chromium is the 22nd most abundant element in Earths crust with a concentration of 100 ppm. Chromium compounds are found in the environment from the erosion of chromium-containing rocks, Chromium is mined as chromite ore. About two-fifths of the ores and concentrates in the world are produced in South Africa, while Kazakhstan, India, Russia. Untapped chromite deposits are plentiful, but geographically concentrated in Kazakhstan, although rare, deposits of native chromium exist
8.
Tannin
–
A tannin is an astringent, polyphenolic biomolecule that binds to and precipitates proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids. The term tannin refers to the use of wood tannins from oak in tanning hides into leather, hence the words tan. The tannin compounds are distributed in many species of plants, where they play a role in protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides. The astringency from the tannins is what causes the dry and puckery feeling in the following the consumption of unripened fruit or red wine or tea. Likewise, the destruction or modification of tannins with time plays an important role when determining harvesting times, Tannins have molecular weights ranging from 500 to over 3,000 and up to 20,000. There are three classes of tannins, Shown below are the base unit or monomer of the tannin. Particularly in the flavone-derived tannins, the base shown must be heavily hydroxylated and polymerized in order to give the high molecular weight polyphenol motif that characterizes tannins, typically, tannin molecules require at least 12 hydroxyl groups and at least five phenyl groups to function as protein binders. Oligostilbenoids are oligomeric forms of stilbenoids and constitute a class of tannins, pseudo tannins are low molecular weight compounds associated with other compounds. They do not change color during the Goldbeaters skin test, unlike hydrolysable and condensed tannins, some examples of pseudo tannins and their sources are, Ellagic acid, gallic acid, and pyrogallic acid were first discovered by chemist Henri Braconnot in 1831. Julius Löwe was the first person to synthesize ellagic acid by heating gallic acid with arsenic acid or silver oxide, maximilian Nierenstein studied natural phenols and tannins found in different plant species. Working with Arthur George Perkin, he prepared ellagic acid from algarobilla and he suggested its formation from galloyl-glycine by Penicillium in 1915. Tannase is an enzyme that Nierenstein used to produce acid from gallotannins. He proved the presence of catechin in cocoa beans in 1931 and he showed in 1945 that luteic acid, a molecule present in the myrobalanitannin, a tannin found in the fruit of Terminalia chebula, is an intermediary compound in the synthesis of ellagic acid. At these times, molecule formulas were determined through combustion analysis, the discovery in 1943 by Martin and Synge of paper chromatography provided for the first time the means of surveying the phenolic constituents of plants and for their separation and identification. There was an explosion of activity in this field after 1945, none more so than that of Edgar Charles Bate-Smith and it is referred to as the White–Bate-Smith–Swain–Haslam definition. Tannins are distributed in species throughout the plant kingdom and they are commonly found in both gymnosperms as well as angiosperms. Mole studied the distribution of tannin in 180 families of dicotyledons and 44 families of monocotyledons, most families of dicot contain tannin-free species. To the family of the oak, Fagaceae, 73% of the species tested contain tannin, for those of acacias, Mimosaceae, only 39% of the species tested contain tannin, among Solanaceae rate drops to 6% and 4% for the Asteraceae
9.
Vegetable matter
–
Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. It has become popular among power stations, which switch from coal to biomass to comply with the law. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, as an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are classified into, thermal, chemical. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today, examples include forest residues, yard clippings, wood chips, wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass as fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from waste streams to be processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or black liquor, in the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories, first-generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, a fuel which can be used directly in a fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based resources for production only aggravates the food shortage problem. Second-generation biofuels, on the hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and is a waste for many industries. Despite being the alternative, economical production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These issues arise due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic biomass. Plant energy is produced by crops grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy
10.
Tanbark
–
Tanbark is the bark of certain species of tree. It is traditionally used for tanning hides into leather, the words tannin, tanning, tan, and tawny are derived from the Medieval Latin tannare, to convert into leather. Bark mills are horse- or oxen-driven or water powered edge mills and were used in times to shred the tanbark to derive tannins for the leather industry. A barker was a person who stripped bark from trees to supply bark mills, in Europe, oak is a common source of tanbark. Quercitannic acid is the constituent found in oak barks. The bark is taken from branches and twigs in oak coppices and can be up to 4 mm thick, it is grayish-brown on the outside. In some areas of the United States, such as northern California, tanbark is often called mulch, in these areas, the word mulch may refer to peat moss or to very fine tanbark. In California, Lithocarpus densiflorus was used, in America, condensed tannins are also present in the bark of blackjack oak. In New York, on the slopes of Mount Tremper, hemlock bark was a source of tanbark during the 19th century. Around the Mediterranean Sea, sumach leaves and bark are used, in Africa and Australia, acacia bark is used by tanners
11.
Bark mill
–
The powdered wood more quickly yields up the tannin required for the tanning process. The dried bark was often stored in bark houses, water-, steam-, horse- or ox- and wind-powered bark mills existed. Water-powered bark mills were sitting alongside rivers and leats were dug to bring water to the wheel, a barker was a person who stripped bark from trees to supply bark mills. Bark tanning or vegetable tanning is part of the ancient process of creating durable and it can be done to most types of skin, but it is usually reserved for tanning leathers from large and thick hides such as cattle, horses, and pigs. The leather produced has been used for saddles, canteens, stiff shoes, belts, wallets, holsters, harnesses, helmets, pouches, trunks, shields. It was also used as an part of bellows, hinges, wagon wheels. Vegetable tanned hide is flexible and is used for luggage and furniture, mineral tanning, being cheaper and faster, replaced the use of bark and mainly uses chromium Sulphate. Once the desired level of penetration of chrome into the substance is achieved, in the raw state chrome tanned skins are blue. Chrome tanning produces a leather which is excellent for use in handbags. Tawing uses alum and aluminium salts, together with egg yolk, flour, the leather becomes tawed by soaking in a warm potash alum and salts solution. The process increases the pliability, stretchability, softness, and quality of the leather, the addition of egg yolk and flour to the standard soaking solution further enhances its fine handling characteristics. Then, the leather is air dried for weeks, which allows it to stabilize. Tawing is used on pigskins and goatskins to create the whitest colour and it is marked on OS maps, and was powered by the combined Mains and Bath Burns with mill ponds indicated. The mill produced ground bark for use in the Beith Bath Lane tannery, later the mill became a furniture factory run by Matthew Pollock who applied the use of machinery to help with the manufacture of furniture in 1858. This site was one mile from the Beith town centre, the Glasgow & South Western Railway Company constructed a siding, known as Muirs siding for the convenience of transporting the finished products, etc. The site was isolated and inconvenient for the workers and was sold to Robert Balfour, who later built a new factory near Beith Town Station. The Muirs had been tanners for many generations and around 1791 John Muir and Sons, Tanners, Curriers, william Muir of Mains joined as a partner in 1846. Mill on the Fleet, in Gatehouse of Fleet, Castle Douglas, the water wheel on the gable end was used to drive the machinery to spin the cotton
12.
Wood
–
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
13.
Leaf
–
A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant and is the principal lateral appendage of the stem. The leaves and stem together form the shoot, Leaves are collectively referred to as foliage, as in autumn foliage. Although leaves can be seen in different shapes, sizes and textures, typically a leaf is a thin, dorsiventrally flattened organ, borne above ground. Most leaves have distinctive upper surface and lower surface that differ in colour, hairiness, broad, flat leaves with complex venation are known as megaphylls and the species that bear them, the majority, as broad-leaved or megaphyllous plants. In others, such as the clubmosses, with different evolutionary origins, some leaves, such as bulb scales are not above ground, and in many aquatic species the leaves are submerged in water. Succulent plants often have thick juicy leaves, but some leaves are without major photosynthetic function and may be dead at maturity, as in some cataphylls, furthermore, several kinds of leaf-like structures found in vascular plants are not totally homologous with them. Examples include flattened plant stems called phylloclades and cladodes, and flattened leaf stems called phyllodes which differ from both in their structure and origin. Many structures of plants, such as the phyllids of mosses and liverworts and even of some foliose lichens. Leaves are the most important organs of most vascular plants and these are then further processed by chemical synthesis into more complex organic molecules such as cellulose, the basic structural material in plant cell walls. The plant must therefore bring these three together in the leaf for photosynthesis to take place. Once sugar has been synthesized, it needs to be transported to areas of growth such as the plant shoots and roots. Vascular plants transport sucrose in a tissue called the phloem. The phloem and xylem are parallel to each other but the transport of materials is usually in opposite directions. Within the leaf these vascular systems branch to form veins which supply as much as the leaf as possible and they are arranged on the plant so as to expose their surfaces to light as efficiently as possible without shading each other, but there are many exceptions and complications. For instance plants adapted to windy conditions may have pendent leaves, such as in many willows, the flat, or laminar, shape also maximises thermal contact with the surrounding air, promoting cooling. Functionally, in addition to photosynthesis the leaf is the site of transpiration and guttation. Many gymnosperms have thin needle-like or scale-like leaves that can be advantageous in cold climates with frequent snow and these are interpreted as reduced from megaphyllous leaves of their Devonian ancestors. For xerophytes the major constraint is not light flux or intensity, some window plants such as Fenestraria species and some Haworthia species such as Haworthia tesselata and Haworthia truncata are examples of xerophytes. and Bulbine mesembryanthemoides
14.
Fruit
–
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
15.
Root
–
In vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil. Roots can also be aerial or aerating, that is growing up above the ground or especially above water, furthermore, a stem normally occurring below ground is not exceptional either. Therefore, the root is best defined as the non-leaf, non-nodes bearing parts of the plants body, however, important internal structural differences between stems and roots exist. The fossil record of roots – or rather, infilled voids where roots rotted after death – spans back to the late Silurian and their identification is difficult, because casts and molds of roots are so similar in appearance to animal burrows. They can be discriminated using a range of features, the first root that comes from a plant is called the radicle. In response to the concentration of nutrients, roots also synthesise cytokinin, Roots often function in storage of food and nutrients. The roots of most vascular plant species enter into symbiosis with fungi to form mycorrhizae. In its simplest form, the root architecture refers to the spatial configuration of a plant’s root system. This system can be complex and is dependent upon multiple factors such as the species of the plant itself, the composition of the soil. The configuration of root systems serves to support the plant, compete with other plants. Roots grow to specific conditions, which, if changed, can impede a plants growth. For example, a system that has developed in dry soil may not be as efficient in flooded soil, yet plants are able to adapt to other changes in the environment. Root architecture plays the important role of providing a supply of nutrients and water as well as anchorage. The main terms used to classify the architecture of a system are, Branch magnitude. Root angle, the angle of a lateral root’s base around the parent root’s circumference, the angle of a lateral root from its parent root. Link radius, the diameter of a root, all components of the root architecture are regulated through a complex interaction between genetic responses and responses due to environmental stimuli. These developmental stimuli are categorised as intrinsic, the genetic and nutritional influences, or extrinsic, the main hormones and respective pathways responsible for root architecture development include, Auxin – Auxin promotes root initiation, root emergence and primary root elongation. Cytokinins – Cytokinins regulate root apical meristem size and promote lateral root elongation, gibberellins – Together with ethylene they promote crown primordia growth and elongation
16.
Boiled leather
–
Boiled leather, sometimes called cuir bouilli, was a historical construction material for armour. It consists of leather, boiled in water. According to some sources, boiled oil and wax were used as well, the boiling causes the leather to become harder but also more brittle. The leather remains flexible for a time after boiling, allowing it to be molded into larger plates. Cuir bouilli has also employed to bind books. Water hardened leather for armour Boiled leather in wax Cuir Bouilli/Hardened Leather FAQ
17.
Wax
–
Waxes are a diverse class of organic compounds that are hydrophobic, malleable solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids, typically with melting points above about 40 °C, waxes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic, nonpolar solvents. Natural waxes of different types are produced by plants and animals, waxes are organic compounds that characteristically consist of long alkyl chains. They may also include various groups such as fatty acids, primary and secondary long chain alcohols, unsaturated bonds, aromatics, amides, ketones. They frequently contain fatty acid esters as well, synthetic waxes are often long-chain hydrocarbons that lack functional groups. Waxes are synthesized by plants and animals. Those of animal origin typically consist of wax esters derived from a variety of carboxylic acids, in waxes of plant origin characteristic mixtures of unesterified hydrocarbons may predominate over esters. The composition depends not only on species, but also on location of the organism. The most commonly known animal wax is beeswax, but other insects secrete waxes, a major component of the beeswax used in constructing honeycombs is the ester myricyl palmitate which is an ester of triacontanol and palmitic acid. Its melting point is 62-65 °C, spermaceti occurs in large amounts in the head oil of the sperm whale. One of its constituents is cetyl palmitate, another ester of a fatty acid. Lanolin is a wax obtained from wool, consisting of esters of sterols, plants secrete waxes into and on the surface of their cuticles as a way to control evaporation, wettability and hydration. From the commercial perspective, the most important plant wax is carnauba wax, containing the ester myricyl cerotate, it has many applications, such as confectionery and other food coatings, car and furniture polish, floss coating, and surfboard wax. Other more specialized vegetable waxes include candelilla wax and ouricury wax, plant and animal based waxes or oils can undergo selective chemical modifications to produce waxes with more desirable properties than are available in the unmodified starting material. This approach has relied on green chemistry approaches including olefin metathesis and enzymatic reactions, although many natural waxes contain esters, paraffin waxes are hydrocarbons, mixtures of alkanes usually in a homologous series of chain lengths. These materials represent a significant fraction of petroleum and they are refined by vacuum distillation. Paraffin waxes are mixtures of saturated n- and iso- alkanes, naphthenes, a typical alkane paraffin wax chemical composition comprises hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2, such as Hentriacontane, C31H64. The degree of branching has an important influence on the properties, millions of tons of paraffin waxes are produced annually
18.
Armour
–
Personal armour is used to protect soldiers and war animals. Vehicle armour is used on warships and armoured fighting vehicles, a second use of the term armour describes armoured forces, armoured weapons, and their role in combat. After the evolution of armoured warfare, mechanised infantry and their weapons came to be referred to collectively as armour, the word armour began to appear in the Middle Ages as a derivative of Old French. It is dated from 1297 as a mail, defensive covering worn in combat, the word originates from the Old French armure, itself derived from the Latin armatura meaning arms and/or equipment, with the root armare meaning arms or gear. Armour has been used throughout recorded history and it has been made from a variety of materials, beginning with rudimentary leather protection and evolving through mail and metal plate into todays modern composites. For much of history the manufacture of metal personal armour has dominated the technology. Its production was influential in the revolution, and furthered commercial development of metallurgy. Armour was the single most influential factor in the development of firearms, significant factors in the development of armour include the economic and technological necessities of its production. For instance, plate armour first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper, also, modern militaries usually do not equip their forces with the best armour available because it would be prohibitively expensive. The samurai warriors of feudal Japan utilised many types of armour for hundreds of years up to the 19th century, Japanese lamellar armour passed through Korea and reached Japan around the 5th century. These early Japanese lamellar armours took the form of a sleeveless jacket, armour did not always cover all of the body, sometimes no more than a helmet and leg plates were worn. The rest of the body was protected by means of a large shield. Examples of armies equipping their troops in this fashion were the Aztecs, in East Asia many types of armour were commonly used at different times by various cultures including, scale armour, lamellar armour, laminar armour, plated mail, mail, plate armour and brigandine. Around the dynastic Tang, Song, and early Ming Period, cuirasses and plates were also used, the Chinese, during that time used partial plates for important body parts instead of covering their whole body since too much plate armour hinders their martial arts movement. The other body parts were covered in cloth, leather, lamellar, in pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armour was made out of various animals, with more exotic ones such as the rhinoceros. Mail, sometimes called chainmail, made of interlocking iron rings is believed to have first appeared some time after 300 BC and its invention is credited to the Celts, the Romans were thought to have adopted their design. Gradually, small plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces, the coat of plates was developed, an armour made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat
19.
Book binding
–
Bookbinding is the process of physically assembling a book from an ordered stack of paper sheets that are folded together into sections or sometimes left as a stack of individual sheets. The stack is then bound together along one edge by either sewing with thread through the folds or by a layer of flexible adhesive, for protection, the bound stack is either wrapped in a flexible cover or attached to stiff boards. Finally, a cover is adhered to the boards and a label with identifying information is attached to the covers along with additional decoration. Bookbinding is a trade that relies on basic operations of measuring, cutting. A finished book depends on a minimum of two dozen operations to complete but sometimes more than double that according to the specific style. All operations have an order and each one relies on accurate completion of the previous step with little room for back tracking. An extremely durable binding can be achieved by using the best hand techniques, Bookbinding combines skills from other trades such as paper and fabric crafts, leather work, model making, and graphic arts. It requires knowledge about numerous varieties of book structures along with all the internal and external details of assembly, a working knowledge of the materials involved is required. Bookbinding is a craft of great antiquity, and at the same time. The division between craft and industry is not so wide as might at first be imagined and it is interesting to observe that the main problems faced by the mass-production bookbinder are the same as those that confronted the medieval craftsman or the modern hand binder. Before the computer age, the bookbinding trade involved two divisions, second was Letterpress binding which deals with making new books intended to be read from and includes fine binding, library binding, edition binding, and publishers bindings. A result of the new bindings is a third division dealing with the repair, restoration, with the digital age, personal computers have replaced the pen and paper based accounting that used to drive most of the work in the stationery binding industry. There is a grey area between the two divisions. There are cases where the printing and binding jobs are combined in one shop, a step up to the next level of mechanization is determined by economics of scale until you reach production runs of ten thousand copies or more in a factory employing a dozen or more workers. The craft of bookbinding probably originated in India, where religious sutras were copied on to palm leaves with a metal stylus, the leaf was then dried and rubbed with ink, which would form a stain in the wound. The finished leaves were given numbers, and two long twines were threaded through each end through wooden boards, making a palm-leaf book, when the book was closed, the excess twine would be wrapped around the boards to protect the manuscript leaves. Buddhist monks took the idea through Afghanistan to China in the first century BC, similar techniques can also be found in ancient Egypt where priestly texts were compiled on scrolls and books of papyrus. Another version of bookmaking can be seen through the ancient Mayan codex, writers in the Hellenistic-Roman culture wrote longer texts as scrolls, these were stored in boxes or shelving with small cubbyholes, similar to a modern winerack
20.
Glutaraldehyde
–
Glutaraldehyde, sold under the brandname Glutaral among others, is a disinfectant and medication. As a disinfectant it is used to sterilize surgical instruments and other areas, as a medication it is used to treat warts on the bottom of the feet. It is applied as a liquid, if exposed to large amounts nausea, headache, and shortness of breath may occur. Protective equipment is recommended when used, Glutaraldehyde is effective against a range of microorganisms including spores. It works by a number of mechanisms, Glutaraldehyde came into medical use in the 1960s. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the wholesale cost in the developing world is about 1.50 to 7.40 USD per liter of 2% solution. It is sold under a number of names including Cidex. There are a number of commercial uses such as leather tanning. Virtually all applications of glutaraldehyde exploit its high reactivity toward proteins, being nonvolatile and bifunctional, glutaraldehyde is often preferred to the less expensive formaldehyde. It reacts with amines, amides, and thiol groups in proteins, a glutaraldehyde solution of 0. 1% to 1. 0% concentration may be used as a biocide for system disinfection and as a preservative for long term storage. It is a sterilant, killing endospores in addition to many microorganisms, Glutaraldehyde is a component of hydraulic fracturing fracking fluid. It is included in the additive called Alpha 1427, as a biocide, Glutaraldehyde is pumped as a liquid additive with the fracturing fluid to reduce or eliminate this source of formation and fracture conductivity damage. Glutaraldehyde is used in applications as an amine-reactive homobifunctional crosslinker and fixative prior to SDS-PAGE, staining. A second fixative procedure uses osmium tetroxide to crosslink and stabilize cell, fixation is usually followed by dehydration of the tissue in ethanol or acetone, followed by embedding in an epoxy resin or acrylic resin. In a related application, glutaraldehyde is sometimes employed in the tanning of leather, a solution of glutaraldehyde, typically of 10% w/w, is sold under various trade names to remove common and plantar warts. It is said to inactivate viruses and bacteria, and to dry the skin, trade names include Diswart Solution and Glutarol. As a strong sterilant, glutaraldehyde is toxic and a strong irritant, there is no evidence of carcinogenic activity. It is a compound with the formula CH22
21.
Chamois leather
–
Chamois leather — is a type of porous leather, traditionally the skin of the chamois, a type of European mountain goat but today it is made almost exclusively from the flesh split of a sheepskin. The leather is favored for its gentle, non-abrasive composition and absorption properties, in the United States, the term chamois without any qualification is restricted to the flesh split of the sheep or lambskin tanned solely with oils. Chamois leather is often counterfeited with goat or pig skin, the practice of which is a particular profession called by the French chamoiser and it was discovered that when tanned in the local cod oil of nearby Biarritz, the result was a material of unprecedented absorbency. This leather was fashioned into soft white gloves designed for carriage footmen and this industry usage later transferred to the chauffeurs of the horseless carriages invented in the early 1900s. Genuine chamois leather has almost no abrasive properties, and can be used as a very absorbent drying material for any automobile surface and this has made it a popular product for car cleaning and drying. The elasticity of the pores, which are very close. Its water absorbency makes it good for other uses, such as in cycling shorts and it was also used in purifying mercury, which is done by passing it through the pores of the skin. When soaked with gasoline, chamois will not allow water to pass through its surface fibers. This property is used to fuel that has been stored in drums prone to ingress of water. The technique is to provide a large-mouthed funnel with a wide outlet surface that supports a woven wire base, the lower part of the funnel is tapered to fit the receptacle or tank-filler aperture. A suitably sized chamois skin is soaked in fuel and placed over the grid in the funnel and brought up the sides, forming a bowl. Fuel can then be pumped into the top of the funnel by the fuel dispenser, the process can be stopped to lift out the assembly from the tank and the trapped water removed so that the job can be continued. Chamois leather is used thus as a filter by boaters, auto detailers—and aircraft refuellers. Widely used for drying and buffing vehicles, such as cars and vans, small pieces of chamois leather are commonly used as blending tools by artists drawing with charcoal. The leather blends the charcoal more softly and cleanly than the artists fingers, the chamois is also used to lighten the drawing by removing some charcoal in a more subtle and nuanced way than most erasers could. The charcoal can be washed from the leather using soap and water, divers use towels made of chamois leather to dry themselves between jumps, as they can be quickly dried by squeezing them
22.
Rose oil
–
Rose oil is the essential oil extracted from the petals of various types of rose. Even with their price and the advent of organic synthesis. The key flavor compounds that contribute to the scent of rose oil, however, are beta-damascenone, beta-damascone, beta-ionone. Beta-damascenone presence and quantity is considered as the marker for the quality of rose oil, even though these compounds exist in less than 1% quantity of rose oil, they make up for slightly more than 90% of the odor content due to their low odor detection thresholds. Due to the production process and the low content of oil in the rose blooms. Harvesting of flowers is done by hand in the morning before sunrise, there are three main methods of extracting the oil from the plant material, Steam distillation, which produces an oil called rose otto or attar of roses. Solvent extraction, which results in an oil called rose absolute, supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, yielding an essential oil that may be marketed as either an absolute or as a CO2 extract. In the process of distillation, large stills, traditionally of copper, are filled with roses, the still is fired for 60–105 minutes. The vaporized water and rose oil exit the still and enter a condensing apparatus and are collected in a flask. This distillation yields a very concentrated oil, direct oil, which makes up about 20% of the final product, the two oils are combined and make the final rose otto. Rose otto is mobile in room temperature and is usually clear and it will form white crystals at normal room temperature which disappear when the oil is gently warmed. It will tend to become more viscous at lower temperatures due to crystallization of some of its components. The essence has a strong odor, but is pleasant when diluted and used for perfume. Attar of roses was made in India, Persia, Syria. The Rose Valley in Bulgaria, near the town of Kazanlak, is among the producers of attar of roses in the world. In India, Kannauj is an important city of fabrication of rose attar, Grasse is an important city of fabrication of rose fragance. Due to the heat required for distillation, some of the compounds extracted from the rose undergo denaturing or chemical breakdown, as such, rose otto does not smell very similar to fresh roses. The hydrosol portion of the distillate is known as rosewater and this inexpensive by-product is used widely as a food flavoring as well as in skin care
23.
Polymer
–
A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
24.
Novolac
–
Phenol formaldehyde resins or phenolic resins are synthetic polymers obtained by the reaction of phenol or substituted phenol with formaldehyde. Used as the basis for Bakelite, PFs were the first commercial synthetic resins and they have been widely used for the production of molded products including billiard balls, laboratory countertops, and as coatings and adhesives. There are two main production methods, there are many variations in both production and input materials that are used to produce a wide variety of resins for special purposes. Phenol-formaldehyde resins, as a group, are formed by a polymerization reaction that can be either acid- or base-catalysed. Since formaldehyde exists predominantly in solution as an equilibrium of methylene glycol oligomers. Phenol reacts with formaldehyde at the ortho and para sites allowing up to 3 units of formaldehyde to attach to the ring, bisphenol-F can further link generating tri- and tetra-and higher phenol oligomers. Novolacs are phenol-formaldehyde resins with a formaldehyde to phenol ratio of less than one. The polymerization is brought to completion using acid-catalysis such as oxalic acid, the phenol units are mainly linked by methylene and/or ether groups. Novolacs are commonly used as photoresists, the molecular weights are in the low thousands, corresponding to about 10–20 phenol units. Hexamethylenetetramine or hexamine is a hardener added to crosslink novolac, at a temperature >90 °C, it forms methylene and dimethylene amino bridges. Base-catalysed phenol-formaldehyde resins are made with a formaldehyde to phenol ratio of greater than one, phenol, formaldehyde, water and catalyst are mixed in the desired amount, depending on the resin to be formed, and are then heated. The first part of the reaction, at around 70 °C, forms a thick reddish-brown tacky material, the rate of the base-catalysed reaction initially increases with pH, and reaches a maximum at about pH =10. The reactive species is the anion formed by deprotonation of phenol. The negative charge is delocalised over the ring, activating sites 2,4 and 6. Being thermosets, hydroxymethyl phenols will crosslink on heating to around 120 °C to form methylene, at this point the resin is a 3-dimensional network, which is typical of polymerised phenolic resins. The high crosslinking gives this type of phenolic resin its hardness, good thermal stability, resols are referred to as one step resins as they cure without a cross linker unlike novolacs, a two step resin. Resols are major polymeric resin materials widely used for gluing and bonding building materials, exterior plywood, oriented strand boards, engineered laminated composite lumber are typical applications. When the molar ratio of formaldehyde, phenol reaches one, in theory every phenol is linked together via methylene bridges, generating one single molecule, and the system is entirely crosslinked
25.
Second World War
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
26.
Melamine
–
Melamine /ˈmɛləmiːn/ is an organic base and a trimer of cyanamide, with a 1,3, 5-triazine skeleton. Melamine is also a metabolite of cyromazine, a pesticide and it is formed in the body of mammals that have ingested cyromazine. It has been reported that cyromazine can also be converted to melamine in plants, the German word melamin was coined by combining the words, melam and amine. Melamine is, therefore, unrelated etymologically to the root melas, from which the words melanin, a pigment, and melatonin, Melamine foam is used as insulation, soundproofing material and in polymeric cleaning products, such as Magic Eraser. Melamine is one of the components in Pigment Yellow 150. Melamine also enters the fabrication of melamine poly-sulfonate used as superplasticizer for making high-resistance concrete and it results in concrete with a lower porosity and a higher mechanical strength, exhibiting an improved resistance to aggressive environments and a longer lifetime. The use of melamine as fertilizer for crops had been envisaged during the 1950s and 1960s because of its high nitrogen content, however, melamine is much more expensive to produce than are other common nitrogen fertilizers, such as urea. To be effective as a fertilizer, it is essential that the plant nutrients are released or made available in a manner that matches the needs of the growing crop. The nitrogen mineralization process for melamine is extremely slow, making this product both economically and scientifically impractical for use as a fertilizer, Melamine and its salts are used as fire-retardant additives in paints, plastics, and paper. Melamine derivatives of arsenical drugs are potentially important in the treatment of African trypanosomiasis, Melamine use as non-protein nitrogen for cattle was described in a 1958 patent. Melamine is sometimes added to food products in order to increase the apparent protein content. Standard tests, such as the Kjeldahl and Dumas tests, estimate protein levels by measuring the nitrogen content, an instrument developed by the company CEM Corp allows the determination of protein content directly in some applications, the instrument cannot be fooled by adding melamine in the sample. Melamine is also used as a nitrogen and carbon source for N-doped carbon nanotube, n-CNTs can be prepared via Chemical Vapor Deposition method by pyrolysizing melamine under an Ar atmosphere in a horizontal glass tube. A thin film of iron is first deposited on a Si/SiO2 wafer, n-CNT synthesis occurs at a furnace temperatures between 800 and 980 °C. Melamine is described as Harmful if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through the skin, chronic exposure may cause cancer or reproductive damage. However, the lethal dose is on a par with common table salt with an LD50 of more than 3 grams per kilogram of bodyweight. The European Union set a standard for human consumption of melamine at 0.2 mg per kg of body mass, Canada declared a limit of 0.35 mg. The World Health Organizations food safety director estimated that the amount of melamine a person could stand per day without incurring a bigger health risk, toxicity of melamine can be mediated by intestinal microbes
27.
Urea
–
Urea, also known as carbamide, is an organic compound with the chemical formula CO2. This amide has two groups joined by a carbonyl functional group. Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by animals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals and it is a colorless, odorless solid, highly soluble in water, and practically non-toxic. Dissolved in water, it is neither acidic nor alkaline, the body uses it in many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. The liver forms it by combining two molecules with a carbon dioxide molecule in the urea cycle. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen and is an important raw material for the chemical industry, Friedrich Wöhlers discovery in 1828 that urea can be produced from inorganic starting materials was an important conceptual milestone in chemistry. More than 90% of world production of urea is destined for use as a nitrogen-release fertilizer. Urea has the highest nitrogen content of all solid nitrogenous fertilizers in common use, therefore, it has the lowest transportation costs per unit of nitrogen nutrient. The standard crop-nutrient rating of urea is 46-0-0, many soil bacteria possess the enzyme urease, which catalyzes conversion of urea to ammonia or ammonium ion and bicarbonate ion. Thus urea fertilizers rapidly transform to the form in soils. Ammonium and nitrate are readily absorbed by plants, and are the dominant sources of nitrogen for plant growth, Urea is also used in many multi-component solid fertilizer formulations. Urea is highly soluble in water and is also very suitable for use in fertilizer solutions. For fertilizer use, granules are preferred over prills because of their particle size distribution. The most common impurity of synthetic urea is biuret, which impairs plant growth, Urea is usually spread at rates of between 40 and 300 kg/ha but rates vary. Smaller applications incur lower losses due to leaching, during summer, urea is often spread just before or during rain to minimize losses from volatilization. Because of the nitrogen concentration in urea, it is very important to achieve an even spread. The application equipment must be calibrated and properly used. Drilling must not occur on contact with or close to seed, Urea dissolves in water for application as a spray or through irrigation systems
28.
Aluminium
–
Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
29.
Salt
–
Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County
30.
Protein
–
Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
31.
Drum head
–
A drumhead or drum skin is a membrane stretched over one or both of the open ends of a drum. The drumhead is struck with sticks, mallets, or hands, so that it vibrates, originally, drumheads were made from animal hide and were first used in early human history, long before records began. In 1957, Remo Belli and Sam Muchnick together developed a polymer head leading to the development of the Remo drumhead company, despite the benefits of plastic heads, drummers in historical reenactment groups such as fife and drum use animal skin heads for historical accuracy. Another common material used for drumheads is aramid fiber, such as kevlar, kevlar heads are also used in marching percussion. The bolts, called tension rods, are screwed into threaded lugs attached to the shell, in order to tighten. A drum key is a four sided wrench used to screw the tension rods into the lugs, drummers muffle their drums using special drumheads. Some drumheads come pre-muffled such as Remo Powerstroke Pro, accessory Fetish A Complete List of Drum Head Manufacturers Resonant Drum Head Explained
32.
Trade good
–
A trade route is a logistical network identified as a of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo. The term can also be used to refer to trade over bodies of water, among notable trade routes was the Amber Road, which served as a dependable network for long-distance trade. Maritime trade along the Spice Route became prominent during the Middle Ages, during the Middle Ages, organizations such as the Hanseatic League, aimed at protecting interests of the merchants, and trade became increasingly prominent. In modern times, commercial activity shifted from the trade routes of the Old World to newer routes between modern nation-states. Innovative transportation of modern times includes pipeline transport and the relatively well-known trade involving rail routes, automobiles, one of the vital instruments which facilitated long distance trade was portage and the domestication of beasts of burden. Organized caravans, visible by the 2nd millennium BCE, could carry goods across a distance as fodder was mostly available along the way. The domestication of camels allowed Arabian nomads to control the long distance trade in spices, caravans were useful in long-distance trade largely for carrying luxury goods, the transportation of cheaper goods across large distances was not profitable for caravan operators. With productive developments in iron and bronze technologies, newer trade routes—dispensing innovations of civilizations—began to rise, evidence of maritime trade between civilizations dates back at least 90 millennia. Navigation was known in Sumer between the 4th and the 3rd millennium BCE, and was known by the Indians. The Egyptians had trade routes through the Red Sea, importing spices from the Land of Punt, maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the manipulation of the monsoon winds, soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. South Asia had multiple maritime trade routes which connected it to Southeast Asia, Indian connections to various Southeast Asian states buffered it from blockages on other routes. By making use of the trade routes, bulk commodity trade became possible for the Romans in the 2nd century BCE. A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at one-sixtieth the cost of over-land routes, the peninsula of Anatolia lay on the commercial land routes to Europe from Asia as well as the sea route from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. Records from the 19th century BCE attest to the existence of an Assyrian merchant colony at Kanesh in Cappadocia, trading networks of the Old World included the Grand Trunk Road of India and the Incense Road of Arabia. Parts of the Mediterranean world, Roman Britain, Tigris-Euphrates river system, beyond this was a margin which included not only temperate areas such as Europe, but the dry steppe corridor of central Asia. This was truly a world system, even though it occupied only a portion of the western Old World. Whilst each civilization emphasized its ideological autonomy, all were part of a common world of interacting components. These routes - spreading religion, trade and technology - have historically been vital to the growth of urban civilization
33.
Neatsfoot oil
–
Neatsfoot oil is a yellow oil rendered and purified from the shin bones and feet of cattle. Neat in the name comes from an old English word for cattle. Neatsfoot oil is used as a conditioning, softening and preservative agent for leather, in the 18th century, it was also used medicinally as a topical application for dry scaly skin conditions. Prime neatsfoot oil or neatsfoot oil compound are used for a blend of pure neatsfoot oil and non-animal oils. Fat from warm-blooded animals normally has a melting point, becoming hard when cool –. This characteristic of neatsfoot oil allows it to soak easily into leather, modern neatsfoot oil is still made from cattle-based products, and is sometimes criticized for a tendency to speed oxidation of leather. This formulation does darken leather, which means that use on light-colored leather is likely to change its color, if mineral oil or other petroleum-based material is added, the product may be called neatsfoot oil compound. Some brands have also shown to be adulterated with rapeseed oil, soya oil. The addition of mineral oils may lead to rapid decay of non-synthetic stitching or speed breakdown of the leather itself. After cattle are slaughtered, the feet and lower leg bones, including the skin, the oil that is released is skimmed off, filtered and pressed. The first pressing is the highest grade, the second pressing produces a lower grade oil, neatsfoot oil is used on a number of leather products, although it has been replaced by synthetic products for certain applications. Items such as gloves, saddles, horse harnesses and other horse tack can be softened and conditioned with neatsfoot oil. If used on important historical objects, neatsfoot oil can oxidize with time and it also may leave an oily residue that can attract dust. On newer leather, it may cause darkening, thus may not be a product to use when the maintenance of a lighter shade is desired. Neatsfoot oil is more useful for use on working equipment. Neatsfoot oil is used to oil sign-writers brushes that have been used in oil-based paint, as this oil is non drying. Oiling the brushes reduces the buildup of pigment in the ferrule, neatsfoot oil of the highest grade is used as a lubricant. It is used in metalworking industries as a fluid for aluminium
34.
Patina
–
Patina is a thin layer that variously forms on the surface of stone, on copper, bronze and similar metals, on wooden furniture, or any such acquired change of a surface through age and exposure. Patinas can provide a covering to materials that would otherwise be damaged by corrosion or weathering. They may also be aesthetically appealing, Patina also refers to accumulated changes in surface texture and colour that result from normal use of an object such as a coin or a piece of furniture over time. Archaeologists also use the term patina to refer to a layer that develops over time that is due to a range of complex factors on flint tools. This has led stone tool analysts in recent times to generally prefer the term cortification as a term to describe the process than patination. It also refers to development as the result of weathering of a layer, called cortex by geologists. The word patina comes from the Latin for shallow dish, figuratively, patina can refer to any fading, darkening or other signs of age, which are felt to be natural or unavoidable. The chemical process by which a patina forms is called patination, in clean air rural environments, the patina is created by the slow chemical reaction of copper with carbon dioxide and water, producing a basic copper carbonate. In industrial and urban air environments containing sulfurous acid rain from coal-fired power plants or industrial processes, a patina layer takes many years to develop under natural weathering. Buildings in damp coastal/marine environments will develop patina layers faster than ones in dry inland areas, facade cladding with alloys of copper, e. g. brass or bronze, will weather differently from pure copper cladding. Even a lasting gold colour is possible with copper-alloy cladding, for example Colston Hall in Bristol, or the Novotel at Paddington Central, often, antique and well-used firearms will develop a patina on the steel after the bluing, parkerizing, or other finish has worn. Firearms in this state are considered more valuable than ones that have been re-blued or parkerized. The patina protects the firearm from the more damaging rust that would occur were the patina to be polished off, the process is often called distressing. A wide range of chemicals, both household and commercial, can give a variety of patinas and they are often used by artists as surface embellishments either for color, texture, or both. Patination composition varies with the elements and these will determine the color of the patina. For copper alloys, such as bronze, exposure to chlorides leads to green, the basic palette for patinas on copper alloys includes chemicals like ammonium sulfide, liver of sulfur, cupric nitrate and ferric nitrate. For artworks, patination is often accelerated by applying chemicals with heat. Colors range from matte sandstone yellow to deep blues, greens, whites, reds, some patina colors are achieved by the mixing of colors from the reaction with the metal surface with pigments added to the chemicals
35.
Aniline leather
–
Aniline leather is a type of leather dyed exclusively with soluble dyes without covering the surface with a topcoat paint or insoluble pigments. The resulting product retains the natural surface with the grain, i. e. visible pores. For this reason, aniline leather is one of the most precious finishing in leather manufacturing, originally, the dyes used for this process were synthesized from aniline through chemical reactions. These dyes used to be called aniline dyes or tar dyes, typically, leather is dyed both for aesthetic reasons and to conceal blemishes. The dye colours leather without producing the surface of pigmented leather. Any visible variations on the surface of the undyed leather such as natural blemishes will remain visible, there are different kinds of aniline leather, but the same kinds of dyes are used in the process. The dyes used are clear and transparent chemicals that allow the structure of the leather to be seen. These dyes show the texture, but do not protect the leather from damage. Aniline leather may be referred to as full aniline or full sauvage leather to differentiate between this dye treatment and variants, semi-aniline leather is produced through a very similar process to full-aniline, but has a thin protective top coat added to protect it from wear and staining. Pull-up aniline leather has additional oil or wax applied to the leather to give it a distressed look
36.
Bicast leather
–
Bicast leather is a material made with a split leather backing covered with a layer of polyurethane that is applied to the surface and then embossed. Because it is used for the backing, the leather portion of this material is generally not visible in finished goods made from bicast. Bicast was originally made for the industry for glossy shoes. The resulting product has an artificially consistent texture that is easier to clean and maintain, when used for footwear, it cannot be considered equal to conventional leather as it lacks the strength, breatheability, and durability of the natural product. Furniture made with bicast exhibits none of the associated with aniline leather. With constant use, the layer may crack and split free of its backing. Modern technology enables up to four stratified layers being taken from a single hide, the leather used in the backing of bicast is a thin layer, remaining after other layers have been removed for traditional leather work. Furniture manufacturers say that the benefit of bicast leather is its surface appearance at a low price. Lower grades of leather can be used during the process, and treating with polyurethane gives a uniform shine. Bicast leather looks best, they say, on furniture with taut seat cushions and pillows and it can easily be cleaned with a damp cloth. New bicast leather furniture can have an odor, but this typically dissipates about a week after the piece is exposed to air. Alcantara Artificial leather Bonded leather Durasof Presstoff Ultrasuede
37.
Suede
–
Suede /ˈsweɪd/ is a type of leather with a napped finish, commonly used for jackets, shoes, shirts, purses, furniture and other items. The term comes from the French gants de Suède, which literally means gloves from Sweden, suede leather is made from the underside of the skin, primarily from lamb, although goat, calf and deer are commonly used. Splits from thick hides of cow and deer are also sueded, because suede does not include the tough exterior skin layer, suede is less durable but softer than standard leather. Its softness, thinness, and pliability make it suitable for clothing and delicate uses, suede was originally used for womens gloves, suede leather is also popular in upholstery, shoes, bags, and other accessories, and as a lining for other leather products. Due to its nature and open pores, suede may become dirty. Fabrics are often manufactured with a brushed or napped finish to resemble suede leather and these products often provide a similar look and feel to suede, but have advantages such as increased liquid or stain resistance, and may appeal to consumers who prefer a non-animal product. Sueded silk, sueded cotton and similar sueded fabrics are brushed, sanded or chemically treated for extra softness, suede yarns are generally thick and plush. Microsuede is a microfiber knit blend fabric with a soft finish and it has a great deal of stretch, and is very popular in upholstery as well as garments. Leather and suede are natural products derived from animal hide, while suede is made from the underside of the animal skin, leather is made from the outer side. Suede utilizes the dermis of the skin and because of this it is thinner, nubuck Ultrasuede Voris, 1930s-40s American fashion designer who worked exclusively in suede. The Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association, Clean It Fast, Clean It Right, The Ultimate Guide to Making Absolutely Everything You Own Sparkle & Shine. The Ultimate Guide to Skinning and Tanning, A Complete Guide to Working with Pelts, Fur, the Complete Book of Tanning Skins and Furs. Goldstein-Lynch, Ellen, Sarah Mullins, Nicole Malone, Making Leather Handbags and Other Stylish Accessories. Conservation of Leather and Related Materials, scholarly Publishing Office, University of Michigan Library. The Chemistry and Technology of Leather, American Chemical Society, Krieger Publishing Co. Parker, Sybil P. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, An International Reference Work
38.
Buckskin (leather)
–
Buckskin is the soft, pliable, porous preserved hide of an animal – usually deer – tanned in the same way as deerskin clothing worn by Native Americans. Some leather sold as buckskin may now be sheepskin tanned with modern chromate tanning chemicals, buckskin is preserved with a dressing of some kind of lubricant, physically manipulated to make it soft and pliable, and usually smoked with woodsmoke. Smoking gives buckskin its typical dark honey color, and is highly recommended, smoking prevents the tanned hide from becoming stiff if it gets wet, and deters insects from eating it as well. Unsmoked buckskin is lighter, even white, in color, buckskin is simply the skin of a buck. Clothing made of buckskin is referred to as buckskins, the dry-scrape method involves taking a wet deer hide and stretching it on a rack to dry flat. A scraping tool is then dragged perpendicular to the blade along the side, scraping off the epidermis and hair. The flesh side should be scraped as well, when the entire hide is scraped, it is taken off the rack, rehydrated, and dressed. The wet-scrape method involves scraping the wet hide on a smooth downward-slanting log or fleshing beam with the end at stomach or sternum level. A steel blade or split leg bone can be used for a scraper, the hide is draped on the log, the person leans into it, holding the hide in place with their body and pushing the scraper away with both hands. The epidermis is scraped off the outside of the hide to achieve a soft finish, the membrane is scraped off the flesh side. If the hide is more than a day or two old, it should be bucked first, via an alkali soaking process called bucking and this causes the grain layer to swell, making it easier to slip the hair and scrape off the grain. Once the hide has been scraped it must be dressed in a dressing solution and these can be made from any emulsified fat, such as egg yolks or the animals brain mixed into water. Another option is an oil and a mixed in water. Typically the wet hide is wrung out, then left in the solution for 15 minutes or more, then wrung out. Repeating this a third time ensures that the dressing reaches the middle of the hide and this is time sensitive, and has to be done from start to finish without stopping. The drying hide is continuously pulled and stretched in all directions, which lubricates the fibers of the hide with the oil of the dressing and this may be done on a rack with a stretching tool, or by hand. Often the hide is stretched against a cable or a rounded steel or wooden blade. This must be done until the hide is completely dry and no longer cool to the touch or else the finished buckskin will be stiff, the dry skin should now be completely supple and soft
39.
Braintanning
–
Buckskin is the soft, pliable, porous preserved hide of an animal – usually deer – tanned in the same way as deerskin clothing worn by Native Americans. Some leather sold as buckskin may now be sheepskin tanned with modern chromate tanning chemicals, buckskin is preserved with a dressing of some kind of lubricant, physically manipulated to make it soft and pliable, and usually smoked with woodsmoke. Smoking gives buckskin its typical dark honey color, and is highly recommended, smoking prevents the tanned hide from becoming stiff if it gets wet, and deters insects from eating it as well. Unsmoked buckskin is lighter, even white, in color, buckskin is simply the skin of a buck. Clothing made of buckskin is referred to as buckskins, the dry-scrape method involves taking a wet deer hide and stretching it on a rack to dry flat. A scraping tool is then dragged perpendicular to the blade along the side, scraping off the epidermis and hair. The flesh side should be scraped as well, when the entire hide is scraped, it is taken off the rack, rehydrated, and dressed. The wet-scrape method involves scraping the wet hide on a smooth downward-slanting log or fleshing beam with the end at stomach or sternum level. A steel blade or split leg bone can be used for a scraper, the hide is draped on the log, the person leans into it, holding the hide in place with their body and pushing the scraper away with both hands. The epidermis is scraped off the outside of the hide to achieve a soft finish, the membrane is scraped off the flesh side. If the hide is more than a day or two old, it should be bucked first, via an alkali soaking process called bucking and this causes the grain layer to swell, making it easier to slip the hair and scrape off the grain. Once the hide has been scraped it must be dressed in a dressing solution and these can be made from any emulsified fat, such as egg yolks or the animals brain mixed into water. Another option is an oil and a mixed in water. Typically the wet hide is wrung out, then left in the solution for 15 minutes or more, then wrung out. Repeating this a third time ensures that the dressing reaches the middle of the hide and this is time sensitive, and has to be done from start to finish without stopping. The drying hide is continuously pulled and stretched in all directions, which lubricates the fibers of the hide with the oil of the dressing and this may be done on a rack with a stretching tool, or by hand. Often the hide is stretched against a cable or a rounded steel or wooden blade. This must be done until the hide is completely dry and no longer cool to the touch or else the finished buckskin will be stiff, the dry skin should now be completely supple and soft
40.
Patent leather
–
Patent leather is a type of coated leather that has a very glossy, shiny finish. The coating process was introduced to the United States and improved by inventor Seth Boyden of Newark, New Jersey in 1818, boydens process, which he did not patent, used a linseed oil–based lacquer coating. Modern patent leather usually has a plastic coating, in general, patent leather begins as a superior grade of fine grain leather that undergoes a process to achieve the glossy look. However, patent leather primarily owes its popularity to Seth Boyden, reverse engineering the European patent leather, he ultimately discovered a way to produce his own patent leather. Using a formula that was based on a series of using layers of linseed oil-based coats. Boyden’s efforts resulted in the production of leather that quickly caught on as a complement for formal dress. Ironically, Boyden never patented his inventive process, successive coats of this mixture are applied, the skin being allowed to dry and the surface ground down with pumice-stone after each coat. Then the skins are blackened again with a fluid black mixed with turpentine, and hung up to dry again. After the skins have been allowed to settle, being laid in a pile for about a time, or longer if possible. A baking follows in an oven of moderate heat, the temperature is gradually raised and the baking continued three days. Exposure to the sun for ten hours completes the process, recently American manufacturers have been making patent leather from chrome-tanned skins. The product is different, as is also the process employed. Later, the substitution of plastics for multiple treatments with linseed oil allowed patent leather to be produced more cheaply, eventually, synthetic resins further simplified the process and cut production costs even further, making mass production of patent leather possible. In the UK fashion trends of the 1960s, shoes, boots, Patent shoes were available in red, white, blue, hot pink, orange, green and yellow, as well and black and white. Characterized by a finish that catches the light, patent leather comes in all colors just like regular leather. In addition to the finish, patent leather is also virtually waterproof. The visual aspects of patent leather have made it a material for formal accessories. Patent leather is sometimes confused with poromeric imitation leathers such as DuPonts Corfam and Kurarays Clarino, Patent leather and poromerics are cleaned in a similar way
41.
Seth Boyden
–
Seth Boyden was an American inventor. He was born in Foxboro, Massachusetts, on November 17,1798 and he had a brother, Uriah A. Boyden. He worked as a watchmaker and moved to Newark, New Jersey, Boyden perfected the process for making patent leather, created malleable iron, invented a nail-making machine, and built his own steamboat. He is also credited with having invented a cut off switch for steam engines, at the time of his death, he told friends that he had, even at that time, enough experiments on hand to last two whole lifetimes. Using a formula that was based on a series of using layers of linseed oil-based coats. Boyden’s efforts resulted in the production of leather that quickly caught on as a complement for formal dress. Ironically, Boyden never patented his inventive patent leather process, Boyden began his work with malleable iron in 1820, when he was 32 years old. From observing the behavior of iron that stuck to the walls of his grandfathers forge and he completed his research in 1826, and won an award from the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia two years later, who noted that Boydens annealed cast iron specimen No. This invention, now called blackheart iron, is one of the most important contributions to metallurgy by an American, several sources state that Boyden made the first American daguerreotype and this statement appears on a plaque at the base of a Boyden statue in Newarks Washington Park. While it has long accepted that D. W. A daguerrean camera built by Boyden still exists in the collection of the Newark Museum, Boyden rarely patented his inventions, preferring instead to take individual contracts and to build and sell off businesses. He did make large sums from this, but not enough to support his research, during the last 15 years of his life, Boyden lived in near-poverty in Hilton, New Jersey and developed a hybrid strawberry known as the Hilton strawberry. Seth Boydens name is found on a school in Maplewood, New Jersey. Additionally, a statue of Boyden stands in Newarks Washington Park and this statue is the first one raised in the United States which honored an engineer. Seth Boyden at Find a Grave Remembering the forgotten Seth Boyden at Google News Archive
42.
Newark, New Jersey
–
Newark is the most populous city in the U. S. state of New Jersey and the seat of Essex County. For 2015, the Census Bureaus Population Estimates Program calculated a population of 281,944, Newark is the second largest city in the New York metropolitan area, located approximately 8 miles west of lower Manhattan. Settled in 1666 by Puritans from New Haven Colony, Newark is one of the oldest European cities in the United States and its location at the mouth of the Passaic River, has made the citys waterfront an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey. Today, Port Newark-Elizabeth is the container shipping terminal of the busiest seaport on the American East Coast. In addition, Newark Liberty International Airport was the first municipal airport in the United States. Several leading companies have their headquarters in Newark, including Prudential, PSEG, Panasonic Corporation of North America, Audible. com, IDT Corporation, the U. S. District Court for the District of New Jersey sits in the city as well. Local cultural venues include the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, Newark Symphony Hall, The Prudential Center and the Newark Museum. Newark is divided into five wards, the East, West, South, North and Central wards. Newarks Branch Brook Park is the oldest county park in the United States and is home to the nations largest collection of cherry blossom trees, Newark was settled in 1666 by Connecticut Puritans led by Robert Treat from the New Haven Colony. It was conceived as an assembly of the faithful, though this did not last for long as new settlers came with different ideas. On October 31,1693 it was organized as a New Jersey township based on the Newark Tract, Newark was granted a Royal charter on April 27,1713. It was incorporated on February 21,1798 by the New Jersey Legislatures Township Act of 1798, during its time as a township, portions were taken to form Springfield Township, Caldwell Township, Orange Township, Bloomfield Township and Clinton Township. Newark was reincorporated as a city on April 11,1836, replacing Newark Township, the previously independent Vailsburg borough was annexed by Newark on January 1,1905. In 1926, South Orange Township changed its name to Maplewood, as a result of this, a portion of Maplewood known as Ivy Hill was re-annexed to Newarks Vailsburg. During the American Revolutionary War British troops made several raids into the town, the city has experienced revitalization since the 1990s. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 26.107 square miles. It has the third-smallest land area among the 100 most populous cities in the U. S. behind neighboring Jersey City and Hialeah, the citys altitude ranges from 0 in the east to approximately 230 feet above sea level in the western section of the city. Newark is essentially a large basin sloping towards the Passaic River, historically, Newarks high places have been its wealthier neighborhoods
Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
