1.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
2.
Army Reserve (United Kingdom)
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The Army Reserve is the active-duty volunteer reserve force and integrated element of the British Army. Most Volunteer infantry units had unique identities, but lost these in the reorganisation, only one infantry unit, the London Regiment, has maintained a separate identity. Reservists in the past also served as constables or bailiffs, even holding positions of civic duty as overseer of their parish, the more modern Yeomen of the 18th century were cavalry-based units, which were often used to suppress riots. Several units that are now part of the Army Reserve bear the title militia, after the Second World War, for example, the Army Reserve - or Territorial Army as it was known then - was not demobilised until 1947. All Army Reserve personnel have their jobs protected to a limited extent by law should they be compulsorily mobilised. There is, however, no protection against discrimination in employment for membership of the Army Reserve in the normal course of events. As part of the process, remaining units of militia were converted to the Special Reserve. The TF was formed on 1 April 1908 and contained fourteen infantry divisions and it had an overall strength of approximately 269,000. The individual units that made up each division or brigade were administered by County Associations, the other members of the association consisted of military members, representative members and co-opted members. Associations took over any property vested in the volunteers or yeomanry under their administration, each regiment or battalion had a Regular Army officer attached as full-time adjutant. In August 1914, after the outbreak of the First World War, territorial units were given the option of serving in France and, by 25 August, in excess of seventy battalions had volunteered. This question over the availability of territorial divisions for service was one of Lord Kitcheners motivations for raising the New Army separately. The first fully Territorial division to join the fighting on the Western Front was the 46th Division in March 1915, with divisions later serving in Gallipoli and elsewhere. As the war progressed, and casualties mounted, the character of territorial units was diluted by the inclusion of conscript. Following the Armistice all units of the Territorial Force were gradually disbanded, New recruiting started in early 1920, and the Territorial Force was reconstituted on 7 February 1920. On 1 October 1920, the Territorial Force was renamed the Territorial Army, the 1st Line divisions were reconstituted in that year. However, the composition of the divisions was altered, with a reduction in the number of infantry battalions required, there was also a reduced need for cavalry, and of the 55 yeomanry regiments, only the 14 most senior retained their horses. The remaining yeomanry were converted to artillery or armoured car units or disbanded, the amalgamation of 40 pairs of infantry battalions was announced in October 1921
3.
Carlton Barracks
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Carlton Barracks is a military installation in Leeds in West Yorkshire, England. The barracks were opened as a base for the 4th Battalion of the West Yorkshire Militia in 1865, in 1887 the barracks were bought, with corps funds, to accommodate the 3rd Battalion the Prince of Wales Regiment. In 1908, the 3rd battalion became the 7th and 8th battalions, at the start of the First World War so many men reported to Carlton Barracks in response to the call to arms that the War Office decided to form two second line battalions. After the Second World War the headquarters of 45th Royal Tank Regiment was established at the barracks as was the headquarters of 269 Field Regiment Royal Artillery, other Army Reserve units based at the barracks now include 49 Signal Squadron and B Squadron 23 Special Air Service
4.
Leeds
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Leeds /liːdz/ is a city in West Yorkshire, England. Historically in Yorkshires West Riding, the history of Leeds can be traced to the 5th century when the name referred to an area of the Kingdom of Elmet. The name has applied to many administrative entities over the centuries. It changed from being the appellation of a small borough in the 13th century, through several incarnations. In the 17th and 18th centuries Leeds became a centre for the production. During the Industrial Revolution, Leeds developed into a mill town, wool was the dominant industry but flax, engineering, iron foundries, printing. From being a market town in the valley of the River Aire in the 16th century Leeds expanded and absorbed the surrounding villages to become a populous urban centre by the mid-20th century. The city has the third largest jobs total by local authority area with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. Leeds is also ranked as a world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Leeds is served by four universities, and has the fourth largest student population in the country and has the fourth largest urban economy. After London, Leeds is the largest legal and financial centre in the UK, with over 30 national and international banks located in the city. Leeds is also the UKs third largest manufacturing centre with around 1,800 firms and 39,000 employees, the largest sub-sectors are engineering, printing and publishing, food and drink, chemicals and medical technology. Outside of London, Leeds has the third busiest railway station, Public transport, rail and road communications networks in the region are focused on Leeds and there are a number of twinning arrangements with towns and cities in other countries. The name Leeds derives from the old Brythonic word Ladenses meaning people of the fast-flowing river and this name originally referred to the forested area covering most of the Brythonic kingdom of Elmet, which existed during the 5th century into the early 7th century. An inhabitant of Leeds is locally known as a Loiner, a word of uncertain origin, the term Leodensian is also used, from the citys Latin name. Leeds developed as a town in the Middle Ages as part of the local agricultural economy. Before the Industrial Revolution it became a centre for the manufacture of woollen cloth. Leeds handled one sixth of Englands export trade in 1770, growth, initially in textiles, was accelerated by the building of the Aire and Calder Navigation in 1699 and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1816
5.
Maple leaf
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The maple leaf is the characteristic leaf of the maple tree, and is the most widely recognized national symbol of Canada. At the beginning of the century, the settlements located in New France had attained a population of about 18,000. By this time, the leaf had been adopted as an emblem by the French Canadians along the Saint Lawrence River. Speaking in its favour, Jacques Viger, the first mayor of Montreal, the symbol of the Canadian people. The maple leaf slowly caught on as a symbol, in 1868. Historically, the maple leaf had represented Ontario, while the green maple leaf had represented Quebec. In 1867, Alexander Muir composed the patriotic The Maple Leaf Forever, from 1876 until 1901, the leaf appeared on all Canadian coins, and remained on the penny after 1901. During the First World War, badges of the Canadian Expeditionary Force were often based on a leaf design. The use of the leaf as a regimental symbol extended back to the 1800s. Earlier official uses of a leaf design often used more than 30 points. The one chosen is a maple leaf representing the ten species of maple tree native to Canada—at least one of these species grows natively in every province. The maple leaf is used on the Canadian flag, logos of various Canadian-based companies. Examples include Air Canada, McDonalds Canada, General Motors Canada, the Toronto Maple Leafs NHL franchise, the Toronto FC soccer club and it is also used by the Federal Government as a personification and identifier on its websites, as part of the governments wordmark. Since 1979, the Royal Canadian Mint has produced gold, silver, platinum, and palladium bullion coins, the Trans Canada Highway uses a green maple leaf. The Italian city of Campobasso was known as Canada City or in a minor way Maple Leaf City, since during the Second World War, Canadian troops invaded the city, moreover, the city has a huge variety of maples which can be found even in the streets. The U. S. city of Carthage, Missouri is nicknamed Americas Maple Leaf City and it is one of the featured symbols on the emblem of the Pakistani province of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, along with several other regional institutions due to the trees prevalence in the area. The city of Chehalis, Washington was known as The Maple-Leaf City, the city of Hornell, New York is known as The Maple City. The mascot of Goshen College in Goshen, Indiana, is the Maple Leaf, in Estonia and Lithuania, inexperienced drivers are obliged to have a green maple leaf sign visible on the vehicle, serving a similar function that a P-plate does in some other countries
6.
Brigadier (United Kingdom)
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Brigadier-general was formerly a rank or appointment in the British Army and Royal Marines, and briefly in the Royal Air Force. It first appeared in the army in the reign of James II, the appointment was abolished in both the Army and the Marines in 1921, being replaced in the Army by the appointments of colonel-commandant and colonel on the staff. Colonel-commandant was in turn replaced by the appointment of brigadier in both the Army and the Marines in 1928, from the formation of the Royal Air Force on 1 April 1918 until 31 July 1919, it used the appointment of brigadier-general. This was superseded by the rank of air commodore on the following day, the equivalent naval appointment was commodore. Brigadier is the highest field officer rank, whereas brigadier-general was the lowest general officer rank, however, the two ranks are considered equal
7.
Volunteer Force
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The Volunteer Force was a citizen army of part-time rifle, artillery and engineer corps, created as a popular movement throughout the British Empire in 1859. Originally highly autonomous, the units of volunteers became increasingly integrated with the British Army after the Childers Reforms in 1881, most of the regiments of the present Territorial Army Infantry, Artillery, Engineers and Signals units are directly descended from Volunteer Force units. During the Crimean War, the War Office had been forced to send militia, the situation had been complicated by the fact that both auxiliary forces were under the control of the Home Office until 1855. Tensions rose between the United Kingdom and France following the Orsini affair, an attempt on Emperor Napoleon III on 14 January 1858. It emerged that the assassin, Felice Orsini had travelled to England to have the bombs used in the attack manufactured in Birmingham. On 29 April 1859 war broke out between France and the Austrian Empire, and there were fears that Britain might be caught up in a wider European conflict. Volunteer corps were to be raised under the provisions of the Volunteer Act 1804, alfred Tennyson captured the spirit of the time by publishing his poem Riflemen Form in The Times on 9 May 1859. As a basis for the units, many communities had rifle clubs for the enjoyment of the sport of shooting, Corps were only to be formed on the recommendation of the county’s lord-lieutenant. The force was liable to be called out “in case of invasion, or of appearance of an enemy in force on the coast, or in case of rebellion arising in either of these emergencies. ”While under arms volunteers were subject to military law and were entitled to be billeted. Members were not permitted to quit the force during actual military service, members were to be returned as “effective” if they had attended eight days drill and exercise in four months, or 24 days within a year. The members of the corps were to provide their own arms and equipment, Volunteers were also permitted to choose the design of their uniforms, subject to the lord-lieutenant’s approval. Although volunteers were to pay for their own firearms, they were to be provided under the superintendence of the War Office, the number of officers and private men in each county and corps was to be settled by the war office, based on the lord-lieutenant’s recommendation. Originally corps were to consist of approximately 100 all ranks under the command of a captain, the purpose of the rifle corps was to harass the invading enemy’s flanks, while artillery corps were to man coastal guns and forts. Although not mentioned in the letter, engineer corps were also formed. Stretcher-bearers attached to the rifle corps subsequently formed volunteer medical detachments affiliated to the Army Medical Corps, in a handful of counties, units of light horse or mounted rifles were formed. Two volunteer units whose services had been accepted by Queen Victoria during the early 1850s became the two senior rifle corps of the new force and these were the 1st Rifle Volunteer Corps who became the 1st Devonshire Rifle Volunteers and the Victoria Rifles who became the 1st Middlesex Rifle Volunteers. An order of precedence was established for other counties, depending upon the date of establishment of the first corps in the county. The most senior artillery corps was the 1st Northumberland formed at Tynemouth on August 2,1859, some also compared the initiative, small unit tactics and marksmanship principles of rifle regiments of the Napoleonic Wars compared with the linear tactics of the standing army
8.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
9.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
10.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
11.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
12.
North African Campaign
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The North African Campaign of the Second World War took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco, the campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had colonial interests in Africa dating from the late 19th century. The Allied war effort was dominated by the British Commonwealth and exiles from German-occupied Europe, the United States entered the war in December 1941 and began direct military assistance in North Africa on 11 May 1942. Fighting in North Africa started with the Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940, on 14 June, the British Armys 11th Hussars crossed the border from Egypt into Libya and captured the Italian Fort Capuzzo. Information gleaned via British Ultra code-breaking intelligence proved critical to Allied success in North Africa, victory for the Allies in this campaign immediately led to the Italian Campaign, which culminated in the downfall of the fascist government in Italy and the elimination of a German ally. On 10 May 1940, the Wehrmacht had started the Battle of France, one month later, it was plain to see that France would have to surrender within two weeks. On 10 June 1940, the Kingdom of Italy aligned itself with Nazi Germany and declared war upon France, British forces based in Egypt were ordered to undertake defensive measures, but to act as non-provocatively as possible. However, on 11 June they began a series of raids against Italian positions in Libya, following the defeat of France on 25 June, Italian forces in Tripolitania—facing French troops based in Tunisia—redeployed to Cyrenaica to reinforce the Italian Tenth Army. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini ordered the Tenth Army to invade Egypt by 8 August, two days later, no invasion having been launched, Mussolini ordered Marshal Graziani that, the moment German forces launched Operation Sea Lion, he was to attack. The battle plan was to advance along the road, while limited armoured forces operated on the desert flank. To counter the Italian advance, Wavell ordered his forces to harass the advancing Italians, falling back towards Mersa Matruh. Positioned on the flank was the 7th Armoured Division, which would strike the flank of the Italian force. By 16 September, the Italian force had advanced to Maktila, around 80 mi west of Mersa Matruh, in response to the dispersed Italian camps, the British planned a limited five-day attack, Operation Compass, to strike at these fortified camps one by one. The British Commonwealth force, totalling 36,000 men, attacked the forward elements of the 10-division-strong Italian army on 9 December, following their initial success, the forces of Operation Compass pursued the retreating Italian forces. In January, the port at Bardia was taken, soon followed by the seizure of the fortified port of Tobruk. Some 40,000 Italians were captured in and around the two ports, with the remainder of the Tenth Army retreating along the coast road back to El Agheila. Richard OConnor sent the 7th Armoured Division across the desert, with a reconnaissance group reaching Beda Fomm some ninety minutes before the Italians. Although desperate attempts were made to overcome the British force at the Battle of Beda Fomm, the Italians were unable to break through, and the remnants of the retreating army surrendered
13.
Italian Campaign (World War II)
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The Italian Campaign of World War II was the name of Allied operations in and around Italy, from 1943 to the end of the war in Europe. It is estimated that between September 1943 and April 1945, some 60, 000–70,000 Allied and 60, overall Allied casualties during the campaign totaled about 320,000 and the corresponding German figure was well over 600,000. Fascist Italy, prior to its collapse, suffered about 200,000 casualties, mostly POWs taken in the Allied invasion of Sicily, including more than 40,000 killed or missing. Besides them, over 150,000 Italian civilians died, as did 15,197 anti-Fascist partisans and 13,021 troops of the Italian Social Republic. The campaign ended when Army Group C surrendered unconditionally to the Allies on May 2,1945, the independent states of San Marino and the Vatican, both surrounded by Italian territory, also suffered damage during the campaign. Even prior to victory in the North African Campaign in May 1943, the British, especially the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, advocated their traditional naval-based peripheral strategy. The United States, with a larger army, favoured a more direct method of fighting the main force of the German Army in Northern Europe. The ability to such a campaign depended on first winning the Battle of the Atlantic. There was even pressure from some Latin American countries to stage an invasion of Spain, the British argued that the presence of large numbers of troops trained for amphibious landings in the Mediterranean made a limited-scale invasion possible and useful. A contributing factor was Franklin D. Roosevelts desire to keep US troops active in the European theatre during 1943 and it was hoped that an invasion might knock Italy out of the conflict, or at least increase the pressure on them and weaken them further. A combined Allied invasion of Sicily began on 10 July 1943 with both amphibious and airborne landings at the Gulf of Gela, the land forces involved were the U. S. Seventh Army, under Lieutenant General George S. Patton, the original plan contemplated a strong advance by the British northwards along the east coast to Messina, with the Americans in a supporting role along their left flank. The defending German and Italian forces were unable to prevent the Allied capture of the island, but succeeded in evacuating most of their troops to the mainland, the Allied forces gained experience in opposed amphibious operations, coalition warfare and mass airborne drops. Forces of the British Eighth Army, still under Montgomery, landed in the toe of Italy on 3 September 1943 in Operation Baytown, the armistice was publicly announced on 8 September by two broadcasts, first by General Eisenhower and then by a proclamation by Marshal Badoglio. Although the German forces prepared to defend without Italian assistance, only two of their divisions opposite the Eighth Army and one at Salerno were not tied up disarming the Royal Italian Army, on 9 September, forces of the U. S. Fifth Army, under Lieutenant General Mark W, although none of the northern reserves were made available to the German 10th Army, it nevertheless came close to repelling the Salerno landing, due mainly to the cautious command of Clark. As the Allies advanced, they encountered increasingly difficult terrain, the Apennine Mountains form a spine along the Italian peninsula offset somewhat to the east, the rivers were subject to sudden and unexpected flooding, which constantly thwarted the Allied commanders plans. This would make the most of the natural geography of Central Italy, whilst denying the Allies the easy capture of a succession of airfields
14.
Burma Campaign
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The Burmese Independence Army was trained by the Japanese and spearheaded the initial attacks against British Empire forces. The campaign had a number of notable features, the geographical characteristics of the region meant that factors like weather, disease and terrain had a major effect on operations. The lack of transport infrastructure placed an emphasis on engineering and air transport to move and supply troops. The campaign was politically complex, with the British, the United States. It was also the land campaign by the Western Allies in the Pacific Theatre which proceeded continuously from the start of hostilities to the end of the war. This was due to its geographical location, the climate of the region is dominated by the seasonal monsoon rains, which allowed effective campaigning for only just over half of each year. Japanese objectives in Burma were initially limited to the capture of Rangoon and this would close the overland supply line to China and provide a strategic bulwark to defend Japanese gains in British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies. The Japanese successfully attacked over the Kawkareik Pass, and captured the port of Moulmein at the mouth of the Salween River after overcoming stiff resistance and they then advanced northwards, outflanking successive British defensive positions. Troops of the 17th Indian Infantry Division tried to retreat over the Sittaung River, on 22 February, the bridge was demolished to prevent its capture, a decision that has since been extremely contentious. The loss of two brigades of 17th Indian Division meant that Rangoon could not be defended, although some units arrived, counterattacks failed and the new commander of Burma Army, ordered the city to be evacuated on 7 March after its port and oil refinery had been destroyed. The remnants of Burma Army broke out to the north, narrowly escaping encirclement, with the effective collapse of the entire defensive line, there was little choice left other than an overland retreat to India or to Yunnan. After the fall of Rangoon in March 1942, the Allies attempted to make a stand in the north of the country, having been reinforced by a Chinese Expeditionary Force. The Japanese had also reinforced by two divisions made available by the capture of Singapore, and defeated both the newly organised Burma Corps and the Chinese force. The Allies were also faced with growing numbers of Burmese insurgents, with their forces cut off from almost all sources of supply, the Allied commanders finally decided to evacuate their forces from Burma. The retreat was conducted in very difficult circumstances, starving refugees, disorganised stragglers, and the sick and wounded clogged the primitive roads and tracks leading to India. Burma Corps managed to make it most of the way to Imphal, in Manipur in India just before the monsoon broke in May 1942, having lost most of their equipment, there, they found themselves living out in the open under torrential rains in extremely unhealthy circumstances. The army and civil authorities in India were very slow to respond to the needs of the troops, due to lack of communication, when the British retreated from Burma, almost none of the Chinese knew about the retreat. After recuperating they were re-equipped and retrained by American instructors, the rest of the Chinese troops tried to return to Yunnan through remote mountainous forests and out of these, at least half died
15.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
16.
West Riding of Yorkshire
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The West Riding of Yorkshire is one of the three historic subdivisions of Yorkshire, England. From 1889 to 1974 the administrative county, County of York, the lieutenancy at that time included the City of York and as such was named West Riding of the County of York and the County of the City of York. The West Riding encompasses 1,771,562 acres from Sheffield in the south to Sedbergh in the north and from Dunsop Bridge in the west to Adlingfleet in the east. Unlike most English counties that were divided into hundreds, Yorkshire, being so large, was divided first into thrithjungar, each riding was then divided into wapentakes, a division comparable to the hundreds of Southern England and the wards of Englands four northern-most historic counties. The wapentakes of the West Riding were Agbrigg and Morley, Barkston Ash, Ewcross, Claro, Osgoldcross, Skyrack, Staincliffe, Staincross, Strafforth, major centres elsewhere in the riding included Harrogate and Ripon. Outside the industrial region were Goole, Ilkley, Knaresborough and Selby, the West Riding also contained a large rural area to the north including part of the Yorkshire Dales National Park. Initially there were five in number, Bradford, Leeds, Huddersfield, Halifax, the City of York was included in the county for census and lieutenancy purposes. The number of county boroughs increased over the years, Rotherham gained this status in 1902, Barnsley and Dewsbury in 1913, Wakefield in 1915, the boundaries of existing county boroughs were also widened. Beginning in 1898, the West Riding County Council was based at the County Hall in Wakefield, the Local Government Act 1888 included the entirety of Todmorden with the West Riding administrative county, and also in its lieutenancy area. Other boundary changes in the county included the expansion of the county borough of Sheffield southward in areas historically in Derbyshire such as Dore, fingerposts erected in the West Riding until the mid-1960s had a distinctive style. At the top of the post was a roundel in the form of a circle with a horizontal line across the middle, displaying Yorks W. R. the name of the fingerposts location. Other counties, apart from Dorset, did not display a grid reference, from 1964, many fingerposts were replaced by ones in the modern style, but some of the old style still survive within the West Riding boundaries. By 19711,924,853 people lived in the administrative county, within the West Riding of Yorkshire there were ten wapentakes in total, four of which were split into two divisions, those were— Claro, Skyrack, Strafforth and Tickhill and Staincliffe. The wapentake of Agbrigg and Morley was created two divisions but was later split into two separate wapentakes
17.
Tetley's Brewery
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Tetleys Brewery was an English regional brewery founded in 1822 by Joshua Tetley in Hunslet, now a suburb of Leeds, West Yorkshire. The beer was produced at the Leeds Brewery, which was later renamed the Leeds Tetley Brewery to avoid confusion with a microbrewery of the same name. A takeover of the nearby Melbourne Brewery in 1960 secured Tetleys position as the largest brewer in Leeds and that same year they merged with Walkers of Warrington to form Tetley Walker. Tetley Walker had an estate of over 1,000 tied houses in Yorkshire alone, in 1961 Tetley merged with Ind Coope of Burton upon Trent and Ansells of Birmingham to form Allied Breweries, then the worlds largest brewing conglomerate. At its height in the 1960s, the Leeds Brewery employed a thousand people, in 1978 Allied merged with J. Lyons to form Allied Lyons. The brewery became the worlds largest producer of cask ale during the 1980s, in 1998 Tetley was taken over by Carlsberg Group. The Leeds Brewery was closed in 2011, and demolished in 2012, with production contracted out by Carlsberg to breweries in Wolverhampton, Tadcaster, Tetley still sponsors professional rugby teams Leeds Rhinos and Leeds Carnegie. Tetleys is the eleventh highest selling brand in the United Kingdom. It is the second highest selling ale brand in the world after John Smiths and its main products are Tetleys Cask and Tetleys Smoothflow. The Tetley familys links with the industry go back to the 1740s when William Tetley was described as a maltster in Armley. His son William expanded the business, which in turn was passed to his son Joshua, in 1822, Joshua leased a brewery in Salem Place, Hunslet for £409. Joshua Tetley and Son was created in 1839 when Joshua made his son, Francis William, by this time the brewery was turning a profit of almost £3000 a year. By 1848 the brewery employed 32 men, construction of a new brewery designed by George Corson began in 1852. Joshua died in 1859, leaving the business to Francis, who took on his brother in law, Charles Ryder, by 1860 Tetley was the largest brewery in the North of England and by 1864 the company had begun an ambitious building scheme. Although Tetley mostly brewed mild throughout the century, it also began to brew pale ale. By 1875, annual production was 171,500 barrels. Tetley bought its first two houses in 1890. Only one remains today, The Fleece in Farsley, Leeds, the other, the Duke William, which was in Tetley’s yard, was unceremoniously demolished by Carlsberg in 2002
18.
Leeds Town Hall
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Leeds Town Hall was built between 1853 and 1858 on Park Lane, Leeds, West Yorkshire, England, to a design by architect Cuthbert Brodrick. Until early 1813, the Moot Hall at the top of Briggate was the seat of Leeds Corporation and was used for judicial purposes and it was replaced by a new court house on Park Row, Leeds. In July 1850, Leeds Borough Council decided to build a new town hall, in order to finance the town hall, the council proposed to sell shares in the building to the value of £10 but the proposal failed. The town hall was approved in January 1851 when Alderman Hepper put the motion to the council and it was intended to represent Leeds emergence as an important industrial centre during the Industrial Revolution and symbolize civic pride and confidence. Leeds Corporation tendered for designs from architects and the contract was won by Cuthbert Brodrick, the building contract went to Samuel Atack, who completed most of its construction before the hazards of a large building project ultimately led to his bankruptcy. Leeds Town Hall was subject to criticism during its construction. The original estimated costs were vastly exceeded and the corporation had to find extra funding at a time there was great poverty among the Leeds working classes. The town hall provided accommodation for municipal departments, a courtroom, police station or central office. It still has a role as an office, although many departments have been relocated. The principal performance space, the richly decorated Victoria Hall, is a venue for orchestral concerts. Its concert organ, the largest three manual example in Europe, is used for organ recitals, many given by Dr Simon Lindley. Dr Lindley is also Organist and Master of the Music at Leeds Minster, during the war the town hall housed an ARP post in the basement and from 1942 a British Restaurant, which proved popular after the war, being refurbished in 1960 before closing in 1966. On 14 and 15 March 1941, Leeds was bombed by the Luftwaffe, the damage was repaired shortly after. In May 1942,25,000 people turned out to hear a given by Winston Churchill on the steps of the town hall. The then Prime Minister praised the efforts of the civilian workforce, in 1999 and 2000, when the adjacent library was being refurbished, it provided storage and a small lending library operated from the crypt. The town hall is used by the city council as a register office, weddings and civil partnerships take place in the Albert or Brodrick Suites. The former courtrooms are now the Albert Room, a suite with adjacent bar. Today the town hall is used for concerts and formal civic functions
19.
Benjamin Gott
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Benjamin Gott was one of the leading figures in the industrial revolution, in the field of textiles. His factory at Armley Mills, Armley, Leeds, was once the largest factory in the world and is now home to the Armley Mills Industrial Museum. Gott was born in Calverley, Pudsey in West Yorkshire, England, to John Gott who was a civil engineer, benjamin was sent to Bingley Grammar School until he was 17. When he finished school in 1780, his father apprenticed him to Wormald & Fountaine, Gotts most notable contribution to the industrial revolution happened at Armley Mills, which he leased in 1804. The mill had been damaged by fire when he bought the ruins and ordered that the rebuilding include cast iron internal frames. When the repairs were completed in 1805, the new factory was the largest wool factory in the world, Gott experimented with new ways of making wool cloth, introducing innovations such as using steam power and power looms. Gott made a fortune, and he reinvested much of it back into improving his mills. He also founded almshouses in Armley, collected art. His other mills included Bean Ings, the first wool factory, Burley Mills, Gott became Mayor of Leeds in 1799, and, by the time he died in 1841, he was a millionaire. His home, Armley House and grounds designed by Humphrey Repton overlooked the Kirkstall Valley, in 1928 Gotts house and grounds were leased by Leeds City Council to create a municipal golf course and Armley Park
20.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
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Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian general, politician and nationalist who played a large role in the history of Italy. He is considered, with Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and Giuseppe Mazzini, Garibaldi personally commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led eventually to the Italian unification. He has been called the Hero of Two Worlds because of his enterprises in Brazil, Uruguay. These earned him a reputation in Italy and abroad, aided by exceptional international media coverage at the time. Many of the greatest intellectuals of his time, such as Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, the United Kingdom and the United States helped him a great deal, offering him financial and military support in difficult circumstances. In the popular telling of his story, he is associated with the red worn by his volunteers in lieu of a uniform. In 1814, the Congress of Vienna returned Nice to Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia, Garibaldis familys involvement in coastal trade drew him to a life at sea. He participated actively in the Niçois community and was certified in 1832 as a merchant navy captain, in April 1833 he travelled to Taganrog, Russia, in the schooner Clorinda with a shipment of oranges. During ten days in port he met Giovanni Battista Cuneo from Oneglia, Mazzini was an impassioned proponent of Italian unification as a liberal republic through political and social reform. Garibaldi joined the society and took an oath dedicating himself to the struggle to liberate, in Geneva during November 1833, Garibaldi met Mazzini, starting a long relationship that later became troublesome. He joined the Carbonari revolutionary association, and in February 1834 participated in a failed Mazzinian insurrection in Piedmont, a Genoese court sentenced him to death in absentia, and he fled across the border to Marseille. Garibaldi first sailed to Tunisia before eventually finding his way to the Empire of Brazil, once there he took up the cause of Republic of Rio Grande do Sul in its attempt to separate from Brazil, joining the rebels known as the Ragamuffins in the Ragamuffin War. During this war he met Ana Ribeiro da Silva, commonly known as Anita, in 1841, Garibaldi and Anita moved to Montevideo, Uruguay, where Garibaldi worked as a trader and schoolmaster. The couple married in Montevideo the following year and they had four children – Menotti, Rosita, Teresita, and Ricciotti. A skilled horsewoman, Anita is said to have taught Giuseppe about the culture of southern Brazil. Around this time, he adopted his trademark clothing, which consisted of the red shirt, poncho, and sombrero commonly worn by the gauchos. In 1842 Garibaldi took command of the Uruguayan fleet and raised an Italian Legion, of known as Redshirts. He aligned his forces with a composed of the Uruguayan Colorados led by Fructuoso Rivera
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Expedition of the Thousand
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The Expedition of the Thousand was an event of the Italian Risorgimento that took place in 1860. A corps of volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi landed in Sicily in order to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the project was an ambitious and risky venture aiming to conquer, with a thousand men, a kingdom with a larger regular army and a more powerful navy. However, the Expedition was instigated by Francesco Crispi, who utilized his political influence to bolster the Italian unification project. In 1860 Garibaldi, already the most famous Italian revolutionary leader, was in Genoa planning an expedition against Sicily and Naples, Sicilian leaders, among them Francesco Crispi, were discontented with Neapolitan rule over the island. The Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont needed a presentable casus belli in order to attack the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This was needed for the House of Savoy, which never gave any declaration of war against the Bourbon kingdom. The only occurrence that would have satisfied this requirement was an uprising from within, in March 1860, exile Rosolino Pilo exhorted Giuseppe Garibaldi to take charge of an expedition to liberate Southern Italy from Bourbon rule. At first, Garibaldi was against it, but eventually agreed, by May 1860, Garibaldi had collected 1,089 volunteers for his expedition to Sicily. The largest number of volunteers came from Lombardy, other significant numbers of volunteers came from occupied Venetia Genoa and Tuscany. There were about 45 Sicilian volunteers and 46 Neapolitan volunteers - but only 11 from Rome, thirty three foreigners joined the expedition, amongst them István Türr and three other Hungarians and fourteen Italians from the Trentino of the Austrian Empire. The majority of the volunteers were students and artisans from the lower classes, the 1,089 volunteers were poorly armed with dated muskets and were dressed in a minimalist uniform - consisting of a red shirt and grey trousers. During the night of 5 May, a group led by Nino Bixio seized two steamships in Genoa from the Rubattino shipping company in order to transport the volunteers to Sicily. They took the two ships, which they had renamed Il Piemonte and Il Lombardo, to the rocks at Quarto dei Mille, Genoa. The ships landed at Marsala, on the westernmost point of Sicily, on 11 May, the Lombardo was attacked and sunk only after the disembarkation had been completed, while the Piemonte was captured. The landing had been preceded by the arrival of Francesco Crispi and others, on 14 May, at Salemi, Garibaldi announced that he was assuming dictatorship over Sicily in the name of King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia. The Mille won a first battle at Calatafimi against around 2,000 Neapolitan troops on 15 May. The battle boosted the morale of the Mille and, at the time, depressed the Neapolitans, who were poorly led by their often corrupted higher officers. Having promised land to every male who volunteered to fight against the Bourbons the ranks of the Mille enlarged to 1,200 with local men, on 27 May, with the help of a popular insurrection, the Mille laid siege to Palermo, the islands capital
22.
Anglo-Zulu War
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The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom. In 1874, Sir Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner for the British Empire to bring such plans into being, among the obstacles were the presence of the independent states of the South African Republic and the Kingdom of Zululand and its army. Bartle Frere then sent Lord Chelmsford to invade Zululand after this ultimatum was not met, the war eventually resulted in a British victory and the end of the Zulu nations dominance of the region. By the 1870s the British Empire had colonies in southern Africa bordering on various Boer settlements, native African kingdoms such as the Zulus, various interactions with these followed an expansionist policy. Cape Colony had been formed after the Anglo–Dutch Treaty of 1814 permanently ceded the Dutch colony of Cape Town to Britain, and its territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s. The Colony of Natal was a British colony in south-eastern Africa that had proclaimed a British colony on 4 May 1843 after the British government had annexed the Boer Republic of Natalia. Matters were brought to a head when three sons and a brother of the Zulu chief Sirayo organized a raid into Natal and carried off two women who were under British protection. The discovery of diamonds in 1867 near the Vaal River, some 550 miles northeast of Cape Town, ended the isolation of the Boers in the interior, in the 1870s, the British annexed West Griqualand, site of the Kimberley diamond discoveries. In 1874 Lord Carnarvon, Secretary of State for the Colonies, the South African plan called for a ruling white minority over a subjugated black majority, which would provide a large pool of cheap labor for the British sugar plantations and mines. In 1877, Sir Bartle Frere was made High Commissioner for Southern Africa by Lord Carnarvon, Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner to bring it about. One of the obstacles to such a scheme was the presence of the independent states of the South African Republic, informally known as the Transvaal Republic, and the Kingdom of Zululand. Bartle Frere wasted no time in putting the scheme forward and manufacturing a casus belli against the Zulu by exaggerating the significance of a number of recent incidents. By 1877, Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British Secretary for Native Affairs in Natal, the successive British annexations, and in particular the annexation of West Griqualand, however caused a climate of simmering unease for the Boer republics. In his new role of Administrator of the Transvaal, he was now responsible for protecting the Transvaal and had involvement in the Zulu border dispute from the side of the Transvaal. Persistent Boer representations and Paul Krugers diplomatic manoeuvrings added to the pressure, King Cetshwayo now found no defender in Natal save the bishop of Natal, John Colenso. Colenso advocated for native Africans in Natal and Zululand who had been treated by the colonial regime in Natal. In 1874 he took up the cause of Langalibalele and the Hlubi and Ngwe tribes in representations to the Colonial Secretary, Langalibalele had been falsely accused of rebellion in 1873 and, following a charade of a trial, was found guilty and imprisoned on Robben Island. He was a prominent critic of Sir Bartle Freres efforts to depict the Zulu kingdom as a threat to Natal, colensos campaigns revealed the dark, racist foundation underpinning the colonial regime in Natal and made him enemies among the colonists
23.
West Yorkshire Regiment
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The West Yorkshire Regiment was an infantry regiment of the British Army. The regiment was raised by Sir Edward Hales in 1685, by order of King James II, one of the nine new regiments of foot, raised to meet the Monmouth Rebellion it was termed Haless Regiment. The regiment served in Flanders between 1693 and 1696 and gained its first battle honour at Namur in 1695,1715 saw the regiment moved to Scotland to fight the Jacobite risings. In 1727 the regiment played a part in defending Gibraltar against the Spanish. 1745 saw the regiment in Flanders fighting at Fontenoy before being recalled to Scotland by Cumberland to fight the 45 Rebellion, fighting at Falkirk and Culloden, it became the 14th of Foot in 1751. The regiment returned to Gibraltar in 1751 for another 8-year stay, in 1765, when stationed at Windsor, it was granted royal permission for the grenadiers to wear bearskin caps with the White Horse of Hanover signifying the favour of the King. In 1766, the regiment left Portsmouth for North America and was stationed in Nova Scotia, the 14th although at the ready in their barracks did not play a part in the Boston Massacre. Captain Thomas was the officer of the day in charge of the duty detail that faced the crowds outside of the Customs House. The crowd that gathered began taunting the detail until a shot, then volley was fired into the crowd, captain Preston and the detail went to trial and were successfully defended by Lawyer John Adams thus ending tensions between the crown and the citizens of Boston for the time being. The 14th would remain part of the Boston Garrison until 1772, in 1772, the 14th arrived in St Vincent as part of the force to subjugate the maroons. Due to bush fighting and disease the regiment was depleted in numbers, at dawn on 1 January 1776, the fleet opened fire on Norfolk. Between the firing of the buildings and the firing on the town. After the fleet left, the rebels reoccupied what remained of the town, after all was said and done,1,298 buildings were destroyed and the 5th largest city in colonial America ceased to exist. After Norfolk, the left for Turkey Point near Portsmouth where it would base operations. While at Turkey Point there were a series of small raids, the fleet would stay at Turkey point only until late May when it would leave for Gwynns Island. In August, the fleet withdrew from the Chesapeake and headed to New York, the 14th was withdrawn from service, it being severely under strength from disease and battle in both the Caribbean and Virginia. In New York the remaining men of the regiment were used to supplement other regiments in the area, the officers were sent back to Britain to recruit a new regiment. The rifle companies fought well at the battle of Brandywine in Pennsylvania on 11 September, after the experimental rifle companies returned to England they were made the light companies of their respective regiments, thus ended the 14th Regiments participation in the American Revolution
24.
War Office
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The name War Office is also given to the former home of the department, the War Office building located at the junction of Horse Guards Avenue and Whitehall in central London. During August 2013 it was announced that the former War Office building would be sold on the open market. The War Office developed from the Council of War, an ad hoc grouping of the King and his military commanders which managed the Kingdom of Englands frequent wars. It was equivalent to the Admiralty, responsible for the Royal Navy, and the Air Ministry, the department had several London homes until it settled at Horse Guards in Whitehall during 1722, where it was to remain until 1858. The first War Office Secretary at War is usually said to have been William Blathwayt and it was, however, a fairly minor government job which dealt with the minutiae of administration rather than grand strategy. Issues of strategic policy during wartime were managed by the Northern and Southern Departments, from 1704 to 1855, the job of Secretary was possessed by a minister of the second rank, although he was occasionally part of the Cabinet. Many of his responsibilities were transferred to the Secretary of State for War after the creation of more senior post during 1794. The job of Secretary at War was merged with that of the Secretary of State for War during 1855, during 1855 the Board of Ordnance was abolished as a result of its perceived poor performance during the Crimean War. This powerful independent body, dating from the 15th century, had directed by the Master-General of the Ordnance. The disastrous campaigns of the Crimean War resulted in the consolidation of all duties during 1855 as subordinate to the Secretary of State for War. He was not, however, solely responsible for the Army and this was reduced in theory by the reforms introduced by Edward Cardwell during 1870, which subordinated the Commander-in-Chief to the Secretary for War. His resistance to reform caused military efficiency to lag well behind that of Britains rivals, the management of the War Office was hampered by persistent disputes between the civilian and military parts of the organisation. The government of H. H. Asquith attempted to resolve this during the First World War by appointing Lord Kitchener as Secretary for War, making him the first, however, this was thought unsatisfactory, during his tenure, the Imperial General Staff was virtually dismantled. Its role was replaced effectively by the Committee of Imperial Defence, the War Office decreased greatly in importance after the First World War, a fact illustrated by the drastic reductions of its staff numbers during the inter-war period. On 1 April 1920, it employed 7,434 civilian staff and its responsibilities and funding were also reduced. During 1936, the government of Stanley Baldwin appointed a Minister for Co-ordination of Defence, when Winston Churchill became Prime Minister during 1940, he bypassed the War Office altogether and appointed himself Minister of Defence. Clement Attlee continued this arrangement when he came to power during 1945, during 1964, the present form of the Ministry of Defence was established, unifying the War Office, Admiralty, and Air Ministry. The records of the War Office are kept by The National Archives with the code WO and it contains about 1,000 rooms across seven floors, linked by 2½ miles of corridors
25.
Shades of green
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Varieties of the color green may differ in hue, chroma or lightness, or in two or three of these qualities. Variations in value are also called tints and shades, a tint being a green or other hue mixed with white, a large selection of these various colors is shown below. Green is common in nature, especially in plants, many plants are green mainly because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll which is involved in photosynthesis. Many shades of green have been named after plants or are related to plants, due to varying ratios of chlorophylls, the plant kingdom exhibits many shades of green in both hue and value. Artichoke is a color that is a representation of the color of a raw fresh uncooked artichoke, another name for this color is artichoke green. The first recorded use of green as a color name in English was in 1905. This is the color called green in Pantone. The source is Pantone 18-0125 TPX Asparagus is a tone of green that is named after the vegetable, Crayola created this color in 1993 as one of the 16 to be named in the Name the Color Contest. It is also the color of a wild asparagus plant blowing in the wind of the 1949 classic film Sands of Iwo Jima, another name for this color is asparagus green. The first recorded use of green as a color name in English was in 1805. Avocado is a color that is a representation of the color of the surface of an avocado. The color avocado is a dark yellow-green color, avocado was a common color for metal surfaces, as well as the color harvest gold, during the whole decade of the 1970s. They were both also popular colors for shag carpets, both colors went out of style by the early 1980s. Dark green is a shade of green. A different shade of green has been designated as green for certain computer uses. Fern green is a color that resembles ferns, a Crayola crayon named fern was created in 1998, which is a lighter shade of the top color shown on the right. The first recorded use of green as a color name in English was in 1902. Forest green refers to a green color said to resemble the color of the trees, the first recorded use of forest green as the name of a color in the English language was in 1810
26.
Red coat (military uniform)
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Red coat or Redcoat is a historical item of military clothing used widely, though not exclusively worn, by most regiments of the British Army from the 17th to the 20th centuries. From the mid-17th century to the 19th century, the uniform of most British soldiers included a red coat or coatee. From 1873 onwards, the more vivid shade of scarlet was adopted for all ranks, having previously been worn only by officers, sergeants, the Red Coat has evolved from being the British infantrymans ordinary uniform to a garment retained only for ceremonial purposes. Its official adoption dates from February 1645, when the Parliament of England passed the New Model Army ordinance. The new English Army was formed of 22,000 men, divided into 12 foot regiments of 600 men each, one regiment of 1000 men. The infantry regiments wore coats of Venetian red with white facings, a contemporary comment on the New Model Army dated 7 May 1645 stated the men are Redcoats all, the whole army only are distinguished by the several facings of their coats. There had been many isolated instances of red military clothing pre-dating its general adoption by the New Model Army, the uniforms of the Yeoman of the Guard and the Yeomen Warders have traditionally been in Tudor red and gold. The Gentlemen Pensioners of James I had worn red with yellow feathers, at Edgehill, the first battle of the Civil War, the Kings people had worn red coats, as had at least two Parliamentary regiments. None of these constituted the national uniform that the red coat was later to become. However, in Ireland during the reign of Elizabeth, the soldiers of the queens Lord Lieutenant of Ireland were referred to as red coats by the native Irish from the colour of their uniforms and this is clear from both Irish and English primary sources. Note the Irish word is casóg but the word may be translated as coat, cloak, or even uniform and this is not an isolated reference. OSullivan alludes to two other encounters in which the Irish won the day against English red coats, the other relates to a rout by William Burke, Lord of Bealatury in 1599 of English recruits clad in red coats. English sources confirm that Crown troops in Ireland wore red coats/cloaks/uniforms/clothing, outside of Ireland, the English Red Coat made its first appearance on a European continental battlefield at the Battle of the Dunes in 1658. A Protectorate army had landed at Calais the previous year and every man had a new red coat. The English name from the battle comes from the major engagement carried out by the red-coats, to the surprise of continental observers they stormed sand-dunes 150 feet high fighting experienced Spanish soldiers from their summits with musket fire and push of pike. The adoption and continuing use of red by most British/English soldiers after the Restoration was the result of rather than policy. Red was by no means universal at first, with grey, There is no known basis for the myth that red coats were favoured because they did not show blood stains. Blood does in fact show on red clothing as a black stain, prior to 1707 colonels of regiments made their own arrangements for the manufacture of uniforms under their command
27.
Militia (United Kingdom)
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The Militia of the United Kingdom were the military reserve forces of the United Kingdom after the Union in 1801 of the former Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland. The militia was transformed into the Special Reserve by the Territorial, for the period before the creation of the United Kingdom, in the home countries and their colonies, see Militia. A separate voluntary Local Militia was created in 1808 before being disbanded in 1816 By 1813 the British Army was experiencing a shortage of manpower to maintain their battalions at full strength. Some consideration was given to recruiting foreign nationals, however on 4 November 1813 a bill was introduced to parliament to allow Militia volunteers to serve in Europe. In the event only three battalions were raised and these were sent to serve under Henry Bayly arriving in Bordeaux on 12 April 1814, although muster rolls were prepared as late as 1820, the element of compulsion was abandoned, and the militia was transformed into a volunteer force. It was intended to be seen as an alternative to the army, men would volunteer and undertake basic training for several months at an army depot. Thereafter, they would return to life, but report for regular periods of military training. In return, they would receive pay and a financial retainer. Of course, many saw the camp as the equivalent of a paid holiday. The militia thus appealed to agricultural labourers, colliers and the like, men in casual occupations, until 1861 the militia were an entirely infantry force, but in that year a number of county regiments were converted to artillery. In 1877 the militia of Anglesey and Monmouthshire were converted to engineers, typically, an English, Welsh or Scottish regiment would have two militia battalions and Irish regiments three. The militia must not be confused with the units created in a wave of enthusiasm in the second half of the nineteenth century. In contrast with the Volunteer Force, and the similar Yeomanry Cavalry, the militia was transformed into the Special Reserve by the military reforms of Haldane in the reforming post 1906 Liberal government. In 1908 the militia battalions were redesignated as reserve and a number were amalgamated or disbanded. Numbered Territorial Force battalions, ranking after the Special Reserve, were formed from the units at the same time. Altogether,101 infantry battalions,33 artillery regiments and two regiments of special reservists were formed. Upon mobilisation, the reserve units would be formed at the depot. The original militiamen soon disappeared, and the battalions became training units pure, the Special Reserve reverted to its militia designation in 1921, then to Supplementary Reserve in 1924, though the units were effectively placed in suspended animation until disbanded in 1953
28.
Second Boer War
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The Second Boer War, usually known as the Boer War and also at the time as the South African War, started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902. Great Britain defeated two Boer states in South Africa, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, Britain was aided by its Cape Colony, Colony of Natal and some native African allies. The British war effort was supported by volunteers from the British Empire, including Southern Africa, the Australian colonies, Canada, India. All other nations were neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain, inside Britain and its Empire there also was significant opposition to the Second Boer War. The British were overconfident and under-prepared, the Boers were very well armed and struck first, besieging Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking in early 1900, and winning important battles at Colenso, Magersfontein and Stormberg. Staggered, the British brought in numbers of soldiers and fought back. General Redvers Buller was replaced by Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener and they relieved the three besieged cities, and invaded the two Boer republics in late 1900. The onward marches of the British Army were so overwhelming that the Boers did not fight staged battles in defense of their homeland, the British quickly seized control of all of the Orange Free State and Transvaal, as the civilian leadership went into hiding or exile. In conventional terms, the war was over, Britain officially annexed the two countries in 1900, and called a khaki election to give the government another six years of power in London. However, the Boers refused to surrender and they reverted to guerrilla warfare under new generals Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, Christiaan de Wet and Koos de la Rey. Two more years of attacks and quick escapes followed. As guerrillas without uniforms, the Boer fighters easily blended into the farmlands, which provided hiding places, supplies, the British solution was to set up complex nets of block houses, strong points, and barbed wire fences, partitioning off the entire conquered territory. The civilian farmers were relocated into concentration camps, where very large proportions died of disease, especially the children, then the British mounted infantry units systematically tracked down the highly mobile Boer guerrilla units. The battles at this stage were small operations with few combat casualties The war ended in surrender, the British successfully won over the Boer leaders, who now gave full support to the new political system. Both former republics were incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910, the conflict is commonly referred to as simply the Boer War, since the First Boer War is much less well known. Boer was the term for Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans descended from the Dutch East India Companys original settlers at the Cape of Good Hope. It is officially called the South African War and it is known as the Anglo-Boer War among some South Africans. In Afrikaans it may be called the Anglo-Boereoorlog, Tweede Boereoorlog, in South Africa it is officially called the South African War
29.
146th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)
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The 146th Infantry Brigade was an infantry brigade formation of the British Army, part of the Territorial Force with the 49th Infantry Division. The brigade saw service during both World War I and World War II, and during the early part of the Cold War. The brigade was active from 1908 until 1967 when it was finally disbanded, the brigade was assigned to the West Riding Division. On the outbreak of the Great War in early August 1914, in mid-May 1915 the brigade and division would become the 146th Brigade and 49th Division respectively. The battalions adopted the 1/ prefix to differentiate them from their 2nd Line duplicates, the 2nd Line units were raised from those men who did not originally volunteer for overseas service, although many of them did end up seeing active service. The brigade served on the Western Front from July 1915 to the end of the war in November 1918, two men from the brigade were awarded the Victoria Cross, Corporal Samuel Meekosha of the 1/6th Battalion and Corporal George Sanders of the 1/7th Battalion. In 1937 the 6th Battalion was also converted to a different role, transferring to the Royal Engineers, they became 49th Anti-Aircraft Battalion, Royal Engineers and became part of the 31st Anti-Aircraft Brigade, alongside the former 8th Battalion, West Yorks. In April 1938 the 7th Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment was transferred to the Royal Tank Regiment, in late 1936 the 4th Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment joined the brigade from the 46th Division which had been converted into the 2nd Anti-Aircraft Division. The 5th Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment, the original battalion in the brigade, was transferred to 147th Infantry Brigade in 1938 when all brigades were reduced from four to three battalions. In 1939 the brigade was redesignated as the 146th Infantry Brigade The brigade was mobilised between late August and early September 1939. After briefly returning to the United Kingdom, the brigade and division was stationed in Iceland. In April 1942 they were transferred back to the United Kingdom, the brigade, with the rest of the 49th Division, saw their final battle in the Liberation of Arnhem in April 1945 and the fierce battles that led up to it. During the fighting on the Continent, the 49th Infantry Division was nicknamed the Polar Bears because of their divisional insignia, on 28 September 1944 Corporal John William Harper of the Hallamshire Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. G. Phillips Lieutenant Colonel R. W. Newton Brigadier C. G. Phillips Lieutenant Colonel C. G. Robins Brigadier N. P, procter Lieutenant Colonel R. L. de Brisay Brigadier N. P. Procter Brigadier A. Dunlop Brigadier J. F. Walker Brigadier D. S. Gordon Lieutenant Colonel M. B. Jenkins Brigadier D. S. Formation Badges of World War 2 Britain, Commonwealth, archived from the original on 24 February 2003. Composition of the 49th Division 49th Infantry Division Polar Bear Association
30.
49th (West Riding) Infantry Division
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The 49th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the British Army. The division was formed in the Territorial Force on 1 April 1908 as the West Riding Division, the division fought in the Great War in the trenches of the Western Front, in the fields of France and Flanders. During World War II the division fought in the Norwegian Campaign, after the Second World War it was disbanded in 1946, then reformed in 1947. It remained with the Northern Command until finally disbanded in 1967, the division was originally raised as the West Riding Division when the Territorial Force was created in 1908. In 1915, during the Great War, it was designated the 49th Division, the campaign was a complete disaster and the division withdrew from Norway in May 1940. The divisions 146th and 147th Infantry Brigades were thereafter stationed in Iceland, as a result, a new divisional insignia, featuring a polar bear standing on an ice floe, was adopted. The idea was from the commander, Major General Evelyn Barker. In 1942, the division was transferred back to the United Kingdom where the 70th Brigade, just after D-Day, in June 1944, the 49th Division moved to France as part of XXX Corps. During the fierce fighting in Normandy, the Nazi propaganda broadcaster Lord Haw-Haw referred to the division as the Polar Bear Butchers. During the rest of the war, the division served mainly with the First Canadian Army and was variously under the command of I Corps, the II Canadian Corps, and the I Canadian Corps. The 49th Divisions last major contribution to the Second World War was the Second Battle of Arnhem, just after the German surrender on 7 May 1945 the division played a part in the liberation of Utrecht with the 49th Reconnaissance Regiment entering first followed by Canadian troops. There’s a monument dedicated to the Polar Bears at a spot on Biltstraat in the city, during the course of the war the division suffered heavy casualties of 11,000 wounded or missing in action with around 1,642 killed in action. Finally, it underwent its last major change in 1961, when it was renamed to the 49th Division/District, the Division/District finally disbanded in 1967, becoming simply X District. The polar bear flash was last worn by 49th Brigade, Under Army 2020,49 Brigade was merged with 7th Armoured Brigade to become 7th Infantry Brigade on 13 February 2015. Cameron, October 1917 – June 1919 Major-General Henry R. Davies, June 1919 – June 1923 Major-General Alfred A. Kennedy, June 1923 – March 1926 Major-General Neville J. G. Cameron, June 1926 – June 1930 Major-General Sir Reginald S. May, June 1930 – September 1931 Major-General George H. N. Jackson, kelly, September 1935 – April 1938 Dates in British form indicating the date they entered the command. Major-General Pierse J. Macksey –03.09.1939 Major-General Harry O. Curtis –10.06.1940 Brigadier Neville P, procter –12.04.1943 Major-General Sir Evelyn W. Barker –12.04.1943 Major-General Sir Gordon H. A. MacMillan –30.11.1944,06.02.1945 Brigadier R. H, senior –27.01.1945 &24.03.1945 Major-General Stuart B
31.
185th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)
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The Brigade was formed on 1 September 1942 by redesignation of 204th Independent Infantry Brigade, a static Home Defence formation serving under Durham and North Riding Area HQ. It was assigned frontline infantry battalions and became the infantry component of the new 79th Armoured Division, when 79th Armoured was reorganised as a specialist armour formation in April 1943, 185th Brigade transferred to the 3rd Infantry Division, training for Operation Overlord. 3rd Division was the first British formation to land at Sword Beach on D-Day, during the often intense fighting from Sword Beach to Bremen, the 3rd Infantry Division suffered 2,586 killed with over 12,500 wounded or missing. Throughout the North West Europe Campaign, two members of the brigade were awarded the Victoria Cross and they were Corporal Sidney Bates of the 1st Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment and Private James Stokes of the 2nd Battalion, Kings Shropshire Light Infantry. McI. S. Bruce Brigadier K. P. Smith Brigadier Eric Bols Brigadier E. H. G. Matthews Sword Beach was the codename of one of the five landing beaches in Operation Neptune, the initial assault phase of Operation Overlord. Stretching 8 km from Ouistreham to Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer it was the furthest east of the landing points, the landing site was divided into four zones — Oboe, Peter, Queen and Roger. The German Armys defences consisted of obstacles, anti-tank ditches, mines, machine guns and mortars at the beaches. The defending troops belonged to the 716th Static Infantry Division and could call on the support of the nearby 21st Panzer division, the landing forces were the British I Corps, comprising the 3rd British Infantry Division and the 27th Armoured Brigade. As well as being the furthest east of the beaches, Sword Beach was also the smallest. Sword Beach experienced the only counter-attack by the Germans on June 6, by the end of the day,29,000 men had been landed at Sword with 630 casualties. Allied forces had advanced four miles inland, the situation was stable. However the major objective of Caen which was to have captured on D Day still evaded them. There would be fighting around the area for the next 6 weeks. The 185th Brigade went on to fight at Bourguebus Ridge, Mont Pincon, the Nederrijn, the Rhineland, by the end of the war the 185th Brigade had been awarded both the VCs awarded to the 3rd Division and had suffered more casualties than the other two infantry brigades. Patrick Delaforce, Montys Iron Sides, Stroud, Alan Sutton,1995, ISBN 0-7509-0781-9, Joslen, orders of Battle, Second World War, 1939–1945
32.
Kitchener's Army
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It originated on the recommendation of Horatio Herbert Kitchener, then the Secretary of State for War. Kitcheners original intention was that it would be formed and ready to be put into action in 1917, the first use in a major action came at the Battle of Loos. Contrary to the belief that the war would be over by Christmas 1914, Kitchener predicted a long. He believed that arrival in Europe of a force of new. In the early days of the war, the Territorial Force could not reinforce the army, as it lacked modern equipment. In addition, it took time to form First-Line units composed only of men who had volunteered for General Service and those recruited into the New Army were used to form complete battalions under existing British Army Regiments. These new battalions had titles of the form xxth Battalion, <regiment name>, the first New Army divisions were used at the Battle of Loos in the autumn of 1915, and they were sorely tested in the Battle of the Somme. All five of the army groups were made up of volunteer recruits. Due to the numbers of men wishing to sign up. There were many problems in equipping and providing shelter for the new recruits, rapidly the Government added many new recruitment centres, which eased the admissions burden, and began a programme of temporary construction at the main training camps. Almost 2.5 million men volunteered for Kitcheners Army, by the beginning of 1916, the queues were not so long anymore. Information about the nature of the war had reached Great Britain. Great Britain had to resort to conscription like the great powers involved in the war. The first conscripts arrived in France in late 1916 to fill the gaps in the volunteer units, roughly half of those who served in the British Army throughout the war, including more than half of the five million men serving in the British Army in 1918, were conscripts. A recruit accepted into the army was first sent to his Regimental depot, next he was sent to the main training camps to join his battalion. In practice, no Regiment had the required stocks of equipment, or the manpower to train the flood of recruits, to mitigate this problem, the army issued old stored uniforms, including First Boer War–vintage red jackets. Some regiments bought their own uniform and boots with money paid from public collections, many regiments were also issued with emergency blue uniforms, popularly known as Kitchener Blue. Whilst this crisis went on, the soldiers wore regimental and unit badges or patches on their clothing, many photographs from the era show uniformed soldiers drilling alongside civilian clothed soldiers, perhaps led by red-jacketed NCOs
33.
Leeds Pals
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The Leeds Pals were a First World War Pals battalion of Kitcheners Army raised in the West Yorkshire city of Leeds. When the battalion was taken over by the British Army it was named the 15th Battalion. The battalion was formed in September 1914 and underwent training at Colsterdale in the Yorkshire Dales and it became part of the 93rd Brigade of the 31st Division, along with the two Bradford Pals battalions. In December 1915 the Leeds Pals were deployed to Egypt to defend the Suez Canal from the threat of the Ottoman Empire, in March 1916 the battalion landed in France, joining the British build up for the Battle of the Somme. On the first day on the Somme,1 July 1916, the 31st Division attacked towards the village of Serre, the battalion was shelled in its trenches before Zero Hour and when it advanced, it was met by heavy machine gun fire. A few men got as far as the German barbed wire, later in the morning the German defenders came out to clear the bodies off their wire, killing any that were still alive. The battalion casualties, sustained in the few minutes after Zero, were 24 officers and 504 other ranks, the name of Serre and the date of 1st July is engraved deep in our hearts, along with the faces of our Pals, a grand crowd of chaps. We were two years in the making and ten minutes in the destroying, in December 1917 the Leeds Pals were amalgamated with the 2nd Leeds battalion to form the 15th/17th Battalion, The West Yorkshire Regiment. John Harris novel Covenant With Death is a fictionalized account of a private in the Sheffield City Battalion from their formation until the first day of the Battle of the Somme. Pearsons quote, slightly modified, is the last paragraph of the novel, Harris main character, Mark Fenner, appears to be based on Pearson. The Leeds Pals - The 15th Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment The Leeds Pals memorial at Colsterdale near Masham
34.
Bantam (military)
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A bantam, in British Army usage, was a soldier of below the British Armys minimum regulation height of 5 ft 3 in. During the First World War, the British Army raised battalions in which the minimum height requirement for recruits was reduced from 5 ft 3 in to 5 ft. This enabled otherwise healthy men to enlist. Bantam units enlisted from industrial and coal-mining areas where short stature was no sign of weakness, the name derives from the former town of Bantam in Indonesia, from which a breed of small domestic fowl allegedly originated. Bantamweight was a category in boxing that had originated in the 1880s and had produced many notable boxers. The first bantam battalions were recruited in Birkenhead, Cheshire, after Alfred Bigland, MP, heard of a group of miners who, rejected from every recruiting office, had made their way to the town. One of the miners, rejected on account of his size, offered to any man there as proof of his suitability as a soldier. The requirement for their height was between 4 ft 10 in and 5 ft 3 in, chest size was one inch more than the army standard. Soon renamed the 15th and 16th Battalions, Cheshire Regiment, they undertook gruelling training and served in some of the most hard-fought battles of the war, another bantam battalion was the 14th Battalion, The Gloucestershire Regiment, raised in 1915 and sent to France in 1916. Eventually two whole divisions, the 35th and the 40th, were formed from Bantam men, who were annihilated during the Battle of Bourlon. Sidney Allinson has published a study, The Bantams, The untold story of World War One
35.
Boulogne-sur-Mer
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Boulogne-sur-Mer, often called Boulogne, is a city in Northern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department of Pas-de-Calais, Boulogne lies on the Côte dOpale, a tourist coast on the English Channel, and is the most-visited location in its region after the Lille conurbation. Boulogne is its departments second-largest city after Calais, and the 60th largest in France and it is also the countrys largest fishing port, specialising in herring. Boulogne was the major Roman port for trade and communication with Britain, the citys 12th-century belfry is recognised by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, while another popular attraction is the marine conservation centre Nausicaa. The French name Boulogne derives from the Latin Bononia, which was also the Roman name for Bologna in Italy, both places—and Vindobona —are thought to have derived from native Celtic placenames, with bona possibly meaning foundation, citadel, or granary. The French epithet sur-Mer distinguishes the city from Boulogne-Billancourt on the edge of Paris, in turn, the Boulogne in Boulogne-Billancourt originates from a church there dedicated to Notre-Dame de Boulogne, Our Lady of Boulogne. Boulogne-sur-Mer is in Northern France, at the edge of the Channel, Boulogne is a relatively important city of the North, exercising an influence on the Boulonnais territory. The coast consists of important tourist natural sites, like the capes Gris Nez and Blanc Nez, the hinterland is mainly rural and agricultural. Boulogne is close to the A16 motorway, metropolitan bus services are operated by Marinéo. The company Flixbus propose a bus line connecting Paris to Boulogne, there are coach services to Calais and Dunkerque. The city has railway stations, which the most important is Boulogne-Ville station, boulogne-Tintelleries station is used for regional transit. It is located near the university and the city centre, the former Boulogne-Maritime and Boulogne-Aéroglisseurs stations served as a boat connection for the railway. Boulogne currently has no cross channel ferry services since the closure of the route to Dover by LD Lines in 2010. The city is divided into parts, City centre, groups historic and administrative buildings. Fortified town, old-town where are a lot of monuments and also the city hall. It is surrounded by 13th-century ramparts very appreciated today by walkers, gambetta-Sainte-Beuve, tourist area situated in the northwest of the city, on the edge of the beach and the recreational harbour. Capécure, economic and industrial area, situated in the west of the city, saint-Pierre, former neighborhood of the fishermen, destroyed during the World War II and reconstructed after. Chemin Vert, zone borned in the 1950s, knowing today poverty and it is the neighborhood of Franck Ribéry
36.
Battle of Aubers Ridge
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The Second Battle of Artois from 9 May –18 June 1915 was a battle on the Western Front during the First World War. A German-held salient from Reims to Amiens had been formed in 1914, a reciprocal French advance eastwards in Artois could cut the rail lines supplying the German armies between Arras and Reims. Field Marshal Sir John French, commander of the British Expeditionary Force, co-operated with the French strategy to capture Vimy Ridge, the French attacked Vimy Ridge and the British attacked further north in the Battle of Aubers Ridge and the Battle of Festubert. The battle was fought during the German offensive of the Second Battle of Ypres, the British attack at Aubers Ridge was a costly failure and two German divisions in reserve were diverted south against the Tenth Army. On 18 June, the offensive was stopped and local attacks were ended on 25 June. The French offensive had advanced the front line about 3 kilometres towards Vimy Ridge, on an 8-kilometre front. The failure to break through, despite the expenditure of 2,155,862 shells and the loss of 102,500 casualties, led to recriminations against Joffre, the German 6th Army lost 73,072 casualties. A lull followed until the Second Battle of Champagne, the Third Battle of Artois, the French government accepted that the task facing Joffre and the army was far more difficult than expected, after the winter fighting in Artois and Champagne. Despite costly mistakes, many lessons had been learned, methods had been changed and more weapons, the offensives had failed in their objectives but had become more powerful and better organised, except for the bungled effort at St. Mihiel. The greater amount of heavy artillery gave grounds for confidence, that attacks could break the German front. Eight new divisions were formed in February 1915 and another fourteen in April, nine divisions were transferred to Russia in May, which reduced the Westheer to 97 divisions against 110–112 larger French, British and Belgian divisions. The western armies had c. 4,000 modern and 350 obsolete field guns,825 modern and 510 obsolete heavy guns, a reserve of 276 heavy guns and mortars was also being prepared. The OHL had 7 1⁄2 divisions in reserve, with the 58th and 115th divisions behind the 6th Army, indications of an attack in Artois had been detected but not signs of a general offensive on the Western Front. Should part of the front line be lost, it was to be retaken by counter-attack, behind the line, new defences were to be built and connected by communication trenches, to delay a further attack, until reserves could be assembled for a counter-attack. Enemy reinforcements were to be obstructed by a shell-barrage, on 4 May, Falkenhayn reiterated the need to improve reserve positions and also to build a rear position about 2–3 kilometres behind the front line. The Franco-British offensives in 1915 found the German defences in a state of development, as the building programme was completed slowly. Joffre accepted the proposals on 23 March, with the objective being the seizure of Vimy Ridge, the French army had not completed an adaptation to siege warfare and much of the equipment necessary, particularly heavy artillery, did not exist. It had been impossible to synchronise operations in Artois with the First Battle of Champagne, the document contained instructions on infiltration tactics, rolling barrages and poison gas, which were to be used systematically for the first time
37.
Boezinge
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Boezinge is a village north of the city of Ypres in West Flanders, Belgium, on the N369 road in the direction of Diksmuide. In World War I, the village belonged to the Ypres Salient, today there memorials and war cemeteries in the area, many of which are maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. In the 1990s an original British trench system was discovered by amateur archaeologists, Yorkshire Trench was a first line trench for about one year between summer or autumn 1916 until the summer of 1917. In spring of 1917, 173rd Tunnelling Company added a deep dugout to the existing trench, the completed Yorkshire Trench dugout then served as headquarters for the 13th and 16th Battalions of the Royal Welch Fusiliers at the start of the Battle of Passchendaele later that year. The BEF had decided to carry out all operations in the offensive of summer 1917 from deep dugouts, the condition of the ground made digging the deep dugouts extremely difficult and dangerous. Work had to be carried out silently and secretly, facing an observant enemy who was only a few hundred metres away, about 180 dugout sites have been located in the Ypres Salient and in the 1990s some of them were entered, at least in part. Yorkshire Trench was rediscovered by archaeologists and systematically excavated in 1998. Although the area is now part of an industrial estate. In the private park, lies a British command post, media related to Boezinge at Wikimedia Commons
38.
Ypres Salient
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The Ypres Salient is the area around Ypres in Belgium which was the scene of some of the biggest battles in World War I. Ypres lies at the junction of the Ypres–Comines Canal and the Ieperlee, the high point of the ridge is at Wytschaete,7,000 yd from Ypres, while at Hollebeke the ridge is 4,000 yd distant and recedes to 7,000 yd at Polygon Wood. Wytschaete is about 150 ft above the plain, on the Ypres–Menin road at Hooge, the rises are slight apart from the vicinity of Zonnebeke, which has a 1,33 gradient. From Hooge and to the east, the slope is 1,60 and near Hollebeke, it is 1,75, the heights are subtle but have the character of a saucer lip around Ypres. The main ridge has spurs sloping east and one is particularly noticeable at Wytschaete, which runs 2 mi south-east to Messines, with a slope to the east. Further south is the valley of the Douve river, Ploegsteert Wood. West of Messines Ridge is the parallel Wulverghem Spur, the Oosttaverne Spur, the general aspect south of Ypres is of low ridges and dips, gradually flattening to the north into a featureless plain. In 1914, Ypres had 2,354 houses and 16,700 inhabitants inside medieval earth ramparts, faced with brick, possession of the higher ground to the south and east of the city, gives ample scope for ground observation, enfilade fire and converging artillery-fire. An occupier also has the advantage of artillery deployments and the movement of reinforcements, the ridge had woods from Wytschaete to Zonnebeke, giving good cover, some being of notable size like Polygon Wood and those later named Battle Wood, Shrewsbury Forest and Sanctuary Wood. The woods usually had undergrowth, but the fields in gaps between the woods were 800–1,000 yd wide and devoid of cover, roads in this area were usually unpaved, except for the main ones from Ypres, with occasional villages and houses. The lowland west of the ridge was a mixture of meadow and fields, with high hedgerows dotted with trees, cut by streams and ditches emptying into the canals. The Ypres–Comines Canal is about 18 ft wide and the Yperlee about 36 ft, a salient in military terms is a battlefield feature that projects into an opponents territory. The salient is surrounded on three sides, making the occupying the salient vulnerable. The battles saved Ypres and the corner of Belgium around Veurne from German occupation, the few rises or hills became the objectives of the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915, which saw the first use of gas and the almost total destruction and evacuation of Ypres. During this battle, the Allied units were forced to back from Zonnebeke. This line was to define the Ypres Salient for over two years, during which Hooge lay in one of the eastern-most sectors of the salient and was much contested. This situation changed little despite British tunnelling prior to the Battle of Messines in June 1917, after the Third Battle of Ypres, the Ypres Salient was left relatively quiet until the Fourth Battle of Ypres, when the German Spring Offensive threatened to overwhelm the entire area. This offensive was stopped at the point the Allies were closest to being forced to abandon the salient, by August 1918, the Fifth Battle of Ypres pushed the German forces out of the salient entirely and they did not return
39.
Chemical weapons in World War I
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Although the use of toxic chemicals as weapons dates back thousands of years, the first large scale use of chemical weapons was during World War I. They were primarily used to demoralize, injure, and kill entrenched defenders, against whom the indiscriminate, the types of weapons employed ranged from disabling chemicals, such as tear gas, to lethal agents like phosgene, chlorine, and mustard gas. This chemical warfare was a component of the first global war. The killing capacity of gas was limited, with only about 90 thousand fatalities from a total of some 1.2 million casualties caused by gas attacks, Gas was unlike most other weapons of the period because it was possible to develop effective countermeasures, such as gas masks. In the later stages of the war, as the use of gas increased, the earliest military uses of chemicals were tear-inducing irritants rather than fatal or disabling poisons. During World War I, the French army was the first to employ gas, the small quantities of gas delivered, roughly 19 cm³ per cartridge, were not even detected by the Germans. The stocks were rapidly consumed and by November a new order was placed by the French military, as bromine was scarce among the Entente allies, the active ingredient was changed to chloroacetone. None of the considered the use of tear gas to be in conflict with the Hague Treaty of 1899. However, instead of vaporizing, the chemical froze and failed to have the desired effect, the first killing agent used by the German military was chlorine. Chlorine is an irritant that can inflict damage to the eyes, nose, throat. At high concentrations and prolonged exposure it can cause death by asphyxiation, German chemical companies BASF, Hoechst and Bayer had been producing chlorine as a by-product of their dye manufacturing. In cooperation with Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin,140 English officers have been killed. By 22 April 1915, the German Army had 168 tons of chlorine deployed in 5,730 cylinders from Langemark–Poelkapelle, on August 6, German troops used chlorine gas against Russian troops defending the Fortress of Osowiec. Surviving defenders drove back the attack and successfully retained the fortress, Germany used chemical weapons on the eastern front in an attack at Rawka, south of Warsaw. The Russian army took 9,000 casualties, with more than 1,000 fatalities, in response, the artillery branch of the Russian army organized a commission to study the delivery of poison gas in shells. Men who stood on the parapet suffered least, as the gas was denser near the ground, the worst sufferers were the wounded lying on the ground, or on stretchers, and the men who moved back with the cloud. Chlorine was less effective as a weapon than the Germans had hoped, the gas produced a visible greenish cloud and strong odour, making it easy to detect. It was water-soluble, so the simple expedient of covering the mouth and it was thought to be even more effective to use urine rather than water, as it was known at the time that chlorine reacted readily with urea to form dichloro urea
40.
Battle of the Somme
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The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, was a battle of the First World War fought by the armies of the British and French empires against the German Empire. It took place between 1 July and 18 November 1916 on both sides of the reaches of the River Somme in France. The battle was intended to hasten a victory for the Allies and was the largest battle of the First World War on the Western Front, more than one million men were wounded or killed, making it one of the bloodiest battles in human history. The French and British had committed themselves to an offensive on the Somme during Allied discussions at Chantilly, Oise, in December 1915. Initial plans called for the French army to undertake the main part of the Somme offensive, the first day on the Somme was, in terms of casualties, also the worst day in the history of the British army, which suffered 57,470 casualties. These occurred mainly on the front between the Albert–Bapaume road and Gommecourt, where the attack was defeated and few British troops reached the German front line, the battle is notable for the importance of air power and the first use of the tank. At the end of the battle, British and French forces had penetrated 10 km into German-occupied territory, the Anglo-French armies failed to capture Péronne and halted 5 km from Bapaume, where the German armies maintained their positions over the winter. Debate continues over the necessity, significance and effect of the battle, David Frum opined that a century later, the Somme remains the most harrowing place-name in the history of the British Empire. Allied war strategy for 1916 was decided at the Chantilly Conference from 6–8 December 1915, in December 1915, General Sir Douglas Haig replaced Field Marshal Sir John French as Commander-in-Chief of the BEF. Haig favoured a British offensive in Flanders close to BEF supply routes, to drive the Germans from the Belgian coast, Haig was not formally subordinate to Marshal Joseph Joffre but the British played a lesser role on the Western Front and complied with French strategy. A week later the Germans began an offensive against the French at Verdun, by 31 May, the ambitious Franco-British plan for a decisive victory, had been reduced to a limited offensive to relieve pressure on the French at Verdun with a battle of attrition on the Somme. The Chief of the German General Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, intended to end the war by splitting the Anglo-French Entente in 1916, Falkenhayn chose to attack towards Verdun to take the Meuse heights and make Verdun untenable. The British would then have to begin a hasty relief offensive, Falkenhayn expected the relief offensive to fall south of Arras against the Sixth Army and be destroyed. If such Franco-British defeats were not enough, Germany would attack the remnants of armies and end the western alliance for good. Eloi, south of Ypres and reduced the German counter-offensive strategy north of the Somme, to one of passive, the Battle of Verdun began a week after Joffre and Haig agreed to mount an offensive on the Somme. The battle changed the nature of the offensive on the Somme, as French divisions were diverted to Verdun, German overestimation of the cost of Verdun to the French contributed to the concentration of German infantry and guns on the north bank of the Somme. The German offensive at Verdun was suspended in July, and troops, guns, the Brusilov Offensive, absorbed the extra forces that had been requested on 2 June by Fritz von Below, commanding the German Second Army, for a spoiling attack on the Somme. During the offensive the Russians inflicted c. 1,500,000 losses including c. 407,000 prisoners, three divisions were ordered from France to the Eastern Front on 9 June and the spoiling attack on the Somme was abandoned
41.
X Corps (United Kingdom)
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The X Corps was a corps-size formation of the British Army that served in the First World War on the Western Front before being disbanded in 1919. The corps was later re-formed in 1942 during the Second World War and saw service in the North African Campaign, Fifth Army and the British Eighth Army. X Corps was formed in France in July 1915 under Thomas Morland, in the autumn of 1916 the corps took part in the Battle of the Somme where its 36th Division attacked Thiepval. In 1917 X Corps, formed a part of the Second Army, in June 1917 it took part in the Battle of Messines. and participated in the Battles of Ypres 31 July –10 November. In May and June 1918, it was commanded by William Peyton, later in 1918 it came under the command of Reginald Stephens. X Corps was reformed in 1940 as part of Home Forces in the United Kingdom and it was based as Scotch Corner near Darlington within Northern Command. It then comprised two armoured divisions with parts of a third divided between them, and the 2nd New Zealand Division, from 1942, its commander was Lieutenant General Herbert Lumsden, who was not Montgomerys preferred choice. Lumsden was later dismissed because of a reluctance to pursue the retreating Afrika Korps. X Corps were heavily involved at the Second Battle of El Alamein, the original plan was to be simultaneous attacks by XXX Corps and XIII Corps to clear corridors for X Corps armour to exploit. Events affected the plan and on the 5 October, it was decided to attack simultaneously with both XXX and X Corps, the New Zealanders rapidly captured Miteirya Ridge. While XIII Corps pressed forward, X Corps was to strike northwestwards to distract, by November 4, X Corps was in full pursuit, but heavy rain bogged the armour down and Rommel escaped. The corps was active through the remainder of the Tunisian Campaign with the Eighth Army until the Axis forces surrender in Tunisia in May 1943, the Corps was not involved in the Sicily campaign but became part of Lieutenant General Mark W. Clarks U. S. Fifth Army to take part in the landings at Salerno, Italy on 9 September 1943, here it was commanded by Lieutenant-General Richard McCreery. After Salerno it continued to fight on the Fifth Armys left wing, breaching the Volturno Line, in the spring of 1944 the corps was relieved by the French Expeditionary Corps and switched back to the Eighth Army, taking position on the right of British XIII Corps. The corps had a role in the fourth and final battle of Cassino but was involved in the Allied advance north through the summer to the German Gothic Line defences. In September 1944 the corps played a role on the left flank of Eighth Army during Operation Olive. In November 1944 command of X Corps was taken by Lieutenant-General John Hawkesworth, when the Axis forces withdrew from Greece, from October British troops under Lieutenant-General Ronald Scobie were sent there to maintain internal stability. By March 1945 Hawkesworth and his HQ had returned to Italy, X Corps was in a reserve role and not involved in the Allies final offensive in April 1945 culminating with the surrender of Axis forces in Italy in early May
42.
Thiepval
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Thiepval is a commune in the Somme department in Hauts-de-France in northern France. Thiepval is located 4.5 miles north of Albert at the crossroads of the D73 and D151, the original village was totally destroyed during the First World War. The present Thiepval occupies a location a short distance to the southwest of the former settlement. The Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme, a war memorial to British and Commonwealth men who died in the First World War Battle of the Somme. The First World War Franco-British Memorial and the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme and this imposing monument of brick and stone stands 45 m high and is visible for several kilometres in every direction. It is the work of the architect Sir Edwin Lutyens, the sixteen pillars are engraved with the names of 73,367 British and Commonwealth soldiers that fell during the Battle of the Somme between July and November 1916 and who have no known grave. Battle of Thiepval Ridge Ulster Tower Thiepval Schwaben Redoubt INSEE Thiepval on the Quid website 360° Panoramic view
43.
36th (Ulster) Division
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The 36th Division was an infantry division of the British Army, part of Lord Kitcheners New Army, formed in September 1914. The division served on the Western Front as a formation of the British Army during the Great War, the divisions insignia was the Red Hand of Ulster. The Ulster Volunteers were a unionist militia founded in 1912 to block Home Rule for Ireland, in 1913 they organised themselves into the Ulster Volunteer Force to give armed resistance to the prospective Third Home Rule Act. With a rival Irish Volunteers being formed by nationalists in response, however, the outbreak of World War I intervened, the Act was put in abeyance until after what was expected to be a short war. The 36th Division was commanded by Major-General Oliver Nugent from 1915 to 1918, the 36th Division was one of the few divisions to make significant gains on the first day on the Somme. It attacked between the Ancre and Thiepval against a known as the Schwaben Redoubt. According to military historian Martin Middlebrook, The leading battalions had been ordered out from the wood just before 7. 30am, at zero hour the British barrage lifted. Up sprang the Ulstermen and, without forming up in the adopted by other divisions. By a combination of tactics and Ulster dash, the prize that eluded so many. During the Battle of the Somme the Ulster Division was the division of X Corps to have achieved its objectives on the opening day of the battle. This came at a price, with the division suffering in two days of fighting 5,500 officers and enlisted men killed, wounded or missing. War correspondent Philip Gibbs said of the Division, Their attack was one of the finest displays of courage in the world. Of nine Victoria Crosses given to British forces in the battle, Thiepval – Somme Thiepval, as a battle memorial, commemorates the 1916 Anglo-French offensive on the Somme. It pays tribute and respect for those who died where it stands and is the biggest British war memorial to the missing of The Western Front and it was built in the late 1920s to early 1930s. The 36th Ulster Divisions sector of the Somme lay astride the valley of the river Ancre. Their task was to cross the ridge and take the German second line near Grandcourt, in their path lay not only the German front line, but just beyond it, the intermediate line within which was the Schwaben Redoubt. To their left flank was the 29th Division, which included the Newfoundlanders, for them in less than half an hour it was all over,801 men went into action and on the unwounded name call next day, only 68 answered. To their right flank was the 32nd Division, including the Grimsby Chums, prior to the attack at 07,28 a large mine was exploded beneath the German line, the Chums would then attack at 07,30
United Kingdom
Territorial Army
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